Download INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND LIVESTOCK

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS AND LIVESTOCK
PRODUCTION UNDER SMALL- HOLDER FARMER
MANAGEMENT IN THE FACE OF CLIMATE CHANGE: A
CASE OF GURUVE DISTRICT
By
Tapson Mashanyare
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a
Master of Science (MSc) in Sociology and Social Anthropology
Department of Sociology, University of Zimbabwe
Supervisor: Dr S. D Chingarande
February 2012
1
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ 3
Dedication ...................................................................................................................... 4
Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction and Background ........................................................................................ 6
Statement of the problem ............................................................................................... 9
Objectives .................................................................................................................... 10
Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................ 10
Definition of key concepts ........................................................................................... 13
Methodology ................................................................................................................ 14
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS .............................................................................. 17
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS .................................................................................... 38
Conclusion and Recommendations .............................................................................. 56
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 58
2
Acknowledgements
I am highly indebted to my supervisor Dr S.D Chingarande who sought for me the
funding to carry out my research. I also thank her for sound advice, guidance, and
patience and for all the valuable time that she gave to my work. Ndibvumirei kutenda
(allow me to express my gratitude).
I also owe a lot to the people of Guruve who were so cooperative and accommodative
during my fieldwork, I managed to find a home away from home. I also thank the
staff from the Department of Livestock Production and Development, the Veterinary
Services Department and Lower Guruve Development Association.
My gratitude is due to Mrs Maphosa (LPD Gweru) for encouraging me. I also owe a
lot to all my Colleagues at NBCS (ZAPP-UZ) who encouraged me. My friends
Lovemore Dube and Zvidzai Shoko also deserve special mention for words of
wisdom, hope and encouragement.
To my fellow comrades in the MSc Class Peter Tavaruva, Fortune Negombwe,
Rosemary Kasimba, Godfrey Jakachira and Wonder Muchabaiwa, I say, there is no
night so long which does not end with dawn.
I am forever indebted to my parents G and E Mashanyare for nurturing my academic
potential, what I am is what they moulded me to become. My brothers and sisters,
Elliot, Welly, Tinashe, Tino, Gladys and Mony, I salute you. Lastly to all the
important people in my life whose names I deliberately left, thank you.
3
Dedication
To my wife Nothando and daughter Nokutenda, I am proud of you.
4
Abstract
Indigenous knowledge systems of livestock care and health care is the only asset in
the hands of the small holder farmers to mitigate the impact of climate change on
livestock production. This study explores the role of indigenous knowledge systems
of livestock care and veterinary care in the face of climate change. Developing
countries such as Zimbabwe bear the brunt of climate change due to poor mitigation
capacity. Small holder farmers are more affected by climate change than large scale
commercial farmers because it is difficult for them to diversify to other livestock
species which are tolerant to climate shocks. However ethno-veterinary knowledge is
not evenly distributed in society. Gender, age and social class are major determinants
of the amount of knowledge that one has. The elderly have more knowledge on
ethonoveterinary practices because the knowledge is experiential. Specialists like
ethno veterinary herbalists also have more knowledge on ethno veterinary methods
because of their specialized skills. Government departments like the department of
Veterinary Services are stumbling blocks to the development and utilisation of ethno
veterinary medicines because they dismiss them as unapproved and based on
mythology. Instead, farmers are encouraged to use modern veterinary medicines.
However, the use of ethonoveterinary methods persists because of their ready
availability and affordability. Climate change has increased the number of disease in
livestock; this makes ethonoveterinary medicine more relevant and useful to adapt
livestock production to climate change. This study exposes the need for adaptive
mechanisms if small livestock production is to remain viable under the growing threat
of climate change.
5
Introduction and Background
More than just climatologists are now talking about climate change. We do know for
certain that the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is rising, (it is now higher
than what it has been in the last 20 million years), that changing the chemistry of the
atmosphere changes the energy transmission, that the climate in cities is different
from rural areas and that changes in landscape results in change in climate. We have
evidence of changes in growing seasons, global temperature changes (climate models
suggest that there will be a 1.5 degrees Celsius increase in global temperature over
the next 100 years), and weather extremes that cannot be explained only by natural
forces. Climate change is certain we are just now seeing the fall-outs and the victims.
However, the rate of change is unprecedented, and adaptation needs to be strongly
considered. This is a global issue and the impacts are felt in local livelihoods (Phillips
2001).
According to Smit (2001) adaptation involves, adapting the nature of agriculture so
that changes are less of a problem and opportunities are realised. According to Stokes
(2009) livestock production is the world’s dominant land use, covering about 45% of
the earth’s land surface much of it is harsh and variable environments that are
unsuitable for other users. Climate change could impact the amount and quality of
produce, reliability of production and the natural resource base. Although, there will
be direct effects on livestock, the majority of influences will be through changes in
plant growth and the timing, quality and quantity of forage available. Geographic
patterns have shown that the interior of continents and the Northern hemisphere is
heating up faster than anywhere else. The effects of greenhouse gases are several
decades behind, meaning that even if no greenhouse gases entered the atmosphere
from today onwards; global warming will continue for several decades behind,
meaning that even if no greenhouse gases entered the atmosphere from today
onwards, global warming will continue for several decades. Unlike the effects of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the effects of rising temperature will for the most
be negative and offset will have decreased digestibility as a result of lower nutrient
and protein content, forage quality will be substantially poorer. There will be greater
6
induced heat stress for livestock and water demand will be vital to the location of
livestock systems.
Evidence from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is now
overwhelmingly convincing that climate change is real that it will become worse and
the poorest and most vulnerable people will be affected (IPCC 2007).
IFAD acknowledges climate change as one of the factors affecting rural poverty and
as one of the challenges it needs to address (IFAD 2007) while climate change is a
global phenomenon, its negative impacts are more severely felt by poor people in
developing countries who rely heavily on the natural resource base for their
livelihood.
In pastoral and agro-pastoral systems, livestock are key assets for poor people,
providing multiple economic, social and risk management functions. The impacts that
climate change will bring about are expected to accelerate the vulnerability of
livestock systems. (Gill and Smith 2008)
Heat distress on animals will reduce the rate of animal feed intake and cause poor
performance. (Rowlinson 2008). Lack of water and increased frequency of drought in
certain countries will cause a loss of resources. Among the direct effects of climate
change for example, there will be higher temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns
translating in an increased spread of vector-borne diseases and micro parasites as well
as the emergency and spread of new diseases these effects will be felt by developed
and developing countries, but developing countries will be most impacted because of
their lack of resource, knowledge, veterinarian and extension services and research
technology development (FAO 2008).
The basic component of any country’s knowledge systems is its indigenous
knowledge. It encompasses the skills, experiences and insights of people, applied to
maintain or improve their livelihood (World bank, 1997). Significant contributions to
global knowledge have originated from indigenous people for instance in medicine
and veterinary medicine with their intimate understanding of their environments.
Indigenous knowledge is developed and adapted continuously to gradually changing
environments and passed down from generation to generation and closely interwoven
with people cultural values. Indigenous knowledge is also the social capital for the
7
poor, their main asset to invest in the struggle for survival to produce food, provide
food, shelter or achieve control of their own lives. According to Mararike (1999), for
people to survive, one of the strategies required is the application of appropriate
indigenous knowledge. Such knowledge should give people confidence to tackle life
threatening problems and enable them to meet internal and external challenges.
In this study indigenous methods of livestock health care are sometimes referred to as
ethno veterinary medicine (EVM). According to Kohler-Rollefson and Brauning
(1998), ethno veterinary medicine (EVM) considers that traditional practices of
veterinary medicine are legitimate and seeks to validate them. Ethno veterinary
medicine was defined by McCorke (1995) as the holistic, interdisciplinary study of
local knowledge and its associated skills, practices, beliefs, practitioners, and social
structures pertaining to the healthcare and healthful husbandry of food, work and
other income-producing animals, always with an eye to practical development
applications within livestock production and livelihood systems, and with the ultimate
goal of increasing human well being via increased benefits from stock raising.
Knowledge about ethonoveterinary medicine is not documented and it is passed from
generation to generation orally. Indigenous knowledge of veterinary care in
Zimbabwe and other developing countries are used as adaptations and coping
strategies to the adverse climates in resource poor areas in which they live. According
to Duri and Mapara (2007) IKS for these communities are important because they
provide farmers and households with the ability to survive and produce under risk
among other climate, environmental constraints and incomplete market structure.
Because knowledge on ethno veterinary medicine is not documented and
experimental, the elderly people are rich sources of this knowledge because of their
experiences. Ethno veterinary practices are rooted in African mythology and cultural
practices. This knowledge risks extinction because of the attention that scientific
knowledge systems of modern pharmacy are receiving. This leads to the negation of
ethno veterinary practices as backward. Farmers are not encouraged to use ethno
veterinary medicines because they are not scientifically proven.
The effects of climate change like the increase in the frequency of droughts and some
changes in the timing of rain affect livestock production in many parts of Zimbabwe
because of the increase in livestock diseases and poor health of livestock due to lack
8
of enough water and forage. Ethno veterinary medicine has become more relevant in
dealing with the effects of climate change because of accessibility and affordability of
these medicines.
Despite the advantages that ethno veterinary medicine have, very little has been
documented in developing countries and ethno veterinary knowledge has no place in
mainstream veterinary medicine. According to McCorke (1995), in recent years,
however, increasing attention has been paid to ethno veterinary knowledge and local
veterinary practices because of increasing costs of veterinary medicine which makes it
difficult for poor farmers to access veterinary medicine. There is a growing
acceptance that some of these practices have therapeutic value and should be
documented before this knowledge is lost.
Statement of the problem
Livestock production has been severely affected by climate change. The rainfall
patterns have been altered resulting in large scale crop failure. Livestock production
like poultry and piggery depends on good crop yields for stock feeds. Under harsh
weather conditions, the health of livestock has been affected and drought conditions
leads to loss of livestock. There has been very little research on climate change and its
impact on livestock production. Though indigenous knowledge systems are often
negated, they contain rich sources of knowledge which have been practiced by
generations. This study seeks to explore the various indigenous knowledge systems
practiced in livestock production by small holder farmers in Guruve district. The
study also seeks to understand how this knowledge is distributed among the farmers
in terms of gender. According to FAO (1994), rural women often have considerable
indigenous knowledge about many aspects of animal husbandry, veterinary medicine
and range management. Women in most societies are responsible for the daily care of
animals, their reproduction and doctoring. The study also purposes to see how
livestock production, is adapting to the changes in weather and the various coping
mechanism that have been practiced by the farmers in Guruve district with the
purpose of adding value to the knowledge base on climate change and indigenous
knowledge systems.
9
Objectives
The objectives of this study are to:
-Establish the local knowledge on livestock production.
-Assess the mechanisms to deal with climate change as it relates to livestock
production.
-Assess the role of government and NGOs in alleviating the impacts of climate
change on livestock production.
-Explore the stocks of knowledge available to farmers by gender.
Theoretical Framework
This study explores the various indigenous knowledge systems of livestock
production used by farmers in Guruve to cope with climate change. It also
demonstrates the contestation between the indigenous knowledge systems that the
farmers has practiced for generations and scientific knowledge systems that are
imposed by institutions, NGOs and government departments that work with the
farmers in livestock production. In order to fully explore the relationship between the
farmers and institutions like the Veterinary Service Department and NGOs the study
used the Structuration Theory proposed by Giddens (1984). Giddens views human
agency and social structure not as separate concepts but as two ways of considering
social action. Structure is somewhat more specific and detailed and refers to practices
which are structured along certain lines. These include procedural rules, how practice
is performed (University of Regina 2000). In this view, the department of Veterinary
Services represents structure because it has rules that the farmers must observe in
livestock production and health care. It recommends certain medical practices that are
linked to modern pharmacy. According to Sewell (1992), social structures are the
rules and laws and agencies that enforce these laws. Government departments like
LPD and Veterinary Service department represent structure as they impose certain
rules that govern livestock production. The department of Livestock Production and
Development (LPD) promotes small stock production arguing that they have a high
turnover and are resistant to climate shocks than large stock. To the farmers, the LPD
is structure because it constrain them by choosing for them which livestock species to
keep without any input from the farmers. Giddens (1984) characterized structure as
10
rules and laws that constrain the behaviour of agents hence the activities of LPD
represents structure as they set rules for livestock production. As government
departments, LPD and Veterinary Service Department have legal instruments that
help them to force people to compliance. Dipping of cattle is compulsory failure to
comply attracts a heavy fine. According to Giddens (1984) agency is human action
and to be human is to be an agent though not all agents are human. Human beings are
not passive recipients of authority from structures but the possession of agency allows
them to act freely. Human action is not always predictable because of the possession
of agency, human beings do not always follow the normative ways of behaviour, and
sometimes they break from the normative ways. Applying this theory to indigenous
knowledge systems of livestock production, the farmers in Guruve uses a variety of
ethno veterinary medicines to treat diseases in livestock. Though this is not
encouraged by the veterinary service department, farmers continue to use the
unapproved medicines because they are cheap and locally available.
Cohen (1968) noted that at its most extreme, then structuralist sociology treats society
as an autonomous entity composed of structures and institutions that impose
themselves upon and control the actions of members of society by organizing
themselves in terms of their own logic, which is dictated by economic and cultural
factors that have produced it and are extra individual. Thus the degree to which
members of society are agents of their own existence and their relationships with one
another is quite minimal, since not only are actions determined by their position
within structures and institutions but so too are their thoughts, values and interests,
then the only agent of social action is structure itself. Walsh (1998) rejects this to be a
dehumanized version of the social world through an illegitimate reification of society
which completely objectifies structures and institutions and divorces them from actual
activities of the members of society is not an immutable and determining force which
externally conditions the life of its members of society as individuals within it. From
this perspective, society is not an immutable and determining force which externally
conditions the life of its members but rather they are agents who produce and sustain
it. Human beings can and do make themselves into what they are, they are able to take
charge of their own lives and to shape their social world into forms that meet their
own needs. The use of indigenous knowledge systems in livestock production
confirms the possession of agency that enables individuals to develop their own local
11
medicine with the available resources like trees. Waburton and Martin (1999) noted
that indigenous knowledge of animal health empowers local people and increases the
local capacity to experiment and innovate.
