Download STUDY GUIDE GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY

STUDY GUIDE
GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY-200)
The following terms are to serve as a guide to your understanding of the class lectures. Keep in mind as you read that
not all of these terms will necessarily be covered in class, but it is important that you understand what each term on the
list means. Most terms will come directly from your text; others that are indicated by an asterisk (*) will come from
lecture notes. Other terms may also be added as we progress through the semester. You will find that your studying will
be more effective if you spend a little time each day to refresh your learning rather than trying to cram the night before
the test. It is also helpful to have read the chapters before the class lecture. This list of terms should not be used as a
substitute for reading the text chapters!
TEST I
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology defined
Behavior and Mental Processes
Is psychology a relatively old or relatively new field of study?
Philosophy and Biology * - The historical roots of psychology.
The goals of psychology: Description, Explanation, Prediction, Influence.
Psychologist or Psychiatrist *?
Psychologists by:
Sex* - Most are women as of 2010. Three fourths of all new doctorates are earned by women.
Location* - USA has 300,000; Europe has 290,000; Brazil has 140,000.
Race* - Only 6% are members of racial minority groups.
Ergot or LSD?
Trephining (trepanning) * - Ancient operation to relieve psychological problems by chipping a hole in the skull to release
“evil spirits” that caused the stress.
Renee Descartes (1596-1650)* - A seventeenth century philosopher who
believed that nerves were hollow tubes through which “animal spirits”
conducted impulses in the same way water runs through a pipe. Also, he believed that some knowledge was
inborn in humans.
Franz Josef Gall (1758-1828) and Phrenology* - Believed that trained observers could discern intelligence, moral
character, and other basic personality characteristics from the shape and number of bumps on a skull.
John Locke and tabula rasa (1632-1704)* - Believed that children were born as “blank slates” and that their experiences
determined what kinds of adults that they would be.
Johann Weyer * - Often called the Father of Modern Psychiatry.
Wilhelm Wundt * - “Father of Psychology” and studied perception.
Edward Titchener
Introspection * - To look within; to examine one’s thoughts, feelings, or sensations. Problematic as a research method
because the accuracy of a subject’s responses could not be determined.
Structuralism * - The school of thought concerned with analyzing perceptions, sensations, and personal experience into
basic elements.
William James
Functionalism * - The school of psychology concerned with how behavior and mental abilities help people adapt to their
environments. (Today we have educational and industrial psychology).
Schools of Thought in Psychology
Behaviorism
John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud
Humanistic Psychology
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
Cognitive Psychology
Gestalt Psychology (how perception is organized)
Max Wertheimer (phi phenomenon)
Information-processing theory
Evolutionary psychology
Biological (physiological) Psychology
Neuroscience
Sociocultural Approach
Psychological Perspectives
Women in Psychology *
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939) Was the first woman to
receive a doctorate in psychology and studied animal behavior.
Leta Stetter Hollingsworth (1886-1939) Was one of the first psychologists to focus on child development
and on women’s issues. Refuted the common belief that women’s abilities periodically declined
during parts of the menstrual cycle.
Mary Calkins (1863-1930) Studied memory and became the first female president of the American
Psychological Association.
Karen Horney (1885-1952) Focused on the social and cultural factors behind personality.
June Etta Downey (1875-1932) Studied personality and became university.
Anna Freud (1895-1982) Was the daughter of Sigmund Freud and made significant contributions to the
study of abnormal behavior.
Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983) Conducted pioneering research on how children of color grew to
recognize racial differences.
Key Issues *
Nature-Nurture Issue
Conscious-Unconscious causes of behavior
Observable behavior-Internal mental processes
Free will-Determinism
Individual differences-universal principles
Scientific method steps
Hypothesis
Naturalistic and laboratory observation
Case studies
Survey research
Correlational Method
Experimental Method
Experimental vs. control group
Independent vs. dependent variable
Placebo
Random assignment to condition
Replication
Limitations
Research Participants
Bias
Protecting human participant’s and animal’s rights
Informed consent
Diffusion of responsibility (Bystander effect; pages 356-357)
CHAPTER 2
BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR
Hans Berger (1924)
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
CT Scan
MRI
PET
fMRI
Neurons
Afferent (sensory)
Efferent (motor)
Interneurons
Neuron structures
Dendrite
Soma
Axon
Terminal buttons (axon terminals)
Myelin Sheath
Nodes of Ranvier
Glial cells * - Provide nourishment, insulate, repair damage, support neural functioning.
Synapse (synaptic clefts); there are about 100 trillion in the human body.
Synaptic vesicles
Create
Recycle
Reuptake
Presynaptic (sending)
Postsynaptic (receiving)
Resting potential * - The electrical charge of a neuron at rest, about 70 millivolts.
