Download Chapter three lexicon

Chapter three lexicon
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3.1 What is Word?
3.1.1 three senses of “ WORD”
3.1.2 identification of words (3 factors)
3.1.3 classification of words (4 ways)
3.1 What is Word?
• It is a bit unclear to define a word as a unit
of expression, because different criteria
may identify and define different
phenomena.
• It is hard to define “word” scientifically.
• There are three ways to define “word”,
though each of them can not cover
everthing.
3.1.1 three senses of “ WORD”
• 1) a physically definable unit
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word is seen as a set of sound segments or writing
letters between two pauses or breaks.
• However, when liaison and contracted form occur, a
problem appears.
• 2) word both as a general and as a specific term
• “Boys” and “boy” are one word in the general sense;
• “Boys” and “boy” are two words in the specific sense.
• 3) a grammatical unit
• The grammar of language contains a set of layers, and
word is one of them, as displayed in the following figure.
The layers of the grammar
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clause complex
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clause
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phrase/ word group
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word
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morpheme
• Each of these is called a RANK; and all the
ranks constituents a hierarchical scale. Word is
between morpheme and word-group. A word, in
this sense, is then a grammatical unit, just like
morpheme or clause complex.
3.1.2 identification of words
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How to identify a word?
The above three factors together with the following three factors should be
followed.
1) stability
It is okay to change the parts or constituents in a sentence to a certain
degree, but this is not allowed in a word, e.g. , “liking” can not be rearranged
as “inglike”.
2) relative uninterruptibility
No new elements should be inserted into a word, even though this can be
done sometimes in a sentence.
* Liking----lik-er-ing
3) a minimum free form
This feature was suggested by the founder of American Structuralism,
Leonard Bloomfield.
Object from others about this criterion.
3.1.3 classification of words
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Words can be classified in four ways.
1) variable words and invariable words
2) grammatical words and lexical words
3) closed-class words and open-class
words
4) word class
1) variable words and invariable
words
• variable words: they may have inflective
changes. That is, the same word may
have different grammatical forms but part
of the word remains relatively constant.
• invariable words: words which do not have
inflective endings.
2) grammatical words and lexical
words
• grammatical words : words mainly working for
constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or
even text are grammatical words, such as, conjunctions,
prepositions, articles, and pronouns.
• lexical words: words mainly working for referring to
substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs.
• Lexical words carry the main content of a language while
grammatical ones serve to link together different content
parts.
• Lexical words are also known as content words and
grammatical ones as function words.
3) closed-class words and openclass words
• closed-class words : pronouns, prepositions,
conjunctions, articles, and others. The number
of it is fixed, limited. One can not easily add or
deduce a new member.
• open-class words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and
many adverbs are open-class items. The
membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.
New members are continually and constantly
being added to the class.
4) word class
• Words can also be classified by analyzing their various grammatical,
semantic, and phonological properties, or by grouping them by their
formal similarities, such as inflection and distribution. This is close
to the notion of parts of speech.
• The classification was first based on classical Latin and Greek
analyses, but only two classes, something like today’s subject and
predicate.
• Later nine classes were established: they were noun, pronoun,
adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, and
article.
• Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammar.
All the word class today
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1) Noun
2) Pronoun
3) Adjective
4) Verb
5) Adverb
6) Preposition
7) Conjunction
8) Interjection
9) Article
10) Particles
11) Auxiliaries
newly introduced ones
12) Pro-form
13) Determiners
3.2 the formation of word
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3.2.1 morpheme and morphology
3.2.1 types of morphemes
3.2.3 inflection and word formation
3.2.4 sememe vs. morpheme, and
phoneme vs. morpheme
3.2.1 morpheme and
morphology
• Definition of morpheme
• Definition or morphology
3.2.2 types of morphemes
• (1) free morpheme and bound morpheme
• Free morphemes: they can make up words by
themselves. All mono-morphemic words ( words
consisting of only one morpheme) are free morphemes.
• Some poly-morphemic words are made up of two free
morphemes, so they are free morphemes, too. Such
poly-morphemic words are called compounds.
• Morphemes which must appear with at least another
morpheme are named as bound morphemes.
(2) Root, affix and stem
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• Root
Root is the remaining part of a word after all affixes are taken away.