According to Jenks (1998) the problem of the issues of structure and agency in social
life, then is clear even if the resolution of it is not.
On the one hand, society is not a system of immutable and refined structures and
institutions operating as a law like systems of objectivity organised relationships that
determines all action within it. Human beings are not simply cogs in a machine or
puppets on a string because they can and do make sense of their social environment,
exercise choices in relation to it and modify it is a whole variety of ways which makes
them the agents in the social world and creators of social structure. This balanced
position is what Giddens (1986) referred to as the duality of structure institutional
properties of social systems are created by human action and in turn shapes future
actions. Social structures are both enabling and constraining, the laws that various
rules and guidelines that are set by the department of livestock production and the
department of veterinary services may seem to be constraining but on the other hand
they actually enable the farmers to raise livestock in harsh climate conditions.
Farmers rely on these departments for technical services. Climate change also
represents structure as it constrains the farmers in livestock production. Due to
climate change, there is an increase in livestock diseases like red water and heart
water. However the possession of agency enables farmers to pursue ethno veterinary
practices in order to mitigate the impacts of climate change on livestock.
Though social institutions may constrain the farmers by imposing rules and
regulations that govern animal care and health care, these same innovations are a
product of human action and it is human beings who make the regulations that
constrain other social groups. Institutions are made up of people, so people are both
enabling and constraining. Duality of structure makes clear the distinction between
structure and agency, yet recognizing them as dependent upon each other. The
application of this theory recognizes that the structural properties of social systems
impose themselves as influencing mediums and at the same time outcomes of the
social practices they recursively organise (Giddens 1986).
12
Definition of key concepts
Indigenous knowledge systems
Indigenous knowledge systems are the basic component of any country’s knowledge
system. It encompasses the skills, experiences and insights of people, applied to
maintain or improve livelihood. (World Bank 1997)
Livestock
For the purpose of this study, livestock refers to domestic animals that are raised for
food or labour. This includes chicken, goats, pigs, sheep, cattle and donkeys.
Livestock production
Livestock production in this study refers to the various ways of animal care including
breeding, feeding, watering, doctoring and the general care of animals.
Climate change
Climate change is defined as a change of climate which is attributed directly or
indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and
which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time
periods. (The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1994) In
this study, climate change is defined as the change in weather and rainfall patterns.
13
Methodology
The study area
This study was carried out in ward 22 which is one of the 24 wards in Guruve District.
The choice of the ward was influenced by its proximity to Guruve town and it is
located within 150km from Harare. The ward also has a diversity of livestock species
such as cattle, donkeys, goats, chicken and piggery.
Sampling
Six villages were chosen randomly from 19 villages in the ward. Random sampling
gave each village a fair chance of being selected because in every village there are
farmers who are in to livestock production. Purposive sampling was used to select the
farmers to be interviewed. This was important because there are some famers who do
not own livestock and it was pointless to include such farmers. Purposive sampling
enabled the researcher to interview farmers who are into livestock production and this
saved time. Information was obtained from government departments such as the
department of livestock production and veterinary services using purposive sampling.
This sampling method enabled the researcher to visit the relevant departments hence
relevant information was obtained. Purposive sampling was also used to select the
non-governmental organisation which deals with livestock production in the district
(Lower Guruve Development Association).
Ethics
To gain entry into the district the researcher followed the local government hierarchy
that is going through the District Administrator, the respective Councillor for the ward
and the village heads to get their permission. Some village heads were also
interviewed to get their views on indigenous knowledge systems of livestock
production and the changes in rainfall patterns. To gain entry in to the government
departments like the department of veterinary services and livestock production,
permission was sought from the District Heads. The researcher also obtained
14
permission from the programme manager of Lower Guruve Development Association
to interview staff from the organisation.
Research Methods
In order to meet the objectives of the study, the research used the case study method,
incorporating several research techniques such as in-depth interviews, unhurried and
unstructured conversations and observation.
In depth interviews were conducted with officers from the veterinary department, the
department of livestock production and Lower Guruve Development Association
which is implementing a poultry project in the ward. This is in line with the objectives
of the study, to establish what each of each of these departments is doing to lessen the
impacts of climate change on livestock production. Lower Guruve Development
Association is working with FAO in implementing the poultry project. The interviews
with one of the managers of this organisation were important in that it shows the role
of nongovernmental organisations in alleviating the impacts of climate on livestock
production.
In-depth interviews were used to obtain rich data from village heads, the elderly and
officers form the veterinary department, the department of livestock production and
Lower Guruve development Association. According to Maxwell (2005) and Webber
(2010) in-depth interviews use open ended questions to uncover information on a
subject of interest and allow interviewees to express opinions and ideas in their own
words. This technique allowed the researcher to note emotions and facial expressions.
This helped the researcher to realise that climate change is a very emotional subject to
some farmers who have lost their livestock to droughts and diseases. Some of the
words which farmers used showed bitterness on the unpredictability of their
environment. Personal opinions were also expressed freely without interruption.
In-depth interviews conducted with the officers from the veterinary department and
the department of livestock production allowed the researcher to get the position of
the government on climate change and indigenous veterinary methods.
In depth interviews also gave the farmers a voice. Some of the interviews were
conducted with women farmers which made the voice of women audible. According
to Mararike (1999) knowledge however we define it represents a form of power.
15
In depth interviews allowed the farmers to explore their various ways of veterinary
care. The possession of such knowledge is power to the people hence the method in a
way made the people to realise their power. Unhurried and unstructured conversations
allowed the researcher to get rich and sometimes emotional information about the
effects of climate change on livestock production especially from farmers who have
lost their livestock to diseases. As noted by Blumer (1997:234), interviews allow the
interviewee to express his or her inner feelings, thoughts and intentions.
The researcher also used observations and this technique was very useful because it
gave the researcher the opportunity to see the difference between what the farmers say
and the actual situation. The researcher observed the rivers, one dam, pastures and the
cattle, goats and chicken, the cattle pens and the methods of fodder preservation.
Some farmers also plant trees like custard apple on their yards because it cures many
livestock diseases and the researcher observed the trees in some households.
Observation also allowed the researcher to ask relevant questions based on what he
would have observed.
The various methods which the researcher used had their own shortfalls. The
researcher discovered that using unhurried and unstructured conversations was time
consuming as it allowed the respondent to narrate their experiences with little
interruption. Therefore some irrelevant issues would be narrated and the researcher
had to be patient as it is disrespectful according to Shona tradition to interrupt an
elderly person in the midst of a conversation.
Observations also had the danger of misinterpretation by the researcher. The
researcher observed trees like custard apple which were planted at many households.
The researcher had initially misinterpreted the purpose of the trees for shade yet these
trees had a medical purpose for both humans and livestock.
16
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS
Case A: Cain Mbira (not his real name)
Mr Mbira is 64 years old, he lives in Katsiru village and he never worked outside the
agricultural sector. He used to work as a supervisor at a certain farm in Darwendale
since he was fifteen, a job he left at twenty nine upon marriage to build his own home
in the village. The job gave him enough experience in poultry, goats and cattle
production which he supervised. Mr Mbira and his wife started a very viable chicken
project and they also kept cattle, and goats. Like the other villagers, they also grow
maize and other food crops which can be used as stock feeds. This became their
source of livelihood and they were able to educate their six children through selling
goats, chicken and cattle, some of them went to boarding schools at average, they
used to keep fifteen cattle, twenty goats , forty free range chicken and hundred broiler
chickens at any given time. Now Mr.Mbira is left with only four cattle, six goats and
fifteen free range chickens, the broiler project has been abandoned ten years ago but a
large fowl run is evidence of Mr. Mbira’s enterprising mind.
The common diseases in cattle that Mr Mbira named are red water, three day sickness,
black leg, lump skin and foot-and-mouth. He also pointed out Anthrax which is not
common but has killed a number of cattle in the past. These diseases have reduced the
number of cattle in the area in recent years Red water is the most common disease and
it is caused by ticks. The Veterinary Service Department is to blame for the failure to
control tick borne diseases which could be eliminated if consistence in dipping cattle
is maintained. The dipping calendar is not clear and farmers have to wait for an
announcement from the dip attendant for the next dipping date which is subject to the
availability of chemicals. The dipping intervals are between three weeks to a month.
In the past, there were very few diseases and it was very rare to find cattle that were
sick. When this happened, they would fetch the leaves of bottania thonnigii and crush
them, mix with water and make the sick animal to drink. The mixture would be used
on all diseases because there was little knowledge on the specific names of diseases.
Since the advent of modern veterinary medicines, natural ways of curing livestock
were ignored and shunned as inferior and backward. Their utilization greatly declined
as people favoured the veterinary medicines. Ruzivo rwedu rwechivanhu rwakabva
17
rwangosiyiwawo nekuti rwavakuonekwa serwekumashure’. (Our knowledge was
negated as primitive). However, modern veterinary medicines are too expensive for
most rural farmers hence they are resorting to natural ways of animal health care. The
increase in the number of diseases that is being experienced makes natural veterinary
practice more relevant alternative for most poor farmers who cannot afford modern
veterinary medicines.
Apart from diseases, the seasons are changing and there are significant changes both
in the amount of rainfall and in the timing of the first rains which affects the health of
cattle. The amount of rainfall is very low and the rains are coming a bit late, towards
the end of November. In the past droughts did not occur as often as they do now. Due
to low rainfall, rivers are drying up and cattle have to move long distances to find
water, this affects their health. Low rainfall also means that grass will not grow well
and the cattle are getting thin.”Sora re mombe rava kuita shoma mwanangu’. (There
is no enough grass for our cattle my son)Although these dry spells do not necessarily
kill cattle, they greatly affect their health and reproduction and that is why the herds
do not grow to significant numbers.
Mr. Mbira keeps chicken on free range production where the chicken are not confined
but are allowed free movement. This gives the farmer some advantage because the
burden of care is reduced unlike cattle which require herding. Common diseases in
chicken that Mr Mbira named include wounds in the eyes, new castle, coccidiosis and
flu. The traditional medicines that are used for treating chicken are not disease
specific hence one medicine cures a number of diseases. The aloe vera plant is the
commonly used natural medicine for chicken. It is crushed and put in drinking water;
it is very effective and in some cases it is mixed with phlegmostomium (soot) which
gathers in the thatched kitchens. He noted that the Veterinary department helps with
vaccination of chicken when there is an outbreak of diseases like new castle.
Mr. Mbira noted that there are very few diseases in goats as compared to cattle. The
care of goats is also easy as they can be tied around trees and they feed around the
confined area when the farmer is busy. The leaves of the Aloe-Vera plant are used to
treat goats, they are crushed and mixed with water and the goats are made to drink the
mixture. The mixture is effective for bacterial infections and diarrhea.
18
Mr. Mbira maintains that older women and men have similar amounts of knowledge
as the knowledge is experiential, owing to the decades of experience which these
elderly people have of using these medicines. However he fears that the younger
generation does not have the knowledge that their elders had due to modernization
and the subsequent abandonment of some of the cultural ways of sharing knowledge.
‘Kare vakomana nana baba vaienda kudare manheru ega ega kwaikurukurwa nhau
dzakawanda dzeuchenjeri’. (In the past, men and boys would meet every evening;
these meetings were an important platform to share wisdom.) Mr. Mbira noted that
nowadays scientific knowledge systems have taken the centre stage and therefore a lot
has to be done to teach young men and women.
CASE B: Tirivanhu Utete (not his real name)
Mr Tirivanhu Utete is an ethno veterinary herbalist who stays in Gezi village. He
maintains a well-watered herbal garden at the back of his house with a variety of
indigenous plants like the aloe vera, meliaazearach and solanuminducum. The sixty
year old man inherited this unique knowledge from his late father who was a wellknown herbalist. Herbal gardens are not common in the village Mr Utete’s garden is
the only herbal garden in his village. He pointed out that such gardens are easy to
maintain and it is also a way of making available even the seasonal plants throughout
the year. In the dry season there are more incidences of veld fires which destroy a lot
of vegetation including the plants used for ethno veterinary medicines. Herbal gardens
are an important way of preserving these useful plants. Mr. Utete has worked in the
herbal garden since he was seven where he used to help his father with manual labor,
this gave him an opportunity to learn as much as possible.
The changing rainfall patterns have resulted in depleted pastures and livestock
production under these conditions is very difficult as it is both risky and laborious.
Overgrazing is also one of the unfortunate consequences of poor rains. The water for
the animals is becoming insufficient especially during the dry season due to drying of
rivers. Irrigation of gardens is also disturbed and this affects livestock because part of
the harvest is reserved for livestock, therefore if the yield from the gardens is poor,
nothing will be spared for livestock.
19
The common diseases in cattle that Mr Utete named are heart water, red water and
lump skin. The farmer uses indigenous medicine to cure all the diseases that affects
his cattle. Some diseases like lump skin are caused by ticks therefore the farmer
blames the veterinary department and sees the harnessing of knowledge on indigenous
medicine as a lasting solution.
‘Tinoenda musango totora mushonga tobonyabonya tosanganisa nemvura’. (We go
into the bush and fetch the medicine we then crush it and mix it with water.)