Action potential
Threshold * - The point at which a nerve impulse is triggered.
All-or-none law
Negative after potential * - A drop in electrical charge below the resting potential.
Neurotransmitters
Receptors
Agonists (excitatory) * - Excite by mimicking the effects of a drug or blocking its reuptake. Some opiate drugs
produce a temporary high by amplifying sensations of arousal or pleasure.
Antagonists (inhibitory) * - Inhibit a neurotransmitter’s release decreasing likelihood that a neuron will fire .
Acetylcholine (Ach) * - The neurotransmitter released by neurons to activate muscles.
Curare * - A drug that competes with acetylcholine, causing paralysis. (antagonist)
Types of neurotransmitters
Glutamate
Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)
Epinephrine
Dopamine (DA)
Serotonin
Endorphins
Neuron vs. Nerve * - Neurons are tiny individual cells; nerves are large bundles of axons and dendrites.
Neurilemma * - A layer of cells that forms a tunnel that damaged nerve fibers can follow as they repair themselves.
Central nervous system
Spinal chord
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Motor (efferent) neurons
Interneurons
Reflex Arc * - The simplest behavior, in which a stimulus provokes an automatic response.
Peripheral nervous system
Somatic division
Autonomic division
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division
Corpus callosum
Central core (old brain)
Hindbrain
Brainstem
Medulla
Pons
Cerebellum
Reticular formation (also called Reticular Activating System or RAS)
Midbrain
Substantia nigra
Forebrain
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Limbic system
Amygdala
Hippocampus
Cerebrum
Cerebral cortex (new brain)
Corticalization * - Why humans are the most intelligent; an increase in the size and wrinkling of the cortex.
Association areas * - Generally considered to be the site of higher mental processes such as thinking, language,
memory, and speech. The association areas make up a large percentage of the cerebral cortex and
consist of the sections not directly involved in either sensory processing or directing movements.
Lateralization
Left Hemisphere
Right Hemisphere
Split brain
Cerebral lobes
Frontal
Broca’s area
Motor cortex
Parietal
Somatasensory cortex
Occipital
Primary Visual Cortex
Temporal
Wernicke’s area
Primary auditory cortex
Aphasia (Broca’s and Wernicke’s)
Apraxia * - A disorder that is most evident when people are asked to carry out a sequence of behaviors that require
planning and foresight. A major problem is the individual’s inability to integrate activities in a rational or logical
manner.
Broca’s
Wernicke’s
Agnosia * - (Mindblindness) Inability to identify seen objects.
Facial Agnosia * - Inability to perceive familiar faces.
Pruning
Plasticity
Stroke
Endocrine system
Hormone
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus gland
Pancreas
Adrenal glands
Gonads
CHAPTER 4
CONSCIOUSNESS
Consciousness (definition)
Altered states of consciousness
Behaviorism * - Systematically avoided studying consciousness during the early part of the last century.
Larks and Owls
Circadian rhythm
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
Subjective night
Modafinil
Eugene Aserinsky (1952) * - Using his son Arnold, was the first to study REM sleep.
Electroencephalograph
Polysomnograms
Yawning * - Stretches your neck muscles and increases your heart rate, which increases your alertness.
Adenosine * - During the time we are awake, our active brain produces this chemical, which inhibits certain neurons,
making us sleepy. (Caffeine blocks adenosine’s activity.) During sleep, adenosine concentration declines.
Theories of sleep
Restorative sleep
Circadian theory of sleep (evolutionary or adaptive theory)
Sleep
Microsleep * - A brief shift in brain wave patterns to those of sleep.
Sleep Deprivation Psychosis * - A major disruption of mental and emotional functioning brought about by sleep
loss.
Stages of sleep
Awake (Beta waves)
Relaxed (Alpha waves)
Stage 1 (Small irregular waves)
Stage 2 (Sleep spindles)
Stage 3 (Some Delta waves)
Stage 4 (Mostly Delta waves)
Hypnic jerks (myoclonus) * - A reflex muscle twitch throughout the body that often occurs as one is asleep.
Hypnogogic sensastions * - Sensations of falling or floating.
REM vs. NREM
Genital arousal during REM *
REM Rebound
Variations in sleep
Sleep Disorders
Parasomnias
Somnambulation
Sleep terrors
Nightmares
Somniloquy
Dyssomnias
Insomnia
Tryptophan * - A sleep-promoting amino acid found in starchy foods, especially baked potatoes,
that increases serotonin which helps to promote relaxation, a positive mood, and sleepiness.
Tryptophan is also found in milk, eggs, tuna, turkey, cashews, cookies, bread, pasta, oatmeal,
pretzels, bagels, and dry cereal.
