Download Behaviorism in Laymen`s Terms Holly Gildig, Fall 2005 Behaviorism

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Behaviorism in Laymen’s Terms
Holly Gildig, Fall 2005
Behaviorism was a movement in psychology and philosophy that focused on
the outward behavior and disregarded the inward procedural and experiential
aspects of life. It is a term that is very difficult to define. A variety of psychologists
have attempted to define the term according to their own opinions and beliefs.
Even though there have been many disagreements among behaviorists themselves,
they all agree that it is observable, interpersonally comparable, and directly
measurable (Uttal 165). Behaviorism is an objective approach to the fusion of
psychology and biological sciences. It is not generally considered a philosophy.
Instead, it is considered an attitude or doctrine that is rooted in realism and
materialistic philosophy. Although behaviorism originated in the field of
psychology, it has a much wider influence today.
A behaviorist is someone who confirms psychological events in terms of
behavioral criteria. Behaviorists believe that behaviors should only be studied if
they can be observed and that all behavior is a learned habit. Based upon the belief
that all behavior is learned, unwanted behavior can be unlearned. It is assumed that
the mind reacts to a stimulus and the response to the stimulus can be measured.
Keep in mind that the thousands of processes that occur in the mind during the
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time of engaging a stimulus and then reacting is not considered in this observation
and measurement process.
Behaviorism teaches that man is just a machine that will respond to
conditioning rather than using problem-solving skills, feelings, and thoughts to
affect what actions are taken. The ethical consequences of behaviorism are that of
taking away the responsibility, freedom, and dignity of man, and allowing others to
shape who and what the man will become. This process is achieved by the
experimenter’s controlling the rewards and consequences of another person. Over
the past few years, behaviorism has changed from the belief that behaviors could
be “targeted,” to a more relativistic and meaningful approach (Malone 85).
Even though many different philosophers and psychologists had an impact
on the progression of behaviorism, the writer will mention only a few of these
individuals, focusing mainly on the people who seemed to have the greatest
influence in America. As a learning theory, behaviorism can be traced back to
Aristotle. The first actual behaviorists were Russian. Ivan M. Sechenov (18291905) dedicated his time to blending associationism and materialism, by which he
determined that all behavior is caused by some sort of stimulation. Vladimir M.
Bekhterev (1857-1927) referred to his field of study as “reflexology.” Reflexology
was the objective study of stimulus-response connections. The only topics
discussed were the actual behavior and the environment in which the behavior
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occurred. Bekhterev discovered the association reflex, which Ivan Pavlov would
later call the “conditioned reflex” (Boeree 1).
The most famous Russian researcher in this field is Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849-1936), who started out studying for the priesthood and then switched his
studies to medicine. He is best known for his work in classical conditioning. His
most famous experiment involved the use of food, a dog, and a bell. Pavlov noticed
that a dog would begin to salivate when it saw food. The food was the
unconditioned stimulus and the salivation was the unconditioned response. These
innate abilities did not have to be learned, they were already present. Pavlov began
ringing a bell when the food was given. After a while, the dog began to associate
the sound of the bell with the food that would appear. The bell then became the
conditioned stimulus. This is called “Classic Conditioning” (Boeree 2). Pavlov also
observed that once the dog learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it would also
salivate at similar sounds. He discovered that if the ringing of the bell stopped
occurring when food appeared, the dog would cease the connection between the
ringing sound and the food. It was very easy for Pavlov to reproduce the response
if the connection was begun again.
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was considered a functionalist. He was
began the process of setting the stage for an American version of Russian
behaviorism. Thorndike was a psychologist. He worked on educational psychology
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and the psychology of animal learning. He believed that if there were satisfying
consequences then behavioral learning would be enhanced. Thorndike is best
known for his experiments with the “puzzle boxes” he developed for studying the
behaviors of cats. Felines would be placed in puzzle boxes; and, in order for them
to escape, they would have to successfully perform specific actions to get the box
open. He used positive, negative, and neutral responses in order to formulate a
connection between the amount of time it took for the cat to get out of the box and
the learning process that the cat had to go through. Eventually he formulated the
“law of effect” (Uttal 8). Animals learn by trial and error or reward and
punishment. Thorndike believed that a neural bond would form between a stimulus
and a positive response. Learning would take place when these bonds were formed
into patterns of behavior (Uttal 8).
John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) is the founder of American Behaviorism.
He studied philosophy, psychology, and neurophysiology. He was the first
American psychologist to use Ivan Pavlov’s ideas. Watson proposed a simple view
of psychology that proved to be enticing to the American people (Staddon 22)
because it was easy for them to understand and acknowledge.