The commonly used herbs are solanuminducum, (aloe Vera, pauzzozia mixta,
venonia amygdalina, meliaazearach, and bautania thonnigii.
These herbs are crushed and mixed with water. The roots, bark and leaves of these
trees are used in preparing ethno veterinary medicine. Sometimes, the roots, bark and
leaves are combined to prepare certain mixtures or they may be used separately. After
preparing the mixture one should wait for about an hour for the mixture to settle and
soften. It is put it in a 300ml bottle and shaken. The cow is tied by the horns on a tree
or pole and forced to drink the mixture. ‘Takambopa mombe mushonga uyu
pakaitachirwere
chaiomesa
mhuno
chichitadzisa
mombe
kufura.’(We
once
administered the medicine when there was a certain disease which made the cattle not
to graze and their nose became dry). Mr Utete observed that after administering the
medicine, it took just two hours for the cattle to show signs of recovery. Lumpskin is
another dreaded disease that affects cattle in the area from time to time. The farmers
also utilize ethno veterinary medicines to cure lump skin. Mr Utete explained one of
the methods in which the leaves of the pauzzozia mixta are crushed and mixed with water in
a 300ml bottle, shaken and given to the sick animal to drink. ‘Tinorigira mombe pasi
toishamisa muromo, toinwisa mushonga’ (we force the cow to the ground, open its mouth
and make it to drink the medicine). He maintained that It also take about the same time for
the animal to recover after administering the modern veterinary medicine or a little longer.
The farmer treats red water by using aloe vera, pauzzozia mixta and custard apple.
When a cow is infected with red water, it passes out bloody urine. To Mr Utete, these
traditional mixtures are just as effective as the injections for red water that are used by
the veterinary department. Only those who do not know the traditional medicines rush
to the veterinary office when they observe some symptoms of diseases. Farmers like
Mr Utete have always used traditional medicines and he sees buying veterinary
medicines as a waste of money because they see traditional medicine as equally
effective. ‘Hatingarasi mari tichikwanisa kungorapa ne mushonga wedu wechibhoi,
20
zvinoitwa nevasingazive’ (we cannot waste our money when we can use our African
medicine only those who do not know traditional medicines do that). In 2010 two of
Mr. Utete’s cattle were attacked by a strange disease that made the nose of the cattle
dry. The disease had killed ten cattle in this village in 2008. He used the traditional
medicine and the cattle recovered, from that time onwards, the other villagers respect
him for his knowledge on traditional medicine and they consult him when their cattle
are sick. Traditional medicines are readily available therefore treatment is given
without any delay and this saves livestock from possible death as the diseases are
treated before they spread to most body parts. Veterinary medicines have a
disadvantage in that people walk long distances to the veterinary office and
sometimes the livestock inspector delays and the condition of the animal will be
worsening. Every morning, Mr.Utete inspects the cattle pen to check on the health of
his cattle and if signs of diseases are noted treatment is given immediately. The
villagers help each other with traditional medicine in the event of disease outbreak.
‘zvazvinoita manje ukaona kuti mumwewako mombe yake yarwara kutomutsvagira
mushonga unorapa womupa kuti azame kushandisa’ (what normally happens is that
when your neighbour’s cow is sick, you fetch traditional medicine and give him or her
to try). ‘Vamwe vanombouya vachibvunza kuti chirwere chakati munorapa nei?
Ndichivabatsira.’(Some people come to ask me how I treat certain diseases and I help
them).
Mari iyezvino irikunetsa kuti munhu ugare unayo asi nekuona kuti munhu
ungarasikirwa nechipfuyo chako, kwava kutomhanya kumushonga wechibhoyi’
(Money is a problem these days, we do not always have it, and we cannot lose our
livestock because of failure to buy veterinary medicine, so we now turn to traditional
medicine.)
Goats are easy to take care of because they do not require a lot of supplementary feeds
compared to cattle and chicken. They also multiply faster than cattle because a goat
can have two or more kids at the same time. They do not require a lot of water hence
one can water them from a bucket; this is an advantage especially in recent years due
to unreliable rainfall patterns which causes the rivers and dams to dry up early. Mr
Utete contends that there are very few diseases that affect goats besides tapeworms
and some stomach infections which cause diarrhoea. The aloe vera plant and soot are
21
used to treat the stomach disorders, the leaves are crushed, mixed with soot and coarse
salt and the goat is made to drink the mixture.
Chicken also multiply easily especially during the rainy season because there will be a
lot of green plants to take cover from the predators like eagles. Chicken requires the
least attention as they gather their own food and they always come back at in the
evening unlike cattle and goats that requires constant monitoring. Most of the diseases
in chicken are treated using the aloe Vera plant’s leaves which are crushed and put in
water for the chicken to drink. Chicken may also die from flea bites, these fleas are
found in the walls of the fowl run. They can be killed naturally by burning grass in the
fowl run. This is more effective than spraying chemicals which may affect the
chicken.
Mr Utete noted that knowledge on ethno veterinary medicine is shared at household
level. Men share their knowledge with their wives because they are not always around
and the wife assumes the responsibility of livestock care during the husband’s
absence. Ownership of livestock is one of the major determinants of the amount of
knowledge on indigenous livestock health care that men and women have. Though
Mr. Utete and his wife have a joint ownership of cattle, usually cattle belong to the
husband while other small stock belongs to the wife. ’Zvinonzi huku ndedzanamai
kashoma kunzwa kuti baba vane hukudzavowo’ (it is said chicken belongs to women,
it is very rare to hear that men have chicken). ‘Ruzivo rwemishonga yekurapa huku
nembudzi rwakawandira kunanamai asi vana baba ndivo vane ruzivo rwakawanda
rwemombe, mushonga yekurapa mombe vana baba ndivovanotsvaka’ (Women have
more knowledge about traditional medicines to treat diseases in poultry and goats but
men have knowledge on medicines for cattle.) Small stock belongs to women and
large stock belongs to men hence women knows about small stock more than men and
men knows more about large stock.
In general, men have more knowledge on ethno veterinary practices than women
because they are exposed to the public sphere than women. Men interact in places like
beer parties more than their female counterparts. ’zvino vanamai vashoma vanomwa,
muhwahwa munokurukurwa zvakawanda. (There are very few women who drink beer
and they miss out a lot because at beer parties we discuss a lot.) Ideas and experiences
are shared when a group of people meet and a beer party provides a good platform for
discussions on various subjects. ’Munhu kana akorwa anenge avakutaura twese
22
anenge ava kubudisa dzimwe nhau dzakadzama. (When a person is drunk he tells
everything and deep secrets are shared when someone is drunk)’Kana munhu
adhakwa anenge asisina kuomera.’(A person who is drunk is not mean with
information they share their knowledge and experience)
However, knowledge of traditional medicine is not evenly distributed even among
men. Sometimes those who know about traditional medicines make you pay so they
can tell you the medicines. If a person’s animal is sick, the medicine is fetched for
them but they are not shown the tree from which the medicine is
extracted,’vanongokucherera chete’ (they just dig the medicine for you)’unotomupa
huku kuti chindiratidzawo’ (you sometimes have to give them chicken for them to
show you the medicine.)’Zvemadzinde kashoma zvinovanzwa’ (it is very rare to show
someone the medicine, it is a secret.)’Asi kana munhu
ane uroyi hwakaipa
unobhadhara oenda newe musango okuratidza madzinde acho pakudzoka anobva ati
ufambe mberi ,akangokunongedza kugotsi chete unobva wakanganwa madzinde
aunenge waratidzwa.’ (But if the person who knows about the traditional medicine
have witchcraft and they take you to the bush to show you the trees if on your way
back they make you walk in front and they point you at the back you immediately
forget the bushes and have to pay them whenever you want to treat your animals). Mr
Utete concluded that ethno veterinary knowledge can be used as a means to earn
money and those who have this knowledge will try to keep it to themselves for
financial gain.
CASE C: Amos Moyo (not his real name)
The Veterinary Service Department appoints dip attendants who takes care of the dip
tank including regular monitoring of the supply of water and chemicals to the dip
tank. Mr. Amos Moyo is one of the dip attendants for ward twenty two. This is an
envied job that earns him respect in Gwaze village. Moyo has sixteen cattle which is
the largest herd in the village; other villagers have an average of five cattle a factor
which is attributed to diseases and lack of enough grass. He also keeps five goats and
fifteen chickens.
23
Mr Moyo argued that during the rainy season there are more livestock diseases so
cattle dip weekly or once every two weeks. Sometimes there are challenges of
shortage of chemicals, this disturb the dipping calendar. During the dry season
diseases are few so dipping is carried out once in three weeks or monthly. People who
fail to comply with dipping are made to pay fines as a way of encouraging dipping.
Another challenge that he noted is on water required for dipping. Due to low rainfall,
many streams that used to flow throughout the year are drying up soon after the rain
season. People now have to walk long distances to fetch water for dipping.
He also noted that the health of cattle has been deteriorating in recent years. During
the dry season cattle get very thin due to lack of enough grass and water. The drying
of rivers in Mr Moyo’s opinion is due to the unreliable rainfall patterns and this
affects the drinking systems of the cattle. He also noted that the size of the herd in the
area is decreasing. In the past decades the number of cattle in the area was higher as
compared to recent years. This is due to diseases that are killing cattle and the changes
in the rainfall patterns that have resulted in a long dry season and a very short rain
season. Dams and rivers are drying up due to these changes and livestock is affected
hence the herd is shrinking. He also noted that the reproduction of cattle in the area
has been very low in recent years, a factor that he attributes to the changes in weather
and rainfall patterns.
‘Kana takohwa tinochengeta mashanga echibage tozopa mombe muchirimo aposora
rinenge ravashoma’ (After harvesting, the maize stover is gathered and stored as
fodder and it is given to cattle in the dry season when the grass is insufficient.) During
the dry season the grass does not shoot and natural fodder becomes very necessary as
it supplement the animal feed requirements. Giving cattle maize stover is also a way
of controlling their movement, during the dry season cattle travel long distances in
search of grass and water. If a farmer gives his cattle Stover they will always come
back home expecting the more. Stover is given with salt to make it more nutritious
and this improves the health of the animals. This bonds the farmer and his cattle as
they will not go away from home.’Utano hwemombe dzinopiwa mashanga hurinani
panedzisingapiwi mashanga.’(Cattle which are given fodder appear healthier than
those which are not given supplementary feeds.)
24
Mr. Moyo built a very big pen which can be subdivided into three, cattle need fresh
air and a large pen allows free air circulation and this is good for the health of the
cattle.‘Mombe hadzidi kufemerana dzinofa’ (cattle need good aeration if they are
overcrowded they die.) ‘Mashanga anobatsirawo panguva yekunaya nekuti mombe
hadzidi kugara pakanyorova, tinoisamashanga mudanga kuti mombe dzigare
pakaoma.’ (The maize stover also helps in the rain season when the pen is so dump,
we put the maize plants in the pen to create a dry surface for cattle.)
The aloe vera plant is used to treat diseases in goats and chicken. Aloe is a plant
which is very common in the area and the advantage of using it lies in its ready
availability. Mr. Moyo uses only the medicines approved by the veterinary services
department to treat diseases in cattle.
‘Dambudziko rine mishonga yedu yechibhoyi nderekuti hauzive kutiwawandisa here
kana kuti waita mushoma’ (The problem with traditional medicines is that we are not
sure of the dosage whether you have given too much or too little.) It is therefore wise
to use approved medicines with direction for use. Some people use barks and leaves
of trees such as custard apple and meliaazearach are used to treat diseases in cattle.
Cattle and other livestock needs proper care this reduces their chances of catching
diseases. He argued that in the past people used to take good care of their livestock
but nowadays livestock is neglected. Livestock was a measure of wealth; nowadays it
is how much money in the bank account that determines one’s wealth. Mr. Moyo’s
cattle do not suffer from diseases as other cattle in the village due to proper
management and the use of modern veterinary medicines which he access by the
virtue of being an employee of the veterinary service department.
CASE D: Grace Mhepo (not her real name)
This case illustrates that some single women have in-depth knowledge on the various
ways of caring for livestock including their doctoring. Grace is thirty two, she have
two children who are aged six and four. Her husband left her four years ago, he is
now married to another wife and they are staying in Mutoko. Grace accepted her fate
and took over the care of the children as well as the overall responsibility of the
household. She has two cows, four goats and eight chickens. She performs some of
25
the tasks that are considered as men’s tasks like maintaining the cattle pen and dosing
cattle.
She noted that cattle are not reproducing as fast as they used to do due to some
changes in the rainfall patterns that have affected the watering and feeding systems of
the livestock. When cattle do not get enough grass and water their health is affected
and this affects their reproduction as well. Calves also die from diseases and so the
herds remain very low. The health of the calves is also affected when the cows do not
eat enough and if they lack adequate water. This would mean low production of milk
and the health of the cows is compromised.’ Mukaka unodzivirira kuzvirwere
zvakasiyana siyana, kana mhuru ikashaya mukaka utano hwayo hunenge
hwavapanjodzi. ’ (Milk contains antibodies which help the calf fight diseases, if a calf
does not have enough milk it is at a high risk of contracting diseases .) Changes in
rainfall patterns have increased diseases in goats they also get thin due to lack of
enough grass. Chicken production is also disturbed when there is crop failure because
the harvest will not be enough to support the farmer as well as sustain chicken
production. Chickens are sold to buy food for people hence their production is greatly
reduced when there is a drought.
Grace uses ethno veterinary medicines to treat diseases in livestock like most farmers
in her village though they are not encouraged by the veterinary department.‘Mishonga
yekuvhetinari ndiyo yatinonokurudzirwa kumadhibha nekumisangano’ (we are
encouraged to use medicines from the veterinary department when we go for dipping
and at meetings.) The problem with veterinary medicines is that they are very
expensive especially for people in the rural areas who do not have an income base.