Narcolepsy * - 1 in 2000 sufferers. Associated with a relative absence of a hypothalamic neural center
that produces a neurotransmitter called hypocretin. Can also result in cataplexy, a sudden
temporary paralysis.
Sleep Apnea * - Breathing stops for twenty seconds to two minutes (Afflicts approximately 1 in 20
people, mostly overweight men.)
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS or crib death) * - The sudden, unexplained death of an apparently
healthy infant (1 out of every 500 babies), believed to be caused by apnea. Babies are three
times more likely to die from SIDS if they live in the same house with smokers!
Dreams
REM
NREM
Lucid dreams
Dream interpretation
Manifest content
Latent content
“Wish fulfillment” (Freud)
Hall’s cognitive theory of dreams
Activation synthesis theory
Evolutionary theory
Meditation
Zen and TM
Hypnosis * - About 5 to 20 percent of the population cannot be hypnotized at all and about 15 percent are very easily
hypnotized.
Sociocognitive theory
Neodissociation
Dissociated control
Psychoactive drugs
Dopamine
Nucleus accumbes
Substance abuse
Physical dependence (addiction)
Drug tolerance
Withdrawal symptoms
Psychological drug dependence
Psychoactive drug types
Stimulants
Caffeine * - Increases epinephrine in the blood and increases Dopamine in the synapses.
Nicotine
Amphetamines
Cocaine
Depressants
Alcohol
Barbiturates
Minor tranquilizers
Narcotics
Rohypnol * - “date rape drug”
Hallucinogens
Marijuana
LSD
MDMA (Ecstasy)
TEST II
CHAPTER 5
LEARNING
Learning (definition)
Habituation * - The decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus.
Conditioning
Associative learning * - Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical
conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
Reinforcement * - Any event that increases the probability that a particular response will occur.
Respondent Reinforcement * - Reinforcement that occurs when an unconditioned stimulus (US) closely follows a
conditioned stimulus (CS).
Antecedents * - Events that precede a response.
Consequences * - Effects that follow a response.
Classical (Respondent) Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Neutral stimulus (NS)
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Unconditioned response (UR)
Conditioned response (CR)
Acquisition (Training) * - The period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced.
Extinction * - Occurs in classical conditioning when a CS in no longer paired with a US.
Spontaneous recovery
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
Vicarious classical conditioning * - Conditioning brought about by watching another person react to a particular
stimulus.
Expectancy * - An anticipation concerning future events or relationships.
John B. Watson
Little Albert
Conditioned emotional response (CER) * - A learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus.
Robert Rescorla
Prediction
Biological predisposition
Taste aversion
Ecological relevance
Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning *
Classical
Operant
Nature of response
Involuntary, reflex
Spontaneous, voluntary
Reinforcement
Occurs before response
Occurs after response
Role of learner
Passive
Nature of learning
NS becomes CS through association with a US
Active
Probability of making a response is
altered by consequences
Response will have a specific effect
Learned expectancy Us will follow CS
Operant (instrumental) conditioning
E.L. Thorndike
Law of Effect
Operant reinforcement (definition)
Reward vs. Reinforcer
B.F. Skinner
Response contingent reinforcement * - Reinforcement given only when a particular response is made.
Shaping
Successive approximations * - A series of steps or ever-closer matches to a desired response pattern.
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Generalization
Discriminative stimulus
Positive reinforcement (added)
Negative reinforcement (removed)
Reinforcers
Primary
Secondary
Tokens * - Can be exchanged for primary reinforcers.
Premack Principle (Prepotent Responses) * - Any high-frequency response can be used to reinforce a low-frequency
response; (“Grandma’s law”).
Effects of immediate and delayed reinforcement
Superstitious behavior * - A behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually
unnecessary.
Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous vs. partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Variable ratio
Fixed interval
Variable interval
Stimulus control training
Punishment * - Psychologists generally think that it is less effective than
positive reinforcers in promoting desirable behavior.
Positive
Negative
Response cost * - Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made. Having to give up privileges as a
punishment. (grounded!)
Disadvantages of punishment
Alternatives to punishment
How to punish (if you must) *
-Don’t use punishment if you can discourage misbehavior in other ways.
-Apply punishment during, or immediately after, misbehavior.
-Use the minimum punishment necessary to suppress misbehavior.
-Be consistent.
-Expect anger from a punished person.
-Punish with kindness and respect.
Escape and avoidance learning
Martin Seligman and Learned helplessness
Cognitive learning
Cognitive processes
Insight
Latent learning
Albert Bandura
Observational learning (social-cognitive learning)
Model
“Memes” * - Transmitted cultural elements such as ideas, fashions,
habits, and slang that come through imitation.
