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Linguistics and Grammar
ESOL Praxis – Session #2
Aspects of Language
• Here is an illustration that shows an
interacting hierarchy of levels in linguistics:
Phonology
• The study of sounds of a particular language and the
rules governing the structure, distribution and
sequencing of speech sounds.
• Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It
is related to other aspects such as phonetics,
morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
• Is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax,
discourse, and orthography design.
• Analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by
determining which phonetic sounds are significant, and
explaining how these sounds are interpreted by the
native speaker.
Phonetic Alphabet
• Universal alphabet representing sounds
Phoneme
• The smallest linguistic unit of speech that can
signal a difference in meaning.
– How many phonemes in CATS?
– Examples A unit of speech is considered a
phoneme if replacing it in a word results in a
change of meaning. Here are some examples of
phonemes:
• pin becomes bin
• bat becomes rat
• cot becomes cut
Consonant Digraph
• Two consonants pronounced as a single
sound.
– Example: ch, sh, th, wh
– In the word chat, the letters c and h appear
contiguously, in this instance, ch is a digraph
because the ch sequence represents a single
sound in the underlying English sound system.
Digraph
• A digraph is a group of two successive letters
whose phonetic value is a single sound (one
phoneme.)
• Examples Here are some examples of
digraphs:
• \ea\ in bread
• \ch\ in chat
• \ng\ in sing
Consonant Clusters
• A group or sequence of two or more
consonants that appear together in a syllable
with no intervening vowel. (Two sounds put
together
• Example: \sp\ and \ts\ in the word spots and
\spr\ in the word spray
Minimal Pairs
• Two words that differ in only one sound, or
phoneme.
• Examples (English) Sounds which differ: /p/
and /b/
• [lQp] ‘lap’
• [lQb] ‘lab’
Homophones
• A group of two or more letters representing
the same speech sound, or words that sound
the same but are spelled differently
• Examples
– Letters with the same speech sound:
• c in city and s in song
• Axe and acts
Homographs
• A word that has the same spelling as another.
Homographs differ from each other in
meaning, origin, and sometimes
pronunciation.
• Examples
– bow, the front part of a ship
– bow, to bend
– bow, a decorative knot
Morphology
• The study of words in their internal
organization
Morpheme
• The smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language.
Includes all root-words, prefix, suffix and s within the
context of the word.
• Examples:
– Unladylike: The word unladylike consists of three morphemes
(un – lady – like)
• None of these morphemes can be broken up any more without losing
all sense of meaning. Lady cannot be broken up into "la" and "dy,"
even though "la" and "dy" are separate syllables. Note that each
syllable has no meaning on its own.
– Dogs: The word dogs consists of two morphemes (dog – s) /s/ is
a plural marker on nouns
• Note that a morpheme like "-s" can just be a single phoneme and does
not have to be a whole syllable.
– Technique: The word technique consists of only one morpheme
Bound Morpheme
• Must be attached to a root word to have full
meaning (prefixes and suffixes)
– Example: /un/ means not. /un/ has no meaning
unless it is attached to a root word.
• Unthinkable
– /un/ (bound morpheme)
– think (free morpheme)
– /able/ (bound morpheme)
Free Morpheme
• Base in root words that can stand alone.
Inflectional Morphemes
• Affixes, prefix or suffix, that can be added to a
morpheme to without changing part of
speech.
– Example:
• Happy (adjective)
• Unhappy (adjective)
Derivational Morphemes
• Affixes, prefix and suffix, that can be added to
a morpheme to change its meaning and may
change its part of speech or semantic
meaning.
– Examples:
•
•
•
•
•
amaze > amazement,
speak > speaker,
perform > performance,
soft > softness,
warm > warmth
Organization of Learning
Form
(How)
Meaning
Use
(Situational)
Phonology
Semantics
Pragmatics
Morphology
(vocabulary)
Social Thinking
Literacy
Syntax (grammar)
(The intent of the
language, what is
meant to be
conveyed)
Syntax - Grammar
• Governs the form or structure of a language; the
way words are put together in a language to form
phrases, clauses, or sentences.