‘Ko tinoiwanepi mari mwanangu muno mumaruwa ‘(where do we get the money my
son here in the rural areas?)
‘Pane mushonga yechibhoyi yekurapa mombe yakaita se godzongo, munhanzva ne
muroro inobatsirachaizvo’ (There are some traditional medicines that cure diseases in
cattle such as aloe vera, pauzzoziamixta and custard apple that are very helpful.)
However Grace noted that the problem with traditional medicines is that they are
known by individuals, the knowledge is not evenly distributed. There are some people
who know a lot of herbs and trees that cure livestock diseases but they monopolize
that knowledge. ‘Unogona kufirwa nemombe asi mumwe achiziva mushonga asingadi
kukutaurira.’ (Your cow may die when you have a neighbour who knows about
traditional medicines) Most people just know of common plants like aloe vera yet
26
there are many plants which cure diseases in cattle, those who know more keeps it to
them. On the other hand veterinary medicines are also very expensive hence the
farmers like Grace cannot rely on them, very few people afford veterinary medicines.
‘Dambudziko rinozouya paunenge usina mari usina kana sendimuhomwe, ndipo
panorwara chipfuwo.Kuti utore mazuva uchitswaga mari mombe inobva yafa.
‘(Problems often come when we have no money, your cow can get sick and if you
delay to get medication looking for money the cow may die.) Grace practices other
traditional methods of livestock care to cope with the drought conditions that are often
experienced in the area. She stores maize stover after harvesting and also cut grass
soon after harvesting when the grass is long and store it for his cattle. These are
natural methods of supplementing food for cattle in the dry season. Although these
methods had been forgotten, people are now reintroducing them in recent times
because of changes in weather and rainfall patterns. Many people had stopped storing
the maize plants and grass for cattle but nowadays it is now necessary and almost
every farmer is doing it because of the changes in rainfall patterns. Farmers are now
realizing that the rainfall patterns have changed thus the rains are becoming more
unpredictable. This affects livestock and therefore they have reverted to the natural
ways of fodder preservation to maintain the good health of their cattle. ‘Taimboita
majana ekufudza mombe asiiyezvino takaregedza nekuti mombe hadzichaguti.’ (We
used to take turns to herd our cattle in groups but we have stopped this system of
herding a large group of cattle because the cattle are not getting enough grass.) Grace
also argued that even the methods of herding livestock are being transformed in
favour of small groups or individual herding because of the shortage of pastures.
Grace argued that the production of goats has not been affected much by the changes
in weather and rainfall patterns. Goats do not suffer from many diseases but when the
rain is too much their hooves are affected and they have problems in walking. They
easily multiply as they can have more than one kid at a time. Grace could not name
any specific diseases in goats. She argued that goats do not succumb to diseases as
often as cattle. However soot and aloe are used to cure diseases in goats. A mixture of
Coca-Cola (coke) and soot may also be used to cure diarrhoea and bloat in goats.
Chicken production is easy for Grace because she keeps them on free range and they
gather their own food like locusts, plants and grains. Free range chicken production is
labor free as there is no herding, the chickens gather their food around the homestead
27
and they know when it is time to get back home. ‘Huku hadzisikanganisiwe
nekusanaya zvakanaka kwemvura.’ Chicken is more draught resistant as compared to
cattle which may die when there is a draught. ‘Huku dzinorapwa negodzongo
nechina’i asi vamwe ndivovanotenga mushonga yemisitoro sana ESB3.’ (Aloe vera
and soot is used to treat diseases in chicken but some people buy medicines from the
shops such as ESB3)Aloe vera is very effective and has an advantage of curing all
diseases in chicken. The leaves of the plant are cut and squashed and put in water for
the chicken to drink. Another advantage with African medicines that Grace noted is
that one plant can cure diseases in all livestock species. Aloe is used for cattle, goats
as well as chicken and it can also cure certain diseases in human beings. ‘Mishonga
yechirungu iyi kana uriwe huku unongopa huku chete kana mombe ikarwara kwava
kutotswaga mari yekutenga mushonga wemombe. Haukwanise kupa huku mushonga
wemombe.’ (With these modern medicines one cannot give cattle the same medicine
that you give to chicken.) She argued that modern veterinary medicines are species
and disease specific hence this waste more money whereas African medicine can
work for all livestock species.
CASE E: Jessica Vambe (not her real name)
Mrs Vambe is fifty three years old, has lived in Guruve for the past thirty three years,
she was born in Mt Darwin and she came to Guruve when she got married to Cliff
Vambe a resident of Mutova village. Mrs Vambe and her husband keep six goats,
forty chickens and ten cattle and they also grow maize and sorghum. Part of their
harvest is preserved for stock feeds which they also supplement with other natural
methods like storing grass and maize Stover
‘Mamiriro ekunze arikushanduka, gore ne gore rinemamiriro aro sakavarimi
hatichazive chekuita.’ (The climate is changing, we are observing changes every year
therefore it is difficult for us to make any predictions.) She noted that the rainfall
patterns are becoming unreliable and most rivers and dams are drying up, this poses a
challenge to livestock production. She attributed the increase in livestock diseases to
the changes in the seasons. They are now experiencing long winters and, goats and
chicken are affected by the prolonged winter and sometimes death of livestock occurs.
‘Chando chacho chava kunonoka kupera , kunomuka kuchitonhora iyezvino muna
28
September zvaisaitika kare ,kwaifanira kutopisa tobva taziva kuti mvura yava pedyo
kunaya zvino zvemakore ano hapachina achaziva’ (The winters are becoming very
long , in the morning it is very cold though we are in September now this never used
to happen in the past. Instead it must be very hot so that we are sure that the rains are
about to fall.) The rain season have been altered, the rains are coming very late from
mid-November onwards. This affects the health of cattle, goats and donkeys as fresh
grass is enjoyed for a short time. Even cattle and goats which browse are affected by
the length of the dry season as some shrubs and trees will be dry for long periods. She
also argued that the health of cattle does not improve much during the rainy season as
they are overworked in the fields. Cattle used to enjoy the carefree season when there
will be no ploughing going on but these days it is the most difficult season for
livestock because of depleted pastures and the drying of water sources. Livestock also
depends on good crop yields and their health is affected when there is crop failure
because there will be less maize stover for cattle. Mrs Vambe observed that for the
past five years their harvests had been very low and this meant that livestock did not
have enough food.
Mrs Vambe noted that the farmers have developed some coping mechanisms to the
problem of depleted pastures. People are now herding their cattle in faraway places
and hills because the pasture has been depleted and some pastures were cleared to
create land for farming and building houses. They also travel long distances to water
the livestock because rivers and streams are drying up early. Under these conditions,
the production of cattle is declining and supplementary feeds becomes a necessity.
There has been an increase in diseases in recent years which are attributable to the
changes in rainfall and weather patterns. Common diseases in this area are black leg,
heart water and red water. Custard apple’s leaves and bark are crushed and given to
sick animals to drink. ‘Takatanga tichishandisa mushonga ye vetinari chete
asinekuwanda kurikuita zvirwere zvemombe takapedzisira totsvaga mishonga yedu
yechibhoyi isingadimari.’ (At first we were using veterinary medicines only but with
the increase in livestock diseases we ended up looking for African medicines which
do not cost us money.)
Goat production has not been affected much by the climatic shocks that has been
experienced in the area in recent years. Mrs Vambe contends that there is very little
ethno veterinary knowledge on goats because of their strong immune system. She
added that the farmers in the area had little knowledge about ethno veterinary care of
29
goats than cattle. ‘Kashoma kunzwa kuti mbudzi yarwara’ (It is very rare for goats to
succumb to diseases). This is the reason why people do not know a lot about the
diseases that affect goats; if they are given proper care they do not easily get diseases.
Goats do not need supplementary feeds as do cattle so goat production has less labour
for the farmer.
‘Padzinenge dzichidya tukwenzi dzinodya mushonga saka dzinenge dzichitozvirapa’
(When they browse they eat some shrubs with medicinal properties that cure
diseases). Mrs Vambe also argued that goats are drought resistant because they eat so
many things, even dry leaves hence they are not easily affected by droughts as cattle
do. Soot, aloe and coke are used to treat stomach disorders in goats. Aloe is crushed
and mixed with water and the goats are made to drink. Coca cola (coke) is effective
for diarrhoea, a 300ml coke is mixed with soot and shaken, it is left to settle for about
fifteen minutes and it is the sick goat is made to drink. After six to seven hours, the
goat would have recovered.
Chicken is produced under free range management where the chickens move freely in
search of locusts, some edible plants and grains. They are given some small grains
like Sorghum and crushed maize. The fowl run is constructed in a way that allows
free air circulation. Chicken needs good ventilation, lack of proper ventilation results
in deaths. The common diseases in chicken that Mrs Vambe noted are coccidiosis and
Newcastle. The veterinary department warns us if there is an outbreak of diseases like
Newcastle in the area. This is important as it helps people to avoid eating the chicken
which dies from the disease which may put their health at risk. Mrs Vambe uses
traditional medicines to cure diseases in chicken. She usually uses aloe vera and soot
to treat diseases in chicken. These medicines are very effective for many diseases in
chicken. Chicken also have an advantage in that when they feed they often pick some
grains of sand and eat some plant leaves which enhances their immunity to diseases.
On the distribution of ethno veterinary knowledge on gender lines, Mrs Vambe
maintained that that men know more about large stock such as cattle and donkeys but
women have more in-depth knowledge about goats and chicken which are considered
as stock for women. However when the husband is in town, the women takes over the
care of cattle and women whose husbands are away, widows and single women
knows a great deal about care for cattle. ‘Kana baba varipo tinenge tichingoti
ndezvevarume hatina basa nazvo asi kana vasipo tinotomira-mira’ (When the
30
husband is there we ignore about caring for cattle because it is a men’s area but when
they are not there we take over.) Women have more knowledge about care and
doctoring of goats and chicken because they are considered as stock for women. The
women have knowledge on the care of small stock than men and most of the things
that men know about the health care of these livestock were learnt from women.
Naturally women know more about chicken because they spend most of their time at
home than men and so they observe the health of chicken. ‘Kufudza mombe ibasa
rechirume, vanamai tinongoitawo kana pasinavana baba nevakomana’ (Herding
cattle is men’s duty women do it when men and boys are not around.) This explains
why they know a great deal about the trees that are used to cure diseases in cattle.
They spent more time in the bush herding cattle than women and so they are bound to
have more knowledge about the care of cattle.
CASE F: Thomas Kondo (not his real name)
Mr. Kondo is the Animal Health Inspector for Guruve District in the Veterinary
Services Department. He has worked in Guruve for the past fifteen years; he has also
worked in Manicaland and Masvingo which makes him familiar with livestock
production in various farming regions. There are only four animal health inspectors
who work in the twenty four wards of Guruve, which undermines the effectiveness of
their work. The inspector’s job involves visiting farmers and inspecting various
livestock projects. They also hold some workshops to educate farmers on various
aspects of livestock production.
The changes in rainfall patterns are evidence of climate change and this affects the
production of livestock because of lack of feeds and adequate water. ‘Panenzizi
dzanga dzisingaperi dzavakupera mvura, mombe dzava kunwakure’(There are some
rivers which used to flow all year round but they are now drying up and cattle now
travel long distances to get water)
The planting season delays and it quickly cuts, Mr Kondo noted that it never used to
be like that. In the past, the first rains would come in October, which is when ZJC
students were writing their examinations. The ZJC students helped their parents with
planting because the first rains were experienced in October.’ Kanadai fomu2
yainyorwa nhasi uno vana ava hapana chavanenge vachiita nekuti mvura
yavakunonoka kunaya mazuva ano’ (Even if the ZJC examinations were to be re31
introduced the candidates will be idle after the examinations because the rains are
coming very late.) If the season delays, cattle become very thin their health is already
disturbed due to lack of grass and water. Low rainfall means poor harvest and there is
not enough grain to spare for livestock. If there is a bumper harvest part of the harvest
is reserved for livestock and their health is improved.
If the rain season is long, quality grass will be enjoyed by livestock for long. Green
grass is nutritious and because of climate change cattle spent long time grazing dry
grass which is not very nutritious and this obviously impacts on their growth; weight
and general wellbeing. Cattle are getting very thin and this is the situation in many
parts of Guruve.
The farmer is now forced to limit the number of livestock that he /she keep because of
the changes in rainfall patterns that have contributed to dry spells. Farmers are now
forced to look for alternative water sources. Milking cows die if rains delay because
they need more food to produce enough milk for their calves the calves also die due to
lack of enough milk. Livestock relies on crop yields especially poultry and piggery. If
there is crop failure, projects of livestock such as poultry and piggery are disturbed
and in some cases such projects stop and livestock is sold for the survival of the
farmer.
Crop failure also affects livestock production in the sense that the value of livestock
drops. The farmer resorts to barter trade to survive. A bull may cost half a tonne of
maize and a bird of chicken may be exchanged for a tin of maize. ‘Unogona kuwana
huku ichichinjiswa negaroni rechibage. ’For example in 2008, the value of livestock
was greatly reduced because of the draught. There is also a shortage of stock feeds
and they are very expensive because what is normally considered as food for livestock
is taken by people. ‘Muna 2008 makireshi aigaiwa vanhu vachiita sadza.’(In 2008
some of the stock feeds were converted into food for people).