Two factor learning * - Learning that involves both classical and operant conditioning.
Feedback (KR * - Knowledge of results) Information returned to a person about the effects a response has had.
Keller and Marian Breland * - Conducted significant research on the biological constraints of conditioning. Instinctive
drift * - The tendency for learned responses to shift toward innate response patterns.
MEMORY
CHAPTER 6
Memory (definition)
Three basic memory processes
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Three-system memory theory (Sensory, Short-term, Long-term)
Sensory memory
Iconic memory * - Visual memory lasting about ½ second.
Echoic memory * - Auditory memory lasting about 2 seconds.
Eidetic imagery (photographic memory) * - Usually only found in children (about 8%) and the ability usually
disappears by adulthood. Typically they do not have better than average long-term memory.
Selective attention
Short-term memory
Capacity
Magic number, 7, + or – 2
Displacement
18 second rule
Chunking (recoding) * - Organizes information into meaningful units.
Rehearsal
Working memory
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborative Rehearsal
Mnemonics * - Any kind of memory device that involves the use of vivid imagery or clever ways of organizing material.
(Remember Roy G. Biv?)
Working memory
Long-term memory
Declarative memory (explicit memory)
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Nondeclarative memory (implicit memory)
Memory skills
Classically conditioned responses
Retrieval of memories (4 Rs)
Recall
Retrieval cue
Recognition
Relearning * - Learning again something that was previously learned.
Used to measure one’s memory of prior learning.
Redintegration * - The process of reconstructing an entire complex memory after observing or remembering only
a part of it.
Serial position effect
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Context effect
State-dependent memory effect
Cue dependent memory effect * - Many memories appear to be “forgotten” because memory cues (stimuli associated
with memory) are missing when the time comes to retrieve information. (“Where were you on the night of
January 7, 2010?”)
Reconstruction
Schemas
Source memory
Source monitoring
Flashbulb memories
Autobiographical memories
Expertise
Culture
Forgetting
Hermann Ebbinghaus’s curve of forgetting
Encoding failure
Decay theory
Interference
Retroactive
Proactive
Consolidation failure
Retrieval failure
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Biology and memory
Hippocampal region
Long-term potentiation * - Increased neural readiness for impulse transmission.
Amnesia
Anterograde
Retrograde
Dementia
Alzheimer’s disease
Misinformation effect * - Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
Repression
Infantile amnesia
Korsakoff’s syndrome * - A disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics. It is characterized by the tendency to repeat the
same story over and over.
CHAPTER 9
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Motivation (definition)
Motive (definition)
Primary motives * - Innate motives based on biological needs.
Social (Secondary) motives * - Motives based on learned needs, drives, and goals.
Achievement motives
Intrinsic motivation vs. extrinsic motivation
Need * - An internal deficiency that may energize behavior. (internal push)
Drive * - Motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need. (external pull)
Incentives * - Positive and negative environmental stimuli that motivate behavior.
Drive reduction theory (motivational model)
Need
Drive
Response
Goal (need reduction)
Homeostasis (literally means “staying the same”)
Arousal theory
Stimulus motives
Inverted U function * - A curve, roughly the shape of an upside-down U, that relates performance to levels of
arousal. If we set aside individual differences, performance is usually best when arousal is moderate.
Yerkes-Dodson law * - If a task is relatively simple, the optimal level of arousal will be high. When a task is more
complex, the best performance occurs at lower levels of arousal.
Work motivation
I/O psychologists
Goal setting
Expectancy theory
Achievement motivation
Need for achievement (n Ach)
Goal orientation theory
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Self-actualization
“Peak experiences”
Hunger
Appetite hormones
Insulin * - Hormone secreted by the Pancreas; controls blood glucose. Increases in insulin will lower blood sugar
and trigger hunger.
Glucose * - The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body
tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.
Hypoglycemia * - Below-normal blood sugar level.
Lateral hypothalamus (“Feeding center”)
Ventromedial hypothalamus (“Fullness center”)
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Metabolic rate
Weight set point
Metabolism
Hyperphagia * - Over eating.
Satiety * - Feeling full or satisfied.
Leptin * - Genetically produced hormone that is monitored by the brain. In studies of rats injected with leptin they ate
less, became more active, and lost weight. Can we fool our brains to be thinner!?
Eating disorders
Anorexia Nervosa
Bulimia Nervosa
Externals * - Individuals whose eating is triggered more by the sight of food rather than an internal condition of hunger.
(See Food!)
Carbohydrates * - Tend to be comfort foods because of elevated Serotonin levels.
Taste aversions * - An active dislike for a particular food usually based on classical conditioning.