Watson believed that humans were born with few reflexes and emotional
reactions. He thought that all other behaviors were established through associating
a stimulus to a response through conditioning. According to Watson, if you studied
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your neighbor, you would quickly develop reasons for his behavior and if a
particular stimulus were introduced, the neighbor would behave in a predictable
way (Watson, 11). In 1920, Watson designed an experiment to study the effects of
classical conditioning on a human infant. Little Albert, a 9-month old baby, was
exposed to a white rat. Initially the child showed no fear of the rat. Once the baby
began playing with the rat, Watson would hit a hammer against a steel bar. Little
Albert began to associate the white rat with the loud noise that scared him.
Eventually the baby began to cry at the sight of the rat rather than the noise. Over
time, the baby carried the phobia to other objects such as a rabbit, a fur coat, and a
Santa Claus mask (Watson & Rayner). Albert was never “deconditioned” because
his mother and he moved away. It is unclear as to what happened to Little Albert.
Although Watson’s techniques would be considered unethical in today’s
society, this was the first study to show that an emotional reaction could be
classically conditioned. According to Watson, psychology is, in essence, the
science of stimulus and response. A well-known quotation by John B. Watson is:
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own
specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take
any one at random and train him to become any type of
specialist I might select-doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief
and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his
ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so
have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it
for many thousands of years. (Hamachek 1990)
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Watson put a strong emphasis on how nurturing contributes to human
development. He believed that parents had to instill good habits in order for the
children to grow into productive and responsible adults.
A critic of Watson’s brand of behaviorism was William McDougall (18711938). In 1924, John Watson and William McDougall participated in a debate at
the Psychology Club meeting in Washington, DC. The audience of the debate
voted McDougall the winner, but John Watson won the support of American
psychology. McDougall was considered a hereditarian; meaning he promoted
psychology based upon instincts (Boeree 5). McDougall and his theories had been
largely forgotten until recently. Due to the rise in the study of genetics and
evolutionary psychology, McDougall’s ideas are being readdressed.
E. C. Tolman (1886-1959) also criticized the lengths to which behaviorists
had progressed. He did appreciate the behaviorists’ strides in making psychology
into a true objective science; he just felt that some of the forefathers of
behaviorism had gone too far with their ideas. Tolman believed that the study of
behavior should be focused on purposeful, goal-directed behaviors. He believed
that animals were able to advance through a variety of cognitive processes. E. C.
Tolman is considered one of the precursors of the cognitive movement that is so
prevalent today (Staddon 17).
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One of the most influential psychologists is B. F. Skinner (1904-1990).
Skinner was impressed with the effects of reinforcement and the relative effects on
behavior. Even though Skinner was strongly influenced by John Watson, he
focused his studies on operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on
the environment). His entire system of study is based on operant conditioning
(Blackman 113).
Operant conditioning takes place when an organism proceeds through its
environment reacting to various stimuli. The particular stimulus is called the
“reinforcing stimulus,” or “reinforcer.” The stimulus will increase or decrease the
operant, or behavior that was occurring just before the reinforcer. In other words,
the behavior is followed by a consequence. The consequence influences the
repetition of the behavior in the future (Boeree 10).
Skinner is most famous for his development of the “Skinner Box.” This was
a maze in which a rat had to push a bar in order to receive a food pellet. Skinner
used positive reinforcement to reward the rats for a particular behavior. Once the
food was stopped, the rat began to distance itself from pushing the bar. If no food
was being received there was no point in pushing down the bar. According to
Skinner, a behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in that behavior’s
occurring in the future. Vice-versa, a behavior no longer followed by a reinforcing
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stimulus results in that behavior’s decreasing over time. Skinner advocated the use
of positive reinforcement rather than negative (Blackman 127).
In order to increase the complexity of behaviors studied, Skinner responded
with the theory of shaping. When one of Skinner’s daughters was very young he
used shaping, a method of successive approximations, on her in order to achieve
the desired behavior (Boeree 11). The little girl was afraid to go down a slide.
Skinner put her on the end of the slide and asked her to jump down. He then
showered the girl with praise. Gradually he moved her higher up the slide. Each
time she slid down, he would praise her for the behavior. Eventually, the little girl
would slide down from the top and jump off once she reached the bottom. He
reinforced her behavior only slightly by expecting a little and giving praise. Once
established, he gradually increased his expectations toward the desired behavior.
He would move her up the slide and praise her each time she reached the bottom.
In order to reduce unwanted behavior, Skinner would “not notice”
inappropriate behavior (Blackman 127). Therefore, a search for a new behavior
would begin. If the behavior were appropriate, it would be acknowledged and
reinforced in some way. “For Skinner, the dependant variable in operant research
was the absolute response rate of the free-operant response” (Zuriff 367). A major
contribution by Skinner was the possible betterment of an ailing world.
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The main attacks, against behaviorism itself, focus on the scientific approach
related to psychology (Amsel 24). Many of the reactions from the opposition are
against Skinner’s environmentalism and determinism. Many believe that the theory
of behaviorism has failed because it is not comprehensive (Amsel 25). Basically,
there is no denying that behaviorism exists. The opposition believes that
behaviorism can only exist if it is limited to certain areas of psychology. It is also
believed that utilizing the ideas of behaviorism can improve the treatment of
neurosies and phobias.