The livestock inspector also acknowledged that some herbs with therapeutic value are
used by farmers for ethno veterinary medicine. Aloe vera plant, snail shell is used to
treat eyes; soot and pumpkin leaves are used to cure various diseases in livestock. The
snail’s shell is used to treat eyes in cattle, goats, pigs and donkeys. Pumpkin leaves
are used for stomach related problems in pigs. The aloe vera plant is used for various
diseases in most livestock species. Some of the traditional medicines like aloe vera
are very effective. The inspector also noted that livestock diseases are increasing; with
32
new diseases like heart water and dematophilisis claiming a number of livestock in
the district. The advantage of indigenous knowledge of animal health care lies in their ready
availability and affordability of such medicines.
The government is promoting small livestock like goats and chicken. Small stocks
have better chances of survival in the event of droughts. He referred to previous
experiences like in 1992 when there was a severe drought which killed a lot of cattle
and donkeys; only about 5% of the cattle survived the drought in areas such as
Masvingo, most large cattle died leaving calves. Goats and chicken survived the
drought because of their low feed requirement. The Department of Veterinary
Services is promoting small stock production because of the increased frequency in
droughts due to climate change.
The department also encourages of fodder preservation. ‘ Tavakukurudzira kuti kana
varimi vakohwa vaunganidze mashanga vomachengeta. ’ (we are now encouraging
farmers to preserve maize stover after harvesting.)This ensures that cattle will have
supplementary food in the dryer season. Maize stover is the commonest type of
natural fodder the farmers can use. Forage is sold in shops but very few communal
farmers affords it hence it is necessary to gather maize stover which is readily
available.
The Veterinary Service Department does not encourage the use of traditional
veterinary medicines because of lack of clear standardized dosage instructions. The
withdrawal period of such drugs is also not clear. Drugs take various periods to leave
the blood stream of an animal and there are times when it is not allowed to eat the
meat of that animal. Since there is no clear period in traditional medicines, the lives of
people may be put on risk. Side effects of such medicines are not known, the overdose
or under dose are not known also. ‘Kungoitira murima’ (they just dose unknowingly.)
In case of overdose there is no remedy to reverse the side effects and so the veterinary
department does not encourage such medicines. Overdose may kill the animal and
under dose does not kill the bacteria or infection, this may result in resistance and a
more powerful drug will be required. Therefore the Veterinary service department
recommends prescribed medicines that are approved. Farmers can get the medicines
from various hardware shops. Farmers are encouraged to visit the veterinary office if
they see symptoms of diseases and the officers will advise them accordingly. Farmers
33
are also encouraged to dip their cattle; this will reduce the spread of tick-borne
diseases. The department has introduced fines to make the farmers comply with the
dipping calendar.
CASE G: Servious Mano (not his real name)
Mr Mano is the district livestock specialist for Guruve in The Department of
Livestock Production and Development. He has worked in Guruve for the past eleven
years which makes him more familiar with climate change in the district. His job
involves training farmers on various ways of livestock care and monitoring livestock
projects like dairy, piggery and chicken projects. He also visit communal farmers to
inspect on the various methods of livestock care and gives them technical support. A
motor cycle helps him to cover the large district which stretches to Dande valley.
Small stock production is encouraged because they require less food compared to
large stock. He observed that climate change has reduced the feeds for animals due to
variations in rainfall patterns and temperature levels. The grass for livestock is
becoming insufficient due to low rainfall. Droughts are being experienced more often
than in the past. In case of a drought, small stocks have a higher possibility of
survival.
Goats graze and browse hence they can survive even when the pasture is depleted.
They also require less water compared to cattle. One can water goats from a borehole
but it is laborious to do the same for cattle. Disease tolerance of small stock is higher
and hence survival under unfavorable conditions higher. Goats multiply quickly; a
goat may have 3-4 kids at once. The gestation period for goats is also shorter, 5
months versus 9 months or so for cattle. Goats browse some trees which are not
browsed by cattle. This naturally improves their immunity, ‘kana nyoka ikaruma
mbudzi inogona kurarama asi nyoka ikaruma mombe inogona kufa’ (if a snake bites a
goat it can survive but if that same snake bites cattle it may die.)
Small stock also provides a quick source of meat for example goats can be
slaughtered at three months while it may take a long period for a cow to be
slaughtered. It is easy for people to sell a goat to meet the immediate needs of the
household like food, while it is more of a taboo to dispose large stock because of their
cultural significance. Management of small stock is not demanding than that of large
34
stock. They do not require dipping, even if goats not given medication, their health
will be good. ‘Ukatodzidhoza unogona kutodziuraya.’(Dosing may kill the goats).
The Department of Livestock Production and Development acknowledges the value
of traditional veterinary medicines. Due to the drug policies of the country, the
Department can not recommend unapproved drugs for the farmers hence it cannot
openly recommend ethno veterinary medicines. He also contends that there have been
little research on indigenous knowledge of animal health care and as a result this area
is neglected.
When goats browse they take a lot of herbs and even if the veld is depleted goats can
survive and even in dry conditions they can also survive for example in natural
regions four and five goats do well there but there are drought conditions in these
areas like Dande and Matabeleland. Mr Mano acknowledged that some of the
traditional medicines for animal health care really work. The farmers argue that they
have always used them though some may prove fatal. LPD encourages the farmers to
use modern veterinary medicines and natural medicines. From his experiences with
the farmers, Mr Mano argues that the farmers want small stock projects because they
are experiencing climate change. However there are is some resistance because of the
value that is traditionally attached to cattle and other large stock like donkeys.
Traditionally cattle have the highest value due to its role in traditional Shona culture.
The Shona people believe that every home should have a bull for the ancestors which
protect the home. There is also a belief that to be man enough, one must own cattle.
Men think that small stock is for women, ‘mbudzi nehuku ndedzaamai mombe ndedza
baba’ (goats and chicken belong to the wife and cattle belong to the husband) In
terms of decision making the women make decision for small stock whilst man make
decision for large stock. It also follows that women are responsible for the care of
chicken and goats including their doctoring while men are responsible for large stock
like cattle and donkeys. Naturally men tend to know more about methods of
indigenous veterinary care for cattle and donkeys as women are more familiar with
chicken and goats and they have considerable knowledge about their health.
CASE G: Owen Popera (not his real name)
Lower Guruve Development Association is both an individual and group membership
organization representing the interests of the poor in Guruve district. Its activities
35
were mainly in the Zambezi valley but now it has spread to other parts of Guruve. It
was registered in 1991 as a private voluntary organization. Mr. Popera is the Project
officer for the chicken project that Lower Guruve Development Association is
implementing in partnership with FAO and the Department of Livestock Production
and Development which provides technical support. Lower Guruve Development
Association has implemented other projects like the livestock project in Mbire aimed
at improving the health and feeding systems of livestock. The cattle would be sold at
higher prices and they provide draught power.
Lower Guruve Development Association is working with FAO in implementing a
project for layers. FAO is funding the project and LGDA is involved as implementing
partners because LGDA have other projects in the district. Each ward is given 50
layers at the point of laying, concentrate feeds for the lifespan of the chicken and
medical kits. The advantage of chicken production over other livestock species is that
it is the lowest cost stock which even the poor can afford. There are very few
households which do not keep chicken. Mr Popera argues that chicken production is
not new to anyone in the district as almost every household is keeping chicken or
have done so in the past. Though he admits that the layers project will be different to
the free range chicken production that most families practice, the advantage is that the
people already have some knowledge on chicken production. This project is a little bit
different as the chicken are caged and fed in the fowl runs that have been constructed
to LGDA and FAO specifications. The farmers will be capacitated with knowledge to
keep chicken including feeding and doctoring them.
The project was well received by the community because of the benefits it offers to
them. Their income base will be expanded as they begin to sell the eggs. The project
is a way of empowering the farmers not only in terms of financial gains but the
knowledge of poultry production is a very useful asset. However, there may be some
resistance because the people have their own ways of curing diseases in chicken like
using aloe vera and china’i (soot), using tetracycline or ESB3 may be strange to them
hence Mr Popera feared that the medical kits might not be used. The farmers
supported the project because most of their income generating sources has been
disturbed by poor rainfall. Small scale irrigation projects are disturbed by the drying
of rivers leaving the farmers without an income base. Some farmers used to earn some
36
money through selling milk; this was also disturbed by the depletion of pastures and
lack of enough water which reduced the production of milk.
He also noted the problem of knowledge imposition as the project does not take into
account local knowledge, experiences or culture. It is a one size fits all for example
the farmers are asked to build standardized fowl runs with the same size and
dimension in the whole district. This has caused some problems with other farmers.
There is also a challenge of coordination of the major stakeholders, as representatives
from FAO and LPD fail to attend crucial meetings with the farmers. Some of the
questions that the farmers ask are not answered because the technical staff from the
department of livestock production and development will not be available.
37
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
This section explains the research findings on climate change, adaptation, livestock
production and ethno veterinary practices using the structuration theory to fully
explore the relationship between the farmers and the government departments and
NGOs in adapting livestock production systems to climate change.
Climate change, adaptation and ethno veterinary practices
The farmers interviewed in this study demonstrated an understanding of climate
change. The effects to livestock production were also understood. Though the farmers
were not taught about climate change the changing trends in rainfall patterns gave
them enough evidence that the climate is changing. Most farmers acknowledged some
changing trends in weather and rainfall patterns. According to Giddens (1984)
structures constrains individuals’ behaviour and they are beyond their control.
Therefore one may argue that climate change represents structure as it constrains the
farmers, at the same time these farmers cannot control the environmental changes.
Jesca Vambe commented on extreme weather conditions like prolonged winters.
According to Heltberg et al (2008) the earth’s climate is changing and extreme
weather events like hurricanes, storms, heat waves, flooding and droughts are likely to
become more common. Though the farmers do not know about green house gases and
technical terms like global warming, CFC, they certainly know about aspects of
climate change which infringes on them most that is the change in rainfall patterns.
‘Mamiriro ekunze ari kushanduka’ (the weather patterns are changing.) These were
the words used by farmers for climate change. Local knowledge, according to Ryle
(1949:60) appears to be about ‘knowing how’ than ‘knowing that’.
The relationship between greenhouse gases and climate change is not very useful to
the farmers, what they know is that the weather and rainfall patterns are changing. It
takes some education for one to know the terms like climate change but every farmer
understood the impact it had on livestock. Grandin and Young (1994) assert that
indigenous knowledge is not always explicit, farmers may not always be able to
articulate what they know, and they just practice it (tacit knowledge). Therefore, the
38
farmers may not be able to explain the causes of climate change but they can are
observing some changes and they are ready to mitigate the effects of these changes on
livestock production. Various answers ranging from two to ten years were given when
the researcher asked the farmers how long they had observed the changes in rainfall
and weather patterns. This demonstrated that some farmers were quick to observe
changes in weather and rainfall while it took some time for others to realize that the
climate is changing. The various responses that were given on the length of time the
farmers had observed changes in climate also shows that people do not interpret
events in the same way, but if the trends occur for some time people will have
consensus in interpreting the events in a uniform way.
The farmers did not know about the causes of climate change. Stokes (2009) noted
that greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrate are both primarily increased
through agricultural practices such as land clearing, soil degradation, fires and
ruminants. Lack of knowledge about the causes of climate change increases the
vulnerability of the farmers to climate change as they may continue with some
agricultural practices that cause climate change. Cain Mbira, Grace Mhepo and
Jessica Vambe maintained that the rainfall patterns are changing and the timing of the
first rains have changed. The rainfall season is becoming shorter and this impact on
livestock production as grass and water for livestock is reduced. They also observed
that these changes also increase diseases in livestock a point noted by Thorton et al
(2008). ‘Changes in rainfall patterns may influence the expansion of vectors during
the rainy season leading to an outbreak of diseases.’ According to FAO (2008)
‘Among the direct effects of climate change for example there will be higher
temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns, translating in an increased spread of
existing diseases and micro parasites in animals as well as emergence and spread of
new diseases.’
Some respondents attributed the reduction of their herds to climate change. Tirivanhu
Utete used to keep many cattle but his herd was reduced to four due to various
diseases. Amos Moyo who is a dip tank attendant said the number of cattle in the area
is decreasing. Seo and Mendelsohn (2006) also made a similar observation ‘in general
all spells will be burnt by warming and so there will be fewer animals per farm. Beef
39
are especially vulnerable it is predicted that climate change will cause beef cattle to
decrease, sheep and goats to increase.’
Among the respondents only one farmer, Amos Moyo does not use ethno veterinary
medicine for his cattle. Being a dip tank attendant one may conclude that he is an
employee of the veterinary department hence his bias towards veterinary medicines.
This confirms Long’s assertion that even when individuals are confronted with similar
structural circumstances, with conditions that appear to be relatively homogenous
Long (1992:21) they still had differential responses. The utilisation of ethno
veterinary medicines therefore is not the same among the farmers. There are some like
Mr Moyo who because of their background distances themselves from ethno
veterinary practice. It would be wrong to assume that all the small holder farmers are
the same because they are affected by similar conditions. Accessibility of veterinary
medicine becomes an important issue. Veterinary medicines are not accessible to most
farmers because of their cost. Moyo as a dip tank attendant could have access to
veterinary medicines hence he uses it for his cattle only and nothing else. He admitted
that plants like aloe vera are effective in curing most diseases especially in small
stock like chicken. However he was quick to point out that traditional medicine does
not have clear dosage instructions, a point that was also emphasized by the veterinary
inspector. This shows that various actors have their own perceptions about ethno
veterinary practices which are influenced by their background. Farmers like Mr Mbira
advocated for a return to traditional ways of animal health care arguing that traditional
methods had been practiced effectively by their fathers. The same herbs could be used
to treat many diseases. Jessica Vambe noted that traditional medicine had an
advantage in that herbs like aloe could be used on many livestock species like
chicken, cattle, pigs and goats.