Weight discrimination * - Stronger against women than men. Studies indicate that there is greater discrimination for
being overweight than gender or race.
Thirst *
Intracellular * - Caused by excess of salt consumption.
Extracellular * - Caused by sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, or bleeding.
Alfred Kinsey * - Controversial Indiana University biologist who studied people’s sexual practices extensively in the 1940's
and 50's.
Parental investment
Masters and Johnson * - Husband and wife team who published research on the sexual response cycle after observing
and filming people involved in various sexual activities.
Sexual response cycle
Excitement
Plateau
Orgasm
Resolution
Refractory period * - A short time period after orgasm in which a male is unable to reach orgasm again.
Androgens
Testosterone
Estrogens and progesterone
Fantasy * - Important to human sexual behavior. Men tend to fantasize more about sex than women. Women are more
likely to fantasize about the romantic aspects than the physical act itself.
Sexual orientation
Prevalence
Causes
Emotions * - A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behavior, and (3)
conscious experience.
Brain hemispheres and emotions *
When people experience positive emotions, the left hemisphere of the brbecomes more electrically active.
When people experience negative emotions the right hemisphere becomes more electrically active.
Adaptation level phenomenon * - Our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income, of acquisitions, etc.)
relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.
Relative deprivation * - The perception that we are worse off than others with whom we compare ourselves. I cried
because I had no shoes, states a Persian saying, until I met a man who had no feet.
Anger * - Two ways to control:
1. Wait, don’t do anything. Yes, even count to ten (or one hundred)!
2. Calm yourself by doing something totally opposite of what caused your anger. Do something that you enjoy:
playing an instrument, exercising, gardening, etc.
Theories of emotion
Common sense
James-Lange (1884-1885)
Cannon-Bard (1927)
Schacter-Singer (Two-Factory Theory, 1962)
Lazarus Theory (1991)
Affective neuroscience
Anterior cingulated cortex (ACC)
Gender differences in emotion
Basic emotions
Display rules
Facial-feeback hypothesis
Martin Seligman
Positive pyschology
TEST III
CHAPTER 10
HEALTH AND STRESS
Health psychology (definition) * - The branch of psychology that investigates the psychological factors related to
wellness, illness, including the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of medical problems.
Stress (definition)
Stressor
Distress * - Negative or undesirable stress.
Eustress * - Positive or desirable stress.
Life events
Social readjustment rating scale (SRSS)
Cataclysmic events (Tornadoes, floods, hurricanes, earthquakes, etc.)
Personal Stressors
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Background stressors
Hassles
Uplifts
Psychophysiological disorders (Psychosomatic disorders)
Hypochondriasis * - A preoccupation with minor bodily problems and the presence of illnesses that appear to be
imaginary.
Threat * - An event or situation perceived as potentially harmful to one’s well-being. Threat today is not as much about
your life being in danger as much as it is a perceived lack of control.
Coping with threat
Problem-focused coping * - Directly managing or remedying a stressful
situation.
Emotion-focused coping * - Managing or controlling one’s emotional reaction to a stressful situation.
Frustration * - A negative emotional state that is usually associated with one’s inability to accomplish a goal. Can be
social or non-social.
External frustration * - Reactions usually associated with one’s inability to accomplish a goal typically
resulting in distress. Delays, failure, rejection, and loss are all examples of external frustration.
Personal frustration * - Reactions usually associated with one’s personal characteristics that impede
successful goal completion.
Reactions to frustration *
Persistent, vigorous, or variable
Displaced aggression
Scapegoating
Conflicts
Approach/Approach
Avoidance/Avoidance
Approach/Avoidance
Double Approach/Avoidance
Social stress
Biomedical model
Biopsychosocial model
Hans Selye *
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) * - The predictable sequence of reactions that organisms show in response
to stress.
Alarm
Resistance
Exhaustion
Burnout * - A job-related condition of mental, physical, and emotional exhaustion related to the exhaustion stage of the
GAS.
Epinephrine - stress hormone
Lazarus’s cognitive theory (appraisal theory)
Primary appraisal
Secondary appraisal
Fight-or-flight response
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)
Lymphocyte B * - Found in bone marrow and releases antibodies that fight bacterial infections.
Lymphocyte T * - Forms in Thymus and other lymphatic tissues; attacks cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.
Coping strategies
Problem focused
Emotion focused
Avoidant coping * - (wishful thinking, drugs, alcohol, overeating, etc.)
Optimism
Emotional insulation
Martin Seligman - Learned Helplessness (review in chapter 5 )
Hardiness
Commitment
Challenge
Control
Social Support and religious support
Perceived control
Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman
Type A behavior pattern
Type B behavior pattern
Anger and hostility
Johan Denollet
Type D behavior
Cancer
Gender and health
Ethnic group differences
Lifestyle and health
Smoking
-Releases epinephrine and norepinephrine: increases serotonin.