It was very refreshing for the writer to learn that Skinner believed that his
work was not above criticism. Skinner believed that laboratory practices, concepts,
and principles needed to be continuously examined. He just did not see the need to
argue with those who did things differently (Hall 12). Beneficial applications of
concepts like positive reinforcement were accepted by some of those who
disagreed with Skinner’s belief in behaviorism (Nye 135). Some procedures and
ideas of Skinner’s can be utilized without becoming a “follower” of a behaviorist.
Behaviorism has become an important aspect in present day education.
Behaviorists believe a child to be highly programmed before starting school. The
child has been exposed to parents, siblings, peers, and television before the age of
five. This programming may have been learned acceptable behavior, whereas some
of the programming may have been unacceptable behavior (Ozmon & Craver 213).
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In the past, the main goal of a behaviorist was to change undesirable behavior of
students through the use of positive and negative methods in order to make them
behave. According to the behaviorist point of view, a teacher had to determine
what he/she wanted his/her classes to be like and then implement a plan in order to
achieve this goal (McEwan 99). During the past few years, the understanding of
brain functions, psychology, sociological factors, and pedagogy has increased. As
a result of this increase in knowledge, the management of behaviors in the
classroom has moved away from isolated student behaviors to a wide range of
problem-solving and decision-making activities. It is the concern about our
society’s falling into a breakdown of personal responsibility and civility that has
brought about this change (McEwan 99). Educators are now beginning to employ
cognitive management techniques along with behavioral strategies.
The writer, also an educator, believes in the use of student-centered learning
in the classroom. The environment in the classroom should be educationally
focused with a fair, supportive, and intriguing aspect. The teacher should utilize
strategies that encourage problem-solving, thought provoking techniques and
ideas, and the freedom for students to question concepts while managing the
classroom so that all students have the opportunity to learn and express their
thoughts and ideas. The writer also believes that there are aspects of behaviorism
that are useful in the classroom.
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Depending upon the age of students, they must be taught what the
expectations are for the classroom and how to properly meet these expectations.
Many children have learned inappropriate behaviors before they begin attending
school; therefore, a teacher must relay to the student what is acceptable behavior
while at school. It is the belief of the writer that the use of positive and/or negative
reinforcers is helpful in teaching students what is acceptable. Of course there are
behaviors that are expected, but there are situations that require the use of rewards
and consequences.
In conclusion, there have been numerous proclaimed behaviorists in the past
decades, yet they have never been able to form a single school (Rachlin 3).
Throughout the inception of behaviorism, it has been under attack from
nonbehavioristic psychologists and philosophers. Through criticism, questions, and
arguments, behaviorism has been able to establish some commonalities in theory
and practice. Since it is human nature to feel free and able to make choices and
decisions about our own lives, it is difficult to accept the fact that our behaviors are
determined and controlled by genetic and environmental influences (Nye 134). The
paradigm of behaviorism began as a way of formulating desired behaviors. It has
since become one of the tools used in education as a way of improving classroom
management and the educational process overall.
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Works Cited
Amsel, Abram. Behaviorism, Neobehaviorism, and Cognitive in Learning
Theory: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Hillsdale, New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1989.
Blackman, Derek E. Seven Pioneers of Psychology: Behavior and Mind.
London: Routledge, 1995.
Boeree, George C. Behaviorism. Shippensburg University; Pennsylvania,
2000.
Hall, Geoffrey. B F Skinner: Consensus and Controversy. New York:
Falmer Press, 1987.
Hamachek, Don. Psychology in Teaching, Learning, and Growth. 4th ed.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1990.
Malone, J. C. “Advances in Behaviorism: It’s Not What It Used to Be.”
Journal of Behavioral Education 12 (June 2003): 85-89.
McEwan, Barbara, Paul Gathercoal, and Virginia Nimmo. Beyond
Behaviorism: Changing the Classroom Management Paradigm.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1999.
Nye, Robert D. The Legacy of B F Skinner: Concepts and Perspectives,
Controversies, and Misunderstanding. Pacific Grove, CA:
Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., 1992.
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Ozmon, Howard A., and Samuel M. Craver. Philosophical Foundations of
Education. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall,
2003.
Rachlin, Howard. Behavior and Mind: The Roots of Modern Psychology.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Staddon, John. The New Behaviorism: Mind, Mechanism, and Society.
Philadelphia: Psychology Press, 2001.
Uttal, William R. The War Between Mentalism and Behaviorism. Mahwah,
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2000.
Watson, John B. Behaviorism. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers,
1998.
Watson, John B. & Rayner, R. “Conditioned Emotional Reactions. Journal
of Experimental Psychology, 3 (1920), 114.
Zuriff, G. E. “Philosophy of Behaviorism.” Journal of the Experimental
Analysis of Behavior 77 (2002), 367-371.