Traditional medicine is often dismissed on the
grounds of testability however the researcher noted that these methods were tested
over many years from generation to generation. This is similar to the clinical tests that
are done on modern veterinary medicine. Mr Moyo dismissed traditional medicine as
unapproved, yet these medicines are approved traditionally.
Mr Tirivanhu Utete an ethno veterinary herbalist demonstrated that there are dosage
instructions that are followed when administering traditional medicine. He explained
how they measure the mixture in a 300ml bottle when treating lump skin. This
40
contrasts with the popular assumption held by the veterinary department that there are
no clear dosage instructions followed in traditional medicine. Mr Utete’s case clearly
demonstrates that there is knowledge of overdose and under dose and their effect on
livestock hence the medicine is measured. This suggests that the local people have
knowledge on many aspects of animal health including the correct dosage. According
to Mararike (1999),’for people to survive one of the strategies required is the
application of relevant and appropriate knowledge. Such knowledge should give
people confidence to tackle life threatening problems and enable them to meet internal
and external challenges.’ The knowledge of ethno veterinary medicine is used by
farmers in ward 22, Guruve to cope with livestock diseases under climate change. As
noted by Mr Mbira, indigenous knowledge had been negated, but it is now very useful
because of the threat that climate change is posing to livestock production. Some
farmers are using ethno veterinary medicine exclusively because of lack of money.
The prices of some of the veterinary medicines are too high and they have to walk
very long distances to the veterinary office. This has pushed most farmers to utilize
what is both cheap and locally available. Guruve has a variety of trees and herbs that
can be used to treat a number of livestock diseases plants like aloe are spread
throughout the ward. The farmers are planting some of the trees at their homesteads to
make them more readily available and to protect these plants and trees from veld fires.
As noted by Mararike (1999) knowledge represents a form of power. Modern
veterinary medicines are supported by government institutions like the department of
Veterinary services. They impose to the farmers what they perceive as the right ways
of caring for animals. On the other side, there are no institutions that openly support
ethno veterinary medicine. The drug policy of this country does not allow the
prescription of unapproved drugs. This in a way suppresses indigenous knowledge
and it will not grow. There is very little research on indigenous knowledge despite the
several advantages that IKS has over modern scientific knowledge. Some of the
modern veterinary medicines are manufactured by transnational companies like Pfizer
which are profit driven. It is clear that ethno veterinary medicines are good for the
farmers because they are cheap. However farmers are discouraged from using ethno
veterinary medicines which they can afford and are locally available.
This amounts
to what Chang (2002) termed kicking away the ladder. Thus by discouraging ethno
veterinary medicines the veterinary service department is deliberately hindering small
holder livestock production. Mr Cain Mbira noted that indigenous knowledge is now
41
being shunned as primitive and backward. Poverty and climate change is pushing the
farmers to reintroduce ethno veterinary practices which had been neglected. For
Giddens (1986), social structures are not only constraining the behaviour of agents but
they are also enablers. The maintaining of this balanced view is the duality of
structure. In line with this view, poverty and climate change are structures which are
over and above the farmers. However, climate change and poverty also enabled the
farmers to reconsider ethno veterinary practices which most farmers admitted were
facing extinction due to decades of neglect. Most farmers are constrained by lack of
money to buy modern veterinary medicines as evidenced by the over use of the phrase
‘unenge usina mari’ (you won’t be having any money) in the majority of the cases. If
these farmers had money, they could be using modern veterinary medicines
exclusively. This shows that some farmers are still viewing modern veterinary
medicines as superior. The rural elite like Amos Moyo who earn some money from
his services as a dip attendant do not use ethno veterinary medicines. Though all the
farmers interviewed had some knowledge on ethno veterinary medicine, the
utilization of that knowledge is determined by one’s financial status. Those who had
some financial base used modern veterinary medicine because they afford the high
costs of such medicines.
The advent of modern veterinary medicines has in a way contributed to the decay of
the use of ethno veterinary medicine ,and traditional medicines have been substituted
by pharmacy, remedies, however, the costs, the inaccessibility and other factors
associated with veterinarian system has contributed to the persistence of ethno
veterinary medicine. Guruve district is endowed with a variety of trees and herbs that
are used for ethno veterinary medicine. According to Matekaire and Bwakura (2004),
ethno veterinary base differs from region to region and also among and within
communities. It implies that each society has its own ethno veterinary base which is
determined by the diversity of the trees that are found in the area. Ethno veterinary
medicines are based on local resources; this gives them a comparative advantage over
pharmaceutical drugs whose availability is not always guaranteed. Tirivanhu Utete
tends a large herbal garden; this is local knowledge of preserving the stocks of
traditional medicines from veld fires that destroy many plants in the dry season.
Herbal gardens also make these medicines more readily available as they are often
situated at the backyard.
42
Other methods of livestock care like fodder preservation are used by farmers in
Guruve to cope with climate change. According to Ginat and Khazanov (1998) over
the last century rangelands have been stressed by overuse, the infringement of
cultivation and unfavourable policies. Coping mechanisms becomes very necessary
for sustainable livestock production under depleted pastures. Most farmers preserve
maize stover after harvesting as supplementary feed for the dry season when grass
will be dry and insufficient. Amos Moyo believes that giving his cattle maize stover
improves their health. Nathan Mhepo agrees with Moyo that giving cattle maize
stover reduces the labour of looking for cattle, if cattle are conditioned to receive
stover at a certain time , which is mostly in the evening., they always return home in
expectation of more food. A bond is created between the farmer and his/her cattle by
giving them maize stover. There are a lot of cases of stock theft during the care free
season, but cattle which are given maize stover do not go very far away from home,
this reduces the risk of stock theft. Farmers also cut the long grass during the rainy
season and preserve it for fodder during the dry season. Three resection kraals are
very common in Guruve, during the rainy season, the cattle kraal becomes very damp
and there is need for the farmer to move the cattle to the other sections which will be
relatively drier. The risk of diseases is reduced when the kraal is drier.
Chicken and goats and sheep do not require a lot of supplementary food. Jessica
Vambe noted that goats can eat dry leaves hence they can survive under drought
conditions. Chicken feeds from locusts and other plants which increase their chances
of surviving even the most severe drought. The farmers ensure that the kraal for goats
is properly roofed. Goats are easily affected by rain and they die if they are
continuously exposed to damp conditions. Proper care of livestock therefore is more
important to livestock production than knowledge of doctoring. Creating a healthy
environment for livestock reduces their chances of getting diseases. The importance
of livestock care in ensuring good health is also emphasized by Forse (1998) who
noted that sheep and goats in some villages in West Java Indonesia are now free from
intestinal worms because of how the animals are kept. They are kept in bamboo sheds
and their droppings fall through the gaps in the slatted floor of the shed and the life
cycle of the worms is broken. There are some indigenous ways of controlling flees
that the farmers use, they burn grass inside the fowl run. This is a way of killing the
43
fleas; this method is both cheap and safer than spraying chemicals which may kill the
chicken.
The ways of herding livestock are transforming in order to adapt to climate change. In
the past, the farmers in ward 22 used the traditional method majana (taking turns to
herd livestock). Today this method of herding livestock in large groups is no longer
applicable. It had several advantages as it gave farmers more time to do other things,
one would herd cattle for one week in a month. Despite the advantage that this
method had, it was abandoned to adapt to the changes in rainfall patterns. The grass is
becoming insufficient for livestock; the increase in population also means a reduction
in grazing land to create more land for cultivation. Herding livestock individually
makes it possible to graze on limited areas between farm land, and on strips. Smaller
groups of livestock are easy to drive to the mountains where they browse a variety of
trees as well as graze. Watering of few livestock becomes easier due to the limited
water sources as many rivers are drying up. This shows that the livestock care systems
are dynamic; they transform to suit the prevailing conditions hence they are adapting
to climate change.
The role played by the government and NGOs in improving livestock production
under climate change
The department of veterinary services is encouraging farmers to dip their cattle
regularly as a way of fighting the spread of tick borne diseases. Servious Mano the
veterinary inspector for Guruve district admitted that there has been an increase in
livestock diseases. The department has introduced some fines as a punitive measure
for farmers who neglect dipping cattle. Giddens (1984) noted that all human action is
performed within the context of pre-existing social structure which is governed by a
set of norms and laws. The department of veterinary services therefore is one of the
social structures that govern livestock production it operates with the aid of punitive
measures against noncompliance like fines. The department also helps the farmer with
information of any outbreak of diseases. Information dissemination is very important
as it empowers the farmers to take preventive measures against the prevailing
diseases. The department also stocks various drugs and medicines which are sold to
farmers whenever they need them. The inspectors from the department are available
44
to farmer’s consultations. However, the farmers are not satisfied with the service they
receive from the veterinary department. This confirms Khazanov (1994)’s point that
communities which utilises range resources are predominantly poor and have been
persistently overlooked by planners and policy makers.
Cain Mbira blamed the
department for the loss of livestock in the area. The inspectors from the department do
not attend to reports by farmers in time. This results in the death of livestock and the
subsequent loss of faith in the department.
Farmers also raised concern that the department is understaffed to meet the needs of
the community. The inspectors operate from their district office in Guruve town. The
farmers have to walk long distances to reach the district office and as many farmers
concurred, the availability of the staff is not guaranteed. Farmers suggest that
decentralizing to ward based staff could ensure efficiency and effectiveness in the
work of the veterinary department in the community. Though the department keeps
stock of medicines the farmers do not benefit much from these medicines as they are
very expensive and most farmers hardly afford them. The farmers advocated that the
department should give these medicines free to the poor farmers as a way of
improving livestock production in the district. According to FAO (2002) the lack of
drugs to treat diseases and infections causes losses of 30 to 35 % in the breeding
sector of many developing countries where poor animal health remains the major
constraint to breeding.
The department of veterinary services also encourages fodder preservation. Mr Mano
noted that we are experiencing climate change and so the rainfall patterns have been
altered. This has resulted in a very short rain season and a very long dry season.
Farmers are therefore encouraged to store fodder after harvesting. The fodder will be
given to cattle during the dry season when the grass is not enough for the livestock.
The department also encourages good livestock care practices like well ventilated
pens which allow free air circulation. Proper care of livestock is highly encouraged by
the department as a preventive measure to diseases.
Though the inspector knew of some of the ethno veterinary medicines that are used by
farmers, the department does not encourage the use of such medicines. This confirms
Shore (1997)’s assertion that policy serves as a mechanism for disguising decision
45
makers. Not only does policy legitimately outlines the course of action to be taken, it
fixes that course within the wider and universal set of goals and principles. In view of
Shore’s assertion, the veterinary department’s failure to legitimise ethno veterinary
medicine is based on policy. These policies robs the local people of their decision
making power and decisions on the best medicines to use are made by outsiders.
Hobard (1993:2) noted that ‘the knowledge of the people being developed is ignored
or treated as mere obstacles to rational progress.’ Though the veterinary department is
operates in the community, they do not recognise the knowledge of the local people
with whom they work. Knowledge therefore reflects power dynamics as noted by
Foucault (1971), Ritzer (1992). Mano the veterinary inspector noted that there is a lot
of mystery and superstition around some traditional medicines of animal health care.
Some are just mere beliefs, as argued by Kumar (2006), ‘Some of these have enough
potential to cure diseases while others are based on superstitions and mythological
religious faiths or there is hardly any basis to be considered as effective treatments.’
The department of veterinary services have done very little to improve livestock
production in Guruve. Farmers argued that they are losing cattle to diseases such as
lump skin because their cattle are not dipping regularly. Cain Mbira noted that
sometimes they go for more than a month without dipping as the departments are
short of chemicals. The veterinary medicines are very expensive for most farmers
who opt for ethno veterinary medicines. Giddens (1984) asserts that agents’
knowledge of their society informs their action. Habermas (1968) also asserted that
knowledge is a historical product imbedded in experience and action. The farmers are
not passive recipients of authority the possession of agency liberates them to pursue
ethno veterinary practices which are both cheap and locally available. The knowledge
on ethno veterinary practises is part of the society’s knowledge base which is passed
orally from one generation to the other. Flavier et al. (1995) defined indigenous
knowledge as the information base of a society which facilitates communication and
decision making. According to Kumar (2006) ethno veterinary medicines are often
cheap, safe, time tested and based on local resources and strengths. They can provide
useful alternatives to conventional animal health care. By discouraging farmers to use
ethno veterinary medicines and continuing to charge high prices on veterinary
medicines the department is demonstrating lack of commitment to improve livestock
production under climate change.
46
The department of livestock production and development is another government
department that is working with the community in Guruve in the area of livestock
production. The district livestock specialist revealed that very little research had been
done on climate change hence there is need to do more research to improve the
adaptive capacity of communities to climate change. The department is promoting the
production of small stock like goats, pigs, and chicken as these have high chances of
surviving under climate change conditions like increased droughts compared to large
stock like cattle and donkeys. The feed and water requirements for small stock are
very low as compared with large stock like cattle. The shift to small stock is also
argued on the grounds that grazing lands are so limited under climate change. Large
stock like cattle is more affected by the depletion of pastures than small stock such as
goats. In support of this view, Adams et al. (1999) noted that beef cattle are especially
vulnerable, it is predicted that climate change will cause beef to decrease and sheep
and goats to increase. The department of livestock production and development is
promoting small stock because climate change has resulted in the depletion of
pastures; the fodder has been greatly reduced under climate change so moving from
large stock to small stock will reduce the loss of livestock due to diseases. Large stock
also requires more medication than small stock. There are more diseases in cattle than
in goats. In view of this LPD is encouraging small stock which has a relatively higher
disease tolerance compared to small stock.