-Nicotine reaches the brain in 7 seconds, twice as fast as injected heroin.
-Every cigarette smoked takes 12 minutes of your life.
-Each year throughout the world, tobacco kills 4 million of its 1.2billion customers.
-The World Health Organization estimates the number of annual death rates will soon reach 10 million, meaning
that half a billion people alive today will be killed by tobacco.
-Smokers have higher rates of depression, chronic disabilities, and divorce.
-One in three who try cigarettes become addicted - a higher rate than for heroin or cocaine!
-Smoking during pregnancy cuts off one half of the oxygen to fetus and results in an underweight baby.
Alcohol abuse
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)
Viral STDs
Genital herpes
Genital warts
Human papillomavirus(HPV)
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
Diet and exercise
Spirituality and faith * - A study that followed 5286 Californians over 28 years found that, after controlling for age,
gender, ethnicity, and education, frequent religious attendees were 36 per cent less likely to have died in any
year. Another study found that at age 20 a life expectancy of 83 years for frequent attenders and 75 years for
infrequent or non-attenders of religious services. Also attenders have reduced suicide rates and death from
coronary heart disease.
Subjective well-being * - Self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. Used along with measures of objective wellbeing (physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people’s quality of life.
CHAPTER 8
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Developmental psychology (definition)
Nature-nurture issue
Prenatal development
Chromosomes
Genes
Zygote
Embryo
Fetus
Preterm infant
Age of viability * - The point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely. Usually this is around age 22 weeks.
Genetic influences *
Phenylketonuria (PKU) * - An inherited disease that prevents production of an enzyme required for normal
development. Causes mental retardation.
Sickle-cell anemia * - About 10% of African Americans have the possibility of passing on this disease. It is
characterized by the presence of abnormally shaped red blood cells. Afflicted individuals typically have
poor appetites, swollen stomachs, yellowish eyes, cognitive difficulties, and usually die in childhood.
Tay Sachs disease * - A disease of Jews of eastern European ancestry. It is characterized by the inability to break
down fat and usually results in death by age 3 or4.
Down Syndrome * - A cause of mental retardation resulting from the zygote acquiring an extra chromosome at
conception.
Teratogens
Critical period
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Neonate * - A term for newborn infants during the first weeks after birth.
Low-birth-weight baby
Reflexes
Rooting
Sucking
Palmar (also called grasping or Darwinian reflex) * - A neonatal reflex consisting of grasping objects placed in the
palms.
Gag
Startle (Moro) * - Evoked by sudden loss of support or the sounding of a loud noise; in response, the arms are
extended and brought toward each other.
Babinski * - Fanning of toes when tickled in the middle of the foot.
Visual cliff
Vision: babies love to look at human faces!
Habituation
Maturation * - The physical growth and development of the body and nervous system. Also, the unfolding of biologically
predetermined patterns of behavior.
Cephalo-caudal development * - Development proceeding from head to toe.
Proximo-distal development * - Development from the center of the body to the extremities.
Motor primacy principle (readiness principle) * - A condition that exists when maturation has advanced enough to allow
rapid acquisition of a particular skill. Until the necessary physical structures are developed, no amount of
practice will be sufficient to develop a skill.
Temperament (Thomas, Chess, Birch)
Easy
Difficult
Slow-to-warm-up
Attachment
Harry Harlow
Separation anxiety (8 to 24 months)
Stranger anxiety (6 or 7 months)
Contact Comfort * - A pleasant and reassuring feeling human and animal infants get from touching or clinging to
something soft and warm, usually their mother.
Konrad Lorenz (Ethologist)
Critical period * - An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences
produces proper development.
Imprinting * - The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. Also, a
restricted time for learning.
Mary Ainsworth (The Ainsworth strange situation)
Securely attached
Avoidant
Ambivalent
Disorganized-disoriented
Father’s Role
Language development
Babbling
Overextenxion/underextension
Socialization
Parenting styles and social development
Authoritarian
Permissive
Authoritative
Uninvolved (“zookeeper parents”)
Erik Erikson
Psychosocial development
Trust vs. mistrust
Autonomy vs. shame-and-doubt
Initiative vs. guilt
Industry vs. inferiority
Intimacy vs. isolation
Generativity vs. stagnation
Ego-Integrity vs. despair
Cognition
Schema * - A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
Assimilation * - Interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas.
Accomodation * - Adapting one=s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
Jean Piaget
Cognitive development
Sensorimotor stage
Object permanence
Stranger anxiety
Preoperational stage
Symbolic function
Words to represent objects
Pretend play
Egocentrism
Theory of mind * - Ability to read other people’s feelings and thoughts.