So that means all words contain a root morpheme.
A root may be free, may be bound.
Three points about roots.
1) free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and
are the base forms of words.
2) there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English.
3) a few English roots may have both free and bound variants.
Affix
• Affix is a type of morpheme which can be
used only with another morpheme ( the
root or stem).
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Prefix
• Affix Infix
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Suffix
Stem
• Stem is any morpheme or combination of
morphemes to which an inflectional affix
can be added.
• Stem is the existing form to which a
derivational affix can be added. ( 自考）
• A stem may be the same as a root.
• A stem may also contain a root and one,
or more than one, derivational affix.
(3) Inflectional affix and derivational
affix
• morphemes can not be classified into
inflectional ones and derivational ones.
• Inflection and derivation are born only for
affixes.
Inflectional affixes
• 1) they are generally less productive than derivational
affixes;
• 2) they very often only add a minute or delicate
grammatical function to the stem;
• 3) they serve to produce different forms of a single
lexeme;
• 4) they do not change the word class of the word they
attach to;
• 5) they do not change the lexical meaning;
• 6) Whether one should add inflectional affixes or not
depends very often on the other factors within the phrase
or sentence;
• 7) they are mostly suffixes.
Inflectional affixes
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-(e) s, indicating the plurality of countable nouns
-(e) s), indicating third person singular, present tense
-(e) d, indicating past tense for all three persons
-ing, indicating progressive aspect
-(e)r, indicating the comparative degree of adjectives and
adverbs
• -(e)st, indicating superlative degree of adjectives and
adverbs
• -’s, ( apostraphe s ) indicating the possessive case of
nouns.
Derivational affixes
• 1) derivational affixes are very productive in
making new words;
• 2) they might or might not change the word class
(or the part of speech )of a word;
• 3) they often change the lexical meaning;
• 4) Whether one should add derivational affixes
are more often based on simple meaning
distinctions;
• 5) they can both be prefixes or suffixes.
The order of inflectional affix and
derivational affix
• When we need to add both inflectional
affix and derivational affix to a word, we
first attach the derivational affix to the
word, then the inflectional one. That is to
say, the inflectional affix is in the outer
range of a word.
3.2.3 inflection and word formation
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• morphology
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Inflections
(inflectional morphology )
word formation
(lexical morphology)
(Derivational morphology)
(1) Inflection
• Inflection indicates grammatical relations
by adding inflectional affixes, such as
number, person, finiteness, aspect, and
case; inflectional affixes do not change the
grammatical class of the stem (the part to
which they are attached to).
(2)Word formation
• Word formation, in its restricted sense,
refers to the process of how words are
formed ( or how new words are built).
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Compound
• Word formation
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Derivation
Compound
• It refers to those words that consist of
more than one lexical morpheme, or the
way to join two separate words to produce
a single form.
• In compounds, the lexical morphemes can
be of different word classes.
Compound
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• Compound
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Endocentric one
(向心结构)
Exocentric one
（离心结构）
Endocentric compounds
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Nominal ones
• Endocentric compounds
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Adjectival ones
• The head of an endocentric compound is de-verbal, that
is, it is derived from a verb. So it is also called a verbal
compound or synthetic compound.
• The first member is a participant of the process verb.
• Examples :
• Self-control ( a nominal endocentric compound)
• Sun-tanned (an adjectival endocentric compound)
Exocentric compounds
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• Exocentric compounds
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Nominal ones
V+N
V+A
V+P
Adjectival ones
V+P
V+A
compounds
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1) compounds can be written in three ways;
A: as one word;
B: joined by a hyphen;
C: separated by a space.
2) usually the right member not only determines
the category ( word class) of the whole
compound;
• 3) but also determines the major part of the
sense of the compound;
• 4) the right member serves as the head.
Derivation
• Derivation shows a relationship between roots
and affixes.
• Derivations can make the word class of the
original word either changed or unchanged.
• Word forms that come from derivation are
relatively large and potentially open.
• There is usually one productive inflectional affix
per word, but there may also arise multiple
derivational affixes.
3.2.4 sememe vs. morpheme, and
phoneme vs. morpheme
• Sememe (义素)：it is the smallest
component of meaning.
