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Chapter 3 Learning and Ability Objective Concept of Learning. 2. Theories of Learning. 3. Biographical Characteristics. 4. Different types of abilities. 1. 2 LEARNING Learning • Involves change • Is relatively permanent • It is concerned with behaviour • Is acquired through experience 3 THEORIES OF LEARNING It was conducted by a Russian Physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the 1927. Key Concepts • Unconditioned stimulus • Unconditioned response • Conditioned stimulus Ivan Pavlov 4 • Conditioned response Thus we can say that a conditioned response involves building up an association between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. When the stimuli, one compelling and other neutral, are paired, the neutral one becomes a conditioned stimulus and so takes on the properties of unconditioned stimulus. Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we react in a specific way. It is elicited in response to a specific and identifiable event. 5 It was propounded by a Harvard psychologist B F Skinner. This is based on the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Key Concepts • Reflexive (unlearned) behavior • Voluntary (learned) behavior B.F.Skinner • Reinforcement The tendency to repeat such behaviour is influenced by the reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour. 6 Key Concepts 1. Attention processes 2. Retention processes 3. Motor reproduction processes 4. Reinforcement processes It acknowledges the existence of observational learning and the importance of perception in learning 7 Shaping Behavior Systematic attempt is made to change individuals’ behavior by directing their learning in graduated steps. Key Concepts • Reinforcement is required to change behavior. • Some rewards are more effective than others. • The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence. 8 TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT Positive reinforcement Providing a reward for a desired behavior. Negative reinforcement Process of having a reward taken away as a consequence of a undesired behavior. Punishment Causing an unpleasant condition in an attempt to eliminate an undesirable behavior. Extinction An alternative to punishing undesirable behaviour – the attempt to weaken behavior by attaching no consequences (either positive or negative) to it. It is equivalent to ignoring the behavior. 9 Desirable Behaviour Positive Reinforcement e.g.: you receive bonus after successfully completing important task Punishment e.g.: you are threatened Undesirable with demotion or Behaviour discharge after treating client badly. Event is Added Negative Reinforcement e.g.: scholarship is withdraw from the student who has not done well in examination Extinction e.g.: mischievous student disturbing the class, asking for attention. Event is Removed 1. Both Positive and Negative Reinforcement results strengthen responses and increases the probability of repetition 2. Both Punishment and Extinction weaken the behaviour and tend to decrease its subsequent frequency. 10 Schedules of Reinforcement 11 Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-ratio EXHIBIT 12 3.3.1 Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement EXHIBIT 13 3.3.1 Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d) EXHIBIT 14 3.3.1 BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION OB Mod ( Luthans, F. 1975) A well known system of motivation, is an attempt to change behavior by manipulating rewards and punishment. Problem-solving Model • Identify critical behaviors • Develop baseline data • Identify behavioral consequences • Developing and implementing an intervention strategy 15 • Evaluate performance improvement SPECIFIC ORGANIZATIONAL APPLICATIONS Using Lotteries to reduce Absenteeism Ex. Continental Airlines Credits the lottery with significantly reducing the company’s absent rate (variable-ratio). Well Pay versus Sick Pay Ex. Midwest organizations in USA Reduce absenteeism by rewarding attendance, not absence. Ex. Forbes Magazine. 16 CONT… Employee Discipline The use of punishment can be counter-productive. Social-learning theory Improve training effectiveness. Self-management Reduces the need for external management control. 17 BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS Gender, Age, Marital status and Tenure are the variables that have an impact on employee productivity, absence, turnover and satisfaction 18 A. GENDER There are few, if any, important differences between men and women that will affect their job performance, including the areas of: –Problem-solving –Motivation –Analytical skills –Sociability –Competitive drive –Learning ability Women are more willing to conform to authority, and men are more aggressive and more likely than women to have expectations of success. There is a difference between men and women in terms of preference for work schedules. Absence and turnover rates 19 B. AGE 1.The relationship between Age And Job Performance is increasing in importance. 2.Employers’ perceptions are mixed. 3.It is tempting to assume that Age is inversely related to Absenteeism. 4.Belief that Productivity Declines with Age and that individual skills decay over time. 5.The relationship between Age and Job Satisfaction is mixed. 20 C. Marital Status Research consistently indicates that married employees have fewer absences, undergo less turnover, and are more satisfied with their jobs than are their unmarried co-workers (Garrrison and Muchinsky, 1977) Besides single or married statuses, there is difference between divorce, domestic partnering, etc. 21 D. Tenure The issue of the impact of job seniority on job performance has been subject to misconceptions and speculations. Extensive reviews of the seniority-productivity relationship have been conducted: • There is a positive relationship between tenure and job productivity. • There is a negative relationship between tenure to absence. • Tenure is also a potent variable in explaining turnover. • Tenure has consistently been found to be negatively related to turnover and has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of turnover. • The evidence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positively related. 22 ABILITY 23 DIMENSIONS OF INTELLECTUAL ABILITY • Number aptitude – Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic . Ex. Accountant • Verbal comprehension – Read write speaking ability. Ex. Senior Manager • Perceptual speed – Identify similarities and differences quickly. Ex. Investigators • Inductive reasoning – Logical sequence drawing. Ex. Market Researcher 24 EXHIBIT 3.6.2 Cont… • Deductive reasoning – Ability to use logic and assess the implications of the argument. Ex. Supervisors • Spatial visualization – Ability to imagine. Ex. Interior decorator • Memory – Ability to retain and recall past experience Ex. Sale person remembering customer’s name 25 EXHIBIT 3.6.2 Multiple Intelligences was developed by Gardener. Eight different intelligences: 1. Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”) 2. Logical-mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”) 3. Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”) 4. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”) 5. Musical intelligence (“music smart”) 6. Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”) 7. Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”) 8. Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”) 26 PHYSICAL ABILITY 27 NINE PHYSICAL ABILITIES Strength Factors • Dynamic strength • Trunk strength • Static strength • Explosive strength Flexibility Factors • Extent flexibility • Dynamic flexibility Other Factors • Body coordination • Balance • Stamina 28 EXHIBIT 3.6.2 THE ABILITY - JOB FIT Employee’s Abilities 29 Ability-Job Fit Job’s Ability Requirements Thank you