Intuitive thought * - Thinking that makes little or no use of reasoning and logic.
Concrete operational stage
Conservation mastery
Reversibility
Time, space, number
Formal operations
Hypothethico-deductive thinking
Abstract thinking
Hypothetical thinking
Naïve idealism
Adolescent egocentrism
Imaginary audience
Personal fable
Lev Vygotsky
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
“Scaffolding”
Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Level I Preconventional morality
Stage 1 Punishment orientation * - Actions are evaluated in terms of possible punishment, not goodness or
badness; obedience to power is emphasized.
Stage 2 Pleasure-seeking orientation * - Proper action is determined by one’s own needs; concern for the needs
of others is largely a matter of “You scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours,” not of loyalty, gratitude, or
justice.
Level II Conventional morality
Stage 3 Good boy/girl orientation * - Good behavior is that which pleases others in the immediate group or
which brings approval; the emphasis is on being “nice”.
Stage 4 Authority orientation * - The emphasis is on upholding law, order, and authority, doing one’s duty, and
following social rules.
Level III Postconventional morality
Stage 5 Social-contract orientation * - Support of laws and rules is based on rational analysis and mutual
agreement; rules are recognized as open to question but are upheld for the good of the community and
in the name of democratic values.
Stage 6 Morality of individual principles * - Behavior is directed by self-chosen ethical principles that tend to be
general, comprehensive, or universal; high value is placed on justice, dignity, and equality.
Psychosocial development stages (8)
Adolescence
Puberty
Menarche
Spermarche
Emerging adulthood
Gender role development
Androgyny * - The presence of both “masculine” and “feminine” traits in a single person (as masculinity and femininity
are traditionally defined within one’s culture).
Early and middle adulthood
Presbyopia
menopause
Cognitive changes
Crystallized vs. fluid intelligence
Social development
Later adulthood
General slowing
Successful aging
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (1969)
Five stages of impending death (DABDA)
CHAPTER 14
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology (definition)
Social cognition
Impression formation
Primacy effect
Impression management
Attribution
Situational attribution
Dispositional attribution
Self-serving bias
Actor-observer effect
Fundamental attribution error
Attraction
Proximity
Mere-exposure effect
Reciprocity
Halo effect
Intimate relationships
Romantic attraction
Matching hypothesis
Sternberg’s triangular theory of love
Seven kinds of love
Liking
Infatuated
Empty
Romantic
Fatuous
Companionate
Conformity
Solomon Asch
Social norms
Obedience
Stanley Milgram
Compliance
Foot-in-the-door
Door-in-the-face
Low-ball-technique
That’s-not–all technique * - A salesperson offers you a deal at an inflated price. But immediately after the initial
offer, the salesperson offers an incentive, discount, or bonus to clinch the deal. “But wait, call now and
we’ll double your order!”
Not-so-free-sample * - When you get a free sample you may feel uncomfortable if you don’t in turn buy
something. The norm of reciprocity is the well-accepted standard that we should treat other people as
they treat us.
Group influence
Social facilitation
Audience effects
Coactions effects
Social loafing
Group decision-making
Group polarization
Groupthink
Social roles
Deindividuation
Social identity
Attitudes
Cognitive dissonance * - Occurs when there is tension between an individual’s attitudes or their attitudes and their
behavior.
Leon Festinger
Methods for reducing cognitive dissonance
Change the behavior (usually not very easy)
Change attitude
Explain away inconsistency
Reduce importance of inconsistency
Deny responsibility
Persuasion
Prosocial behavior
Altruism
Bystander effect
Diffusion of responsibility
Aggression
Frustration-aggression
Displaced aggression
Scapegoating
Personal space
Crowding
Prejudice
Discrimination
Realistic conflict theory
In-group
Out-group
Stereotypes
Ethnocentrism
CHAPTER 11
PERSONALITY THEORY AND ASSESSMENT
Personality (definition)
Psychodynamic approaches
Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalysis
Free Association * - In psychoanalysis, the technique of having a client say anything that comes to mind,
regardless of how embarrassing or unimportant it may seem.
Levels of awareness
Conscious
Preconscious
Unconscious
Psyche
Id
Pleasure principle
Libido * - The force, primarily pleasure oriented, that energized the personality.
Eros * - (life instinct)
Thanatos * - (death instinct)
Ego
Reality principle
Superego
Conscience * - The part of the superego that causes guilt when it’s standards are not met.
Ego-ideal * - The part of the superego representing ideal behavior; a source of pride when its standards
are met.
Defense mechanisms
Psychosexual development
Erogenous zone * - Any body area that produces pleasurable sensations.