• The relationship between sememe and
morpheme: 5 mapping and non-mapping
occasions.
（1）sememe vs.morpheme
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i. one morpheme vs. one sememe
ii. One morpheme vs. more than one sememe
iii. One sememe vs. more than one morpheme
iv. Morphemes that have no specific sememe
v. function changes in both sememe and
morpheme without morpheme change
i. one morpheme vs. one
sememe
• There are cases in which one morpheme
has only one sememe.
• the example
ii. One morpheme vs. more than
one sememe
• One morpheme may have two or more
than two sememes.
• The example
iii. One sememe vs. more than one
morpheme
• Different morphemes convey the same
sense.
• The example
• The negative affix
• a• de• in- ….
iv. Morphemes that have no
specific sememe
• There are also some morphemes that
have no specific sememe, but may help
change grammatical and semantic
categories.
• The example
v. function changes in both sememe and
morpheme without morpheme change
• There may also be no morpheme change
in a word, but both the grammatical and
the semantic categories would change
according to the context it occurs.
• In the process, no morpheme addition or
variation is done, but the sememe of the
morpheme is changed.
• There are many such phenomena in
English.
Morpheme vs. phoneme
Phoneme is the smallest meaningful unit of sound.
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in grammar.
There is any correspondence between the two levels of
language.
A joint venture of the two:
Morphophonology
(morphonology)
morphophonemics
(morphonemics)
Morpheme vs. phoneme
i) a single phoneme vs. a single
morpheme
• ii) a single morpheme vs. multiple
phoneme
• iii) allophone
• iv) morphemic conditions
i) a single phoneme vs. a single
morpheme
• A single phoneme may represent a single
morpheme, but they are not identical.
• Boys /z/
• boy’s /z/
• Raise /z/
ii) a single morpheme vs. multiple
phoneme
• Morphemes may also be represented by phonological
structures other than a single phoneme.
• Morphemes can be
• monophonemic,
• monosyllabic
• polysyllabic
• The syllabic ( phonological ) structure of a word and its
morphemic ( morphological ) structure do not
necessarily correspond.
• Sample words in the course book.
iii) allophone
• A phoneme can have some variants, called
allophones. Similarly, a morpheme can also
have some variants. Just like a phoneme, it
is also an abstract unit. For example, the
plural morpheme can be represented
as ….(book).
• Some morphemic forms represent different
morphemes and thus have different sememes.
• The plural –s
• The person / finiteness -s
• The possessive case -s
iv) morphemic conditions
• Morpheme shapes vary according to both
phonological conditions and to the
conditions of their own.
• 1) phonological conditioned
• 2) morphologically conditioned
1) phonological conditioned
• The form or shape of morphemes may be
conditioned by phonological factors.
• Assimilation
• dissimilation
2) morphologically conditioned
• Morphemes can also be influenced by
morphological factors.
• Three requirements should be met.
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• 2）
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3.1 lexical change
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3.3.1 lexical change proper
3.3.2 morpho—syntactic change
3.3.3 semantic change
3.3.4 phonological change
3.3.5 orthographic change
3.3 lexical change
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lexical change
morpho-syntactical
change
• language change semantic change
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phonological change
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orthographic change
3.3.1 lexical change proper
• New words are built through word–
formation and borrowing.
• Word formation has the major ways and
the minor ways.
Lexical change
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• Lexical change
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word-formation
borrowing
Word formation
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1) derivation
Major ways 2) compounding
3) conversation ( class shift )
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• Minor ways
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1) acronym formation
2) blending
3) abbreviation
4) analogical creation
5) clipping
6) backformation
7) coinage ( invention)
Minor ways for word—building
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7) borrowing
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Direct borrowing
Indirect borrowing
The types of borrowing
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iv.
3.3.2 morpho-syntactic change
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(1) morphological change
Word-formation ( word-building ) changes
Inflection changes ( examples in the book)
(2) syntactic change
Examples
3.3.3 semantic change
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Ways leading to semantic change
1) broadening
2) narrowing
3) meaning shift
4) class shift
5) folk etymology
3.3.4 phonological change
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1) loss
2) addition
3) metathesis
4) assimilation
3.3.5 orthographic change
• Phonological changes usually go hand
with hand orthographical changes