The time taken before one may get returns from large stock is higher than in small
stock. Chicken may be slaughtered at six weeks and goats at three months but cattle
take more than a year before they can be slaughtered. Therefore small stock provides
a ready source of meat compared to large stock.
Unlike the department of veterinary services that does not encourage ethno veterinary
medicines, LPD encourages the use of ethno veterinary medicines because of their
availability and affordability. Though little research has been done on ethno
veterinary medicines the officer from the department of livestock production
acknowledges the use of ethno veterinary medicines by farmers. However the
transition from large stock production to small stock production is not smooth because
of the value and significance of large stock. Mr Mano noted that there is some
resistance as men feels that they would be stripped off their manhood. Traditionally
47
large stock is for men and a men’s wealth was determined by the number of cattle that
he had. On the other hand small stock is regarded as women’s stock. Men professed
very little knowledge on doctoring goats and chicken. Small stock can be disposed
easily than large stock; in the event of a drought farmers may sell small stock like
chicken and goats to meet the family food requirements. On the other hand it is
difficult to make a decision to dispose cattle due to its cultural significance. The
pastures are limited because of the increase in human population as more land is
cleared for farming and building houses. Small stock production under these
conditions becomes a viable option as they can be produced under backyard farming
for example 200 birds of chicken can be produced on a few square meters but it is not
possible to do the same for cattle. The reproduction cycle for small stock is shorter
than that of large stock. Chicken for example takes about twenty one days to hatch,
small stock may have more offspring than large stock, and a goat may have two to
three kids at a time. Pigs may have multiple pregnancies and this means they multiply
quickly than cattle which have one offspring at a time and its gestation period is about
nine months. LPD also encourages small stock because there is low input and high
output. However, the farmers feel that the department of livestock production and
development like its sister department of veterinary services is not doing enough to
improve their adaptive capacity to climate change. Thirty three point three percent of
the respondents who were given questionnaires felt that the government is doing
nothing to lessen the impacts of climate change on livestock. This implies that the
efforts by the department of livestock production and development to alleviate the
impacts of climate change are either insignificant or theoretical with little action.
Thirteen percent of the female respondents were not sure of what the government is
doing to lessen the impacts of climate change on livestock. Mr Mano the district
livestock specialist for Guruve admitted that as a department they have done very
little on climate change. There is no official position on climate changes as of now
because it is still a subject of great debate internationally; very little research has been
done on climate.
LGDA is implementing a chicken project in partnership with FAO and the department
of livestock production and development which provides technical support to farmers.
The communities has no decision making power in such projects this confirms
Ukpong (1990:73)’s assertion that the upper class may stereotype the poor as a
48
passive, ignorant group whose improvement awaits external engineering and
deliverance. FAO is implementing the projects in most parts of the country. This is
meant to improve the capacity of the rural farmers. LGDA and FAO are promoting
chicken production because of the quick turn over as compared to other large stock.
The layers are supposed to boost the income of the beneficiaries who sell the eggs to
cope with other cash requirements. The household cash flow is set to improve
however; the project has very few beneficiaries. There are fifty beneficiaries per ward
only. Ward twenty two for example has about nineteen villages with an average of
thirty households. The project does not make much difference to the community as
there are few beneficiaries. Therefore, it is difficult for donor given projects to make
meaningful contribution to the society because of lack of proper funding. The projects
officer of LGDA admitted that they do not have proper control over the project but
FAO has. He could not justify why they chose chicken production among other small
stock species. He claimed that FAO knows better, LGDA is just an implementing
partner with very little control over the project. Foreign funding is also a problem of
top down, thus the farmers have little control over the project they feel subordinated
because of too much supervision. The project was not brought by consensus with the
farmers of what they felt as the best project but LGDA and FAO tabled to the farmers
what they had already decided. The farmers were desperate and had to agree to the
project but in actual fact they were not given choices. The project does not take into
account the local knowledge and practices. The farmers are provided with medical
and stock feeds for the lifespan of the chicken. LGDA and FAO ignored the
indigenous knowledge system of the people of Guruve; these farmers had their own
ways of doctoring livestock like using soot and the aloe plant. Most farmers are poor
they do not afford veterinary medicines. Promoting chicken production should be
accompanied by promotion of ethno veterinary medicines for it to be sustainable.
After the withdrawal of the donor farmers will struggle to buy expensive medical kits
if they are to continue with the chicken project. NGOs should take into consideration
the local knowledge and practices in order to make meaningful contribution to the
society. Most of the farmers preferred natural methods of animal health care because
of their cost effectiveness and their availability. Moreki (2003) noted that the use of
traditional remedies in poultry predominated in the villages especially in remote areas
where drugs and vaccines are not accessible. However, this study demonstrates that
even when these modern medicines are in stock, farmers opted for ethno veterinary
49
medicines which they get at no monetary cost. Climate change adaptation calls for a
permanent solution, one which is in line with the culture and practices of the people.
Harnessing natural ways of caring for chicken could help the LGDA or FAO project
to be more appealing to the farmers of Guruve. FAO will not continue to supply
farmers with medical kits and these farmers are poor to afford the medical kits what
they have is aloe and soot which they fetch locally at no monetary cost. Climate
change is a permanent process so LGDA and FAO are not doing enough to curb the
effects of climate change on livestock in Guruve. All the farmers who responded to
the questionnaire said the NGOs are doing nothing to alleviate the impact of climate
change on livestock in their area.
Distribution of indigenous knowledge on livestock production and knowledge
stocks available to women farmers
Indigenous knowledge of livestock production is not evenly distributed. As noted by
Grandin and Young (1994), indigenous knowledge is not uniformly distributed, it
may be held by all in society or by specialists, and different areas of indigenous
knowledge can be held by men and women. Though it is local knowledge some
people do not know much about natural medicine of animal health care. Elderly men
and women had more knowledge of indigenous livestock health care than young men
and women. The reason for this trend is the negation of indigenous knowledge as
backward and hence some aspects of natural veterinary care are still found in the
elders who recall how they used to treat diseases. Habermas (1968) noted that
knowledge is a historical product embedded in experience and action. Modernization
has contributed to the negation and sidelining of indigenous knowledge. Mr Mbira
who is sixty four years old had better knowledge of the trees and herbs used to cure
diseases in cattle, goats and chicken. Mr Utete who is sixty also had deeper
knowledge on various methods of curing diseases. The two narrated on how they had
used indigenous knowledge to treat diseases from their boyhood. At some point this
knowledge was lost due to overdependence on modern veterinary systems. Now the
modern veterinary medicines are very expensive this is pushing farmers to resort to
their old ways. These methods are an asset in the hands of a few elderly men and
women who control the distribution of indigenous knowledge. There are other
50
common plants like the aloe vera which most people use for many diseases in
chicken, goats, pigs, donkeys, sheep and cattle.
Some diseases in cattle require knowledge of some trees like melia azearach, wild
custard apple, pine apple and monkey bread or Carmel foot bautinia tiinia thonnigii
which are used for a number of diseases such as red water and lump skin. According
to LPP (2006) indigenous knowledge is not uniformly distributed. This uneven
distribution of indigenous knowledge was witnessed in Guruve where herbalists like
Mr Utete had specialist knowledge but the majority of the farmers only had general
knowledge. Warren and Mechan (1980) also noted that indigenous knowledge is very
much age and gender based. Opinions vary according to locality, age, sex,
specialisation, education, attitudes and economic class. Ones level of formal
education was also an important determinant of the amount of knowledge that one had
on ethno veterinary medicine, Mr Moyo who is educated and works as a dip attendant
did not use indigenous medicines. He questioned the testability of such medicine
instead he uses modern veterinary medicine hence farmers like Mr Mbira blame
modernity for shunning traditional veterinary practices. Religion is another limiting
factor for the full utilization of indigenous knowledge in livestock production.
Christianity associates digging herbs with witchcraft hence some Christians who
responded to the questionnaire lacked knowledge on some of the herbs that are used
in traditional veterinary. There is a strong link between ethno veterinary medicine and
traditional healing since both practices depend on natural herbs and trees for
medicine. LPP (2006) noted that indigenous knowledge of veterinary care is not
isolated from beliefs. This is one of the reasons why knowledge of traditional
veterinary is controlled by a few specialists who jealously guard against the spread of
this knowledge. Mr Utete explains how witchcraft is used in the control of traditional
veterinary knowledge. Some of the people who are familiar with traditional medicines
keep this knowledge to themselves as it is a source of earning money through the
consultations that are made. The fact that some herbalists never disclose the herbs
shows that knowledge is a contested asset which is jealously guarded. Mr Utete noted
that those with witchcraft keep on earning money from consultations, even if one
accompanies them to the bush to dig the medicine they use witchcraft to make one
forget about the medicine they would have told him or her. This is a serious way of
controlling the distribution of ethno veterinary medicine, it is controlled by
51
individuals hence there is little continuity as a person may die without disclosing the
herbs to friends and relatives. This compares with the intellectual property rights in
modern medicine. African medicine is also controlled and regulated in natural ways.
Men had more knowledge on a variety of herbs that can be used to treat diseases in
livestock than women. This is attributed to the gender ideologies that confines women
in the private sphere of the home and liberates men to the public sphere. Public
gatherings like beer parties are important platforms for sharing ideas and wisdom,
when people are drunk they share even the most treasured secrets hence men benefit
from such discussions than women because the majority of women do not drink beer
thus they do not usually go to these beer parties. Cornell (1987), ‘men benefit from
the patriarchal dividend that is the advantage that men get from the subordination of
women’. Mr Utete noted that men had more knowledge on many aspects of veterinary
care because of their access to the public sphere. This is a disadvantage to women
who do not enjoy public life due to some cultural expectations of a good wife or
mother.
In Guruve there is a gendered division of livestock responsibility, generally large
stock like cattle and donkeys are regarded as stock for men. Dyson Hudson and
Dyson Hudson (1982) noted that women and men have the same knowledge on the
general principles of animal husbandry. This study contrasts with Dyson Hudson and
Dyson Hudson as it shows the role of livestock specialisation in the distribution of
ethnoveterinary knowledge.
Cattle are very important religiously and culturally
among the Korekore and the Shona people in general. Traditional ceremonies like
kurova guva (bringing back the spirit of the dead) involve the slaughter of cattle. A
sacred bull is also kept for religious purposes, this bull is said to possess the spirit of
ancestors which protect the family. The value of livestock is also confirmed by
IFAD’s Strategic Framework (2007-2010) which argued that livestock are key assets
for the poor people providing multiple economic, social and risk management
functions. Cattle also provide milk and draught power during the planting season. In
farming communities like the research area cattle are more valuable. The value of
cattle is also witnessed in marriage transactions where bride wealth is mostly
calculated in cattle than cash. The possession of cattle is seen as a mark of manhood
hence more knowledge on disease management in cattle than women because cattle is
men’s stock. Farmers like Mr Moyo, Mr Utete and Mr Mbira were familiar with most
52
diseases in cattle than women. This contrast with IFAD’s (1994) analysis which
suggested that women are in most societies are responsible for the daily care of
animals, their reproduction and doctoring as a result, women in general have more indepth knowledge of traditional pharmaceutical practices than do men. Due to
livestock specialisation in the study area it, IFAD’s generalisations were found to be a
bit misplaced. Men’s knowledge about herbs used in curing cattle was deeper because
herding of cattle is mostly regarded as men and boy’s job, women herd cattle when
men are busy or are not there. This gives men an advantage on the knowledge of a
number of trees found in the bush. They know the areas were some of the trees for
ethno veterinary medicine grow. It becomes easy for men to get the suitable herbs
when the animal gets sick. Women struggle to locate the areas where the herbs and
trees are found because most of them are not familiar with the bush. However, single
women and widows are familiar with many aspects of cattle doctoring than their
married counterparts who leave the care of cattle to men. Women whose husbands
work in town also had knowledge on many aspects of indigenous veterinary care for
large stock because they do not always have the men to look after cattle and they had
to assume the responsibility. It could be concluded that although men have more
knowledge on doctoring and caring for cattle, single women and widows are familiar
with many aspects of cattle production and health care since they assume men’s duties
like herding cattle. These women are also familiar with the trees and herbs that are
used for ethno veterinary medicines. Grace Mhepo who is a single mother all the
duties that are usually considered as men’s duties including repairing the cattle pen
and preparing the traditional mixtures for sick cattle. On the other hand married
women like Jessica Vambe concentrate on small stock leaving the care of cattle to her
husband. Cattle production, reproduction and doctoring are a men’s area.
Small stock is considered as stock for women therefore men generally had more
knowledge on large stock and women knew more about small stock. Fuller (1994)
argues that knowledge held by indigenous men and women may differ according to
their customary livestock responsibilities. The livestock specialist from LPD noted
that the major obstacle that they face as a department in the promotion of small stock
production is the feminization of small stock production. Men resist small stock
production because it is traditionally regarded as women’s stock. Women had more
knowledge on the various aspects of chicken and goats’ production and disease
53
management. Mr Utete concurs with the livestock specialist that goats and chicken
belongs to women. Simple methods like mixing soot with water and aloe juice are
used by women to treat diarrhea in goats and chicken. Soot is readily available, it
gathers on the wooden poles above the fire place in the kitchen. Every woman has
access to this type of medicine. It may be argued that women use simple medicine that
they extract from their surrounding like soot. This is in sharp contrast with the control
of knowledge that is practiced by men who are not at liberty to disclose the trees and
herbs to one another. Women also use aloe vera which is very common and grow in
many places. Mwale et al. (2005) noted that small holder farmers use aloe vera and
aloe spicata to treat coccidiosis, fowl typhoid and NCD. Women had knowledge on
controlling the fleas that bite chicken by burning grass inside the fowl run. Mwale
(2005) and Moreki (1997) reported the effectiveness of using natural methods to
control parasites like smoking or burning inside the chicken shelters and placing
leaves of thamnisma rholesia in the chicken shelter. This is considered as more
effective than the modern methods of spraying chemicals which may kill the
chickens. It may be concluded that women use locally available resources like grass,
soot and aloe. These methods of disease control are more effective. They do not need
some sophisticated mixtures that are made from herbs extracted from a secret bush.