Fixation * - In Freudian theory, lasting conflicts developed during a particular psychosexual state as a result of frustration
or over-indulgence.
Psychosexual stages
Oral stage (birth to18 months)
Oral aggressive * - A person who uses the mouth to express hostility by shouting, cursing, biting, and so forth.
Also, one who actively exploits others.
Oral dependent * - A person who wants to passively receive attention, gifts, love, and so forth.
Anal stage (12-18 to 36 months)
Retentive
Expulsive
Phallic stage (3 to 5-6 years)
Oedipus conflict
Elektra Conflict
Identification
“Penis envy”
Latency period (5-6 to puberty)
Genital stage (Adolescence to adulthood)
Anxiety
Defense mechanisims (“D-A-D”) * - Deny, avoid, distort reality.)
Repression
Projection
Denial
Rationalization
Regression
Reaction formation
Displacement
Sublimation
Compensation * - Counteracting real or imagined weakness by emphasizing desirable traits or seeking to excel in
the area of weakness or in other areas.
Intellectualization * - Separating emotion from a threatening or anxiety-provoking situation by talking or thinking
about it in impersonal intellectual terms.
Isolation * - Separating contradictory thoughts or feelings into logic-tight mental compartments so that they do
not come into conflict.
Neo-Freudians
Alfred Adler (striving for superiority)
Inferiority complex
Karen Horney (basic anxiety)
Carl Jung
Personal unconscious
Collective unconscious
Archetypes
Humanistic Approaches
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers
Self-actualization
Conditions of worth
Fully functioning person
Three conditions of a growth-promoting climate *
Genuineness
Acceptance
Empathy
Unconditional positive regard
Incongruent person * - A person who has an inaccurate self-image or whose self-image differs greatly from the idealself.
Self-concept
Ideal self * - Image of the person you most like to be; similar to Freud’s ego-ideal.
True self * - The actual you.
Self-image * - Total subjective perception of one’s body and personality (another term for self-concept).
Self-esteem
Trait Theories
Traits
Gordon Allport
Cardinal traits
Central traits
Raymond Cattell
Surface traits
Hans Eysenck’s PEN model
Psychoticism
Etraversion
Neuroticism
Five-factor model
“OCEAN”
Nature vs. nurture
Social-cognitive theories
Situation-trait debate
Reciprocal determinism
Self-efficacy
Locus of control
Internal
External
Personality assessment
Observations
Interviews
Rating scales
Personality inventories
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2)
California Personality inventory (CPI)
Myers-Briggs type indicator (MBTI)
Projective tests
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
TEST IV
CHAPTER 12
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Psychopathology * - The scientific study of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.
Psychological disorders (text definition).
Psychological disorders (alternative definition) * - A harmful dysfunction in which behavior is judged to be atypical,
disturbing, maladaptive, and unjustifiable.
Abnormal behavior * - Behavior that causes people to experience distress prevents them functioning in their daily lives.
What is abnormal behavior (The five questions)
Factors for deciding abnormality * Subjective discomfort - personal, private feelings of discomfort or unhappiness
Statistical abnormality - abnormality as determined by comparing test scores
Situational context - assessment of situation or context of behavior exhibited
Cultural relativity - perceptions/judgments made relative to cultural values. (Failure to communicate;
consistently unpredictable)
Two core features of abnormality *
1. Maladaptive behavior that makes it difficult to adapt to the environment and meet the demands of day-to-day
life.
2. Loss of ability to control one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors adequately.
Insanity vs. psychosis * - Insanity is a legal term; psychosis is a psychiatric term.
Neurosis vs. psychosis * - Neurosis is manifested by high levels of self-defeating anxiety; psychosis is manifested by a loss
of contact with reality.
Explaining psychological disorders
Biological perspective
Biopsychosocial perspective
Psychodynamic perspective
Learning perspective
Cognitive perspective
Diagnostic and statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSDM-IV-TR, 2000)
Labeling problems
David Rosenhan/Stanford University
DSM-IV-TR (selected categories) *
Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders - A severe mental disorder characterized by a retreat from reality,
by hallucinations and delusions, and by social withdrawal.
Substance related disorders - Disorders in which undesirable behavior changes result from substance abuse,
dependence, or intoxication.
Mood disorders - Major disturbance of mood or emotion; depression or mania or both.
Anxiety disorders - Disruptive feelings of fear, apprehension, or anxiety and avoidance behavior.
Somataform disorders - Disorders in which physical symptoms are present that are psychological in origin rather
than due to a medical condition.
Dissociative disorders - Temporary amnesia; multiple personality.
Personality disorders - Disorders characterized by long standing, inflexible maladaptive patterns of behavior
beginning