• The syntax of a language can be divided into two
parts:
– Syntactic classes such as noun, verb, and adjective
– Syntactic functions, such as subject and object
Example:
1. The cat jumped on the table.
2. The flower jumped on the sound wave.
3. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
Active Voice
• The subject performs action in the sentence or is
the thing described by a predicate adjective.
• Active voice is a voice that indicates a subject has
the semantic function of actor.
• Example
– The subject Jones has the semantic function of actor.
• Jones built the house.
– The above active construction contrasts with the
following construction in passive voice, where Jones
has the semantic function of actor but house is the
subject:
• The house was built by Jones.
Passive Voice
• The action is performed by an unknown agent.
• Passive voice is a voice that indicates that the
subject is the patient or recipient of the action
denoted by the verb.
– The man was nudged by a passer-by. The above
example contrasts with the one below, which is in
active voice:
– A passer-by nudged the man.
Degrees of Adjectives
Base
Comparative
Superlative
High
Higher
Highest
Thick
Thicker
Thickest
Beautiful
More Beautiful
Most Beautiful
Bad
Worse
Worst
Active Verb Tense
Simple
Present
Present
Progressive
Simple Past
hear
am
heard
hearing
play
is
playing
run
are
ran
running
was
will run has run had run has
will
running
been
have
running run
Describes
present
action or
condition
Shows
action in
progress
Shows past
action that
took place
over a
period of
time
played
Shows
completed
action
Past
Progressive
Future
Present
Perfect
Past
Perfect
Present
Perfect
Progressive
was
will
hearing hear
have
heard
had
heard
has
will
been
have
hearing heard
was
playing
has
played
had
played
has
been
playing
will
play
Shows an
action that
will or will
not happen
in the
future
Describes
an action
that began
in the past
but
continues
in to the
present
Describes
an event
completed
in the past
prior to
another
event
Describes
an action
that began
in the past,
continues
to the
present
and may
continue in
the future
Future
Perfect
will
have
played
Expresses
an action
that will be
completed
by or
before a
specified
time in the
future
Types of Pronouns
Personal
Relative
Indefinite
Demonstrative
Interrogative
reflexive
I, me, mine
you, your,
yours
he, him, his
she, her, hers
It, its, who,
whom, whose
we, us, ours
they, them,
theirs
Who,
whom,
whoever,
that, which
all, another, any,
anyone, anything,
everyone,
everything, each,
both, neither, no
one, none
someone,
something, few,
some, many, most,
several
this
that
these
those
who
whom
which
what
Whose
myself
yourself
himself
herself
itself
ourselves
Yourselves
themselves
I will cook
dinner
myself.
Ends in -self
or -selves
and refers
back to
another
noun or
pronoun in
the sentence
It is mine.
Takes the place
of a person,
place or thing
The chef
who won
the prize
studied in
Paris.
Introduces
a relative
clause and
links to
another
part of the
sentence.
Everyone came to
dinner.
That car is the
one I want.
Who is the
author of that
book?
Refers to an
unknown person,
place or thing
Represents a
thing or things
Used to ask
questions
Semantics
• The study of word meanings, idioms, or nonliteral expressions
Stops
• Formed by completely blocking the air and
releasing the bilabials – stopped lips
Fricatives
• Produced by a constant flow of air through the
vocal tract. /f/ /v/
Affricatives
• Produced by briefly stopping air and then
releasing with some friction church
Nasals
• Sound comes through the nose /m/
Liquids
• Make a smooth sound /l/ /r/
Aspiration
• A strong burst of air that accompanies either
the release or closure of some consonant
sound formed by obstructing airflow.
– Example:
– tore, the /t/ is aspirated
– Store, the /t/ is not aspirated