They utilize what is ordinary to produce ethno veterinary medicine. There are very
few none diseases in goats Mrs Vambe concurred with the district livestock specialist
that goats have a strong immune system which is boosted by their browsing
tendencies. Goats eat a variety of trees some of these trees has special healing
properties. It may be argued that free grazing of goats helps to boost their immune
system as they eat some herbs which help them to resist diseases. Mrs Vambe noted
that goats take a lot of herbs in the process of browsing and grazing. Women have
unique knowledge of herding goats in areas covered with a variety of tree species in
order to harness the natural healing that is found in some of the trees. This becomes
another way of controlling diseases in goats that is unique to women.
Free range chicken production improves their immunity. Chicken feeds on some
grains, insects and plants. Mrs Vambe argued that free range chicken has better
immunity as compared to broiler chicken because they also pick some soil particles
and this helps them to fight diseases. It is a way of self healing and they will be at a
lower risk of contracting diseases. It may be concluded that women utilizes the natural
54
healing advantage that is found in methods of livestock care such as free range
chicken production. It is the wisdom of women to utilize this natural advantage and it
adds to their existing knowledge base on ethno veterinary medicine.
Women are more innovative, whilst men are still following the methods of disease
control that they inherited from their fathers; women had modern ways of treating
diseases in livestock. According to Gueye (1999) all ethno veterinary knowledge is in
the custody of elders. However this analysis contrasts with Gueye because there are
some farmers like Grace Mhepo who are more innovative, Grace Mhepo is thirty two,
and she uses coke and soot mixture to treat diarrhoea in goats. One may argue that
though the elders have more knowledge, young people are more innovative and for
ethno veterinary medicine to remain relevant, innovation is required. This fusion of
the traditional and modern is a way of adapting ethno veterinary medicine to new
challenges and in a way it helps to keep ethno veterinary medicine in line with new
innovations and changes in time. IFAD (1994) also noted the same trend among
Yemeni women who use Pepsi cola as a substitute for oil to treat bloat in their sheep.
Therefore, it may be concluded that women are very innovative and this helps to keep
indigenous knowledge relevant to the changing times. Over dependants in the bush
for ethno veterinary medicine is risky due to veld fires that consumes vegetation in the
dry season other methods like mixing soot and coke becomes important as substitute
for medicines that are extracted from the bush whose availability is not always
guaranteed. Women are leading an adapting indigenous knowledge of ethno
veterinary medicine to new conditions.
It may be argued that women and men specializes in different livestock species,
therefore it is not possible to judge whether women or men has better knowledge
about ethno veterinary medicines. Most men had more knowledge on cattle
production and health care but lacked knowledge on some aspects of disease
management in small stock like chicken and goats which is regarded as stock for
women. Women demonstrated deeper knowledge on the production, reproduction and
health care of chicken and goats. However, most women with the exception for
widows and single women lacked knowledge about caring and doctoring cattle a
responsibility that is often given to men.
55
Conclusion and Recommendations
Though indigenous knowledge systems form a strong base of knowledge for the
society, they are still shunned and negated due to lack of institutional support. As a
result, they are not properly utilized though evidence has proven that they are very
effective. Ethnoveterinary medicines have several advantages over modern veterinary
care. They are cheap and locally available compared to modern pharmaceutical drugs
which are expensive and sometimes out of stock. With climate change, livestock
production has been affected due to lack of enough water and forage. This affects the
health of the animals. There has been a marked increase in the number and frequency
disease outbreaks, a factor that is related to climate change. Vector borne diseases are
on the increase due to changes in weather and rainfall patterns. Duff and Gaylean
(2007) and Baylis and Githeko (2006) also noted that climate change will affect
parasites and pathogens, diseases and vectors for domestic livestock. Prolonged
winters causes diseases outbreaks and the late onset of rains results in disease.
Excessive heat also affects the reproduction of animals. Small holder farmers faced
with these challenges are forced to utilize ethno veterinary medicines despite calls by
the veterinary services to stop using these medicines because they are unapproved.
The emphasis should be on developing indigenous knowledge systems and
documenting this unique knowledge into the mainstream knowledge. In Zimbabwe,
there is little documentation of this knowledge yet it is a viable alternative knowledge
base. There is a high risk of extinction of indigenous knowledge if it is not
documented. To avoid this loss, research should be done on the various methods of
ethnoveterinary medicine and document the effective ones for use by the future
generations. Cultural systems of knowledge control argued in this study present a
problem for the harnessing of ethno veterinary knowledge. Culturally, ethnoveterinary
herbalists are not at liberty to tell the herbs that they use are animals but they just give
a prepared mixture. This control over knowledge is business to the ethnoveterinary
herbalists who earn some money for their profession. There is need for change of
attitude towards sharing of knowledge to allow research and documentation of
ethnoveterinary knowledge.
56
The smallholder farmers are more vulnerable from climate shocks from the
commercial farmers. It is predicted that small stock production like goats and chicken
will be more viable as it is more tolerant to climate change. However, the cultural
value that is attached on cattle among the Shona makes it difficult to see this
transition. There is need to develop the adaptive capacity of poor farmers to cope with
climate change. Drinking water for animals is becoming scarce, there is need to
construct dams to make water available for animals. There is a symbiotic relationship
between crop yield and livestock production. Livestock production depends on good
crop yields, cattle feed from maize stover and chicken are fed from grains.
Constructing dams will harness irrigation potential thereby positively affecting
livestock production. There is need to localize climate change discourse so that that
villagers may know what it is. There is very little literature on climate change in
Zimbabwe; as a result, studies are dominated by examples from Western countries
which are not relevant to the situation in Zimbabwe
57
REFERENCES
Chah J. M., Igbokwe, E. Mand and Chah, K. F. 2009 Ethnoveterinary medicine used
in small ruminant health in the Eastern Guinea Savanna, Nigeria Livestock Research
for Rural Development 21 (12).
Chang, H.2002, Kicking Away The Ladder, Development Strategy in Historical
Perspective, Anthem Press, London.
Chase L. 2011, What will climate change mean to Grazing animals? NEPC 2011
meeting Ramada Conference Centre and Inn State, Pennyslvania February 1 – 2 2011.
Cohen, P. 1968, Modern Social Theory, London : Tavistock.
Duri F. and Mapara, J. 2007, Environmental Awareness and Management in PreColonial Zimbabwe in Zimbabwean Journal of Geographic Research. Volume 1 (2).
Dyson-Hudson, N. and Dyson-Hudson R, 1982, The Structure of East African Herds.
www.ifad.org//range.html.
FAO, 2008, Climate related Transboundary Pests and Diseases Including Relevant
Aquatic Species. Expert meeting, FAO, February 2008.
FAO, 2002 Cattle and Small ruminant production systems in Sub-Saharan Africa: A
systematic review, by Otte, J. and Chindola, P. Rome, FAO.
FAO 2002 Genetics and Animal Health – Spotlight. FAO, Rome.
Flavier, J. M. 1995, The Regional Programme for the Promotion of Indigenous
knowledge in Asia, in Warren, D. M. Slikkerveer and D. Brokensha Indigenous
Knowledge Systems, London, Intermediate Technology Publications.
58
Forse, B. 1998 Where There is no Vet. CTA MacMillan and Oxfam. UK.
Foucault, M.1971 The Acheology of Knowledge. New York Pantheon, 1972
Giddens A. 1986, The Constitution of Society, University of California Press.
Giddens A. 1984, The Constitution of Society, Outline of the Theory of Structuration,
Polity Press, Cambridge.
Gill, M. and Smith, P. 2008, Mitigating Climate Change: The Role of Livestock in
Agriculture. Livestock and Global Change Conference proceeding, May 2008,
Tunisia.
Grandin, B. and Young, J. 1994, Ethnoveterinary Questions List, in PRA Notes, No
20, (Special Issue on Livestock).
Gueye, E. F. 1999, Ethnoveterinary medicine against diseases in African Villages,
World’s Poultry. Science Journal 35: 187 – 198.
Habermas, J. 1968 Knowledge and Human Interests. London, Heinemann, 1972
Heltberg, R., Jorgenson, S. and Seigal, P. 2008, Climate change : Challenges for
Social Protection in Africa, World Bank working Paper series, World Bank,
Washington D.C.
Hoareau, L. and Silva, E. J. Medicinal Plants a re-emerging health and Journal of
Biotechnology 2001 2:123.
Hobart, M. 1993 An Anthropological Critique of Development: The growth of
ignorance. London, Routledge.
59
IFAD’s Strategic Framework 2007 – 2010, Livestock and Climate Change
www.ifad.org/climate
IFAD, 2007 Livestock and Farming Systems. www.ifad.org
IFAD 1994, Women Livestock Managers in the Third World : A focus on Technical
Issues Related to Gender Roles in Livestock Production, adapted from Niamir-Fuller,
Staff Working Paper 18, Rome : IFAD 1994.
IPCC 2007, Fourth Assessment Report.
Jenks, C. 1998 ed. Core Sociological Dichitomies SAGE Publications, London,
Thousand Oaks.
Kohler-Rollefson, I. and Braunig, J. 1998 Anthropological Veterinary: The need for
indigenizing the Curriculum. Paper presented at the 9th AITVM Conference in Harare
14th – 18th September 1998.
Kumar, D. 2006, An Approach for Shortlisting Ethnoveterinary Practices, Livestock
Research for Rural Development 18 (5) Article 61.
Long, N. 1992 Fron Paradigm Lost to Paradigm Regained? The Case for an actororiented sociology of development. In Battlefields of Knowledge: The Interlocking of
theory and Practice in Social Research and Development. London, Routledge.
LPP, 2006, People and Livestock, Issue 4, August 2006.
Mararike, C. G. 1999, Survival Strategies in Rural Zimbabwe, Harare Mond Books.
60
Matekaire, T. and Bwakura T. M. 2004 Ethnoveterinary medicine: A potential
alternative to orthodox animal health delivery in Zimbabwe. International Journal of
Applied Veterinary Medicine 2 (4) 269 – 273.
Maxwell, J. 2005 Qualitative research design: An interactive approach. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mc Corkle, C. M. 1995 Back to the Future: Lessons from Ethnoveterinary R.D & E.
for studying and Applying Local knowledge. Agriculture and Human Values 12 (2)
52 – 80.
Mc Corkle, C. M. and Martin, M. 1998 Parallels and Potentials in animal and human
ethno-medical technique. Agriculture and Human Values 15 : 139 – 144.
Misra K. K. and Kumar K. A. 2004, Ethnoveterinary practices among Konda Deddi of
East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh : Stud, Tribes Tribals 2 (1) : 37 – 44.
Moreki J. C. 2003, Village poultry and poverty alleviation. Community based
management of animals genetic resources. Proceedings of a workshop held in
Mbabane, Swaziland, 7 – 11 May 2001. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the
United Nations. Rome, Italy. 155 – 164.
Mwale M., Bhebe E, Chimonya M. and Helimani T. E. 2005, Use of Herbal Plants In
Poultry Health Management in the Mushagashe small scale commercial farming area
in Zimbabwe, International Journal of Applied Research in Veterinary Medicine 3 (2)
163 – 170.
Phillips T. P. 2001, The Economic Impacts of pollinator declines : an approach to
assessing the consequences. Conserving Ecology 5 (1) : 8, University of Guelph.
Ritzer, G. 1992 Sociological Theory. New York, Mc Graw-Hill.
61
Rowlinson, P. 2008, Adapting Livestock Production Systems to Climate Change –
Temperate Zones. Livestock and Global Change Conference proceeding, May 2008,
Tunisia.
Seo, S. N. and Mendelsohn, R., 2006, The Impact of Climate Change on Livestock
Management in Africa. A structural Richardian Analysis. CEEPA.
Sewell, J. R. 1992, Theory of Structure, Duality, Agency and Transformation,
American Journal of Sociology 98 (1) 1 – 29.
Shore, C. 1997 Anthropology of Policy: critical perspective on governance and
power. London, Routledge.
Stokes C. 2009, Adapting Livestock Production Systems to Climate Change 43rd
Nottingham Feed Conference 2009, Australia.
Thornton P., Herrero, M. Freeman, A, Mwai, O., Rege, E., John, P. and McDemott J.
2008, Vulnerability, Climate Change and Livestock Research Opportunities and
Challenges for Poverty Alleviation ILRI, Kenya.
Ukpong, Ebebe, A. 1990 A quest for self-glory or self-reliance: Upgrading the
benefits of community development programmes. Journal of Social Development in
Africa vol 5 No 2 pp 73-85
Waburton H., and Martin, A. 1999, Local People’s Knowledge Its Contribution to
Natural Resource Research and Development. Chapter 3 in Grant I. and Sear, C.,
(eds) Decision Tools for Sustainable Development, NRI, Chatham.
Walsh D., 1998 Structure Agency in Jenks, C. ed. Core Sociological Dichitomies,
SAGE Publications.
62
Warren D. M., 1990, Indigenous Knowledge Systems for Sustainable Agriculture in
Africa. Keynote Address, International Conference on Sustainable Agriculture in
Africa Columbus, Ohio. The Ohio State University, Center for African Studies.
World
Bank
1997,
Indigenous
Knowledge
www.worldbank.org/afr/ik/basic.html
http://www.adaptationlearning.net/projects/zimbabwe
.
63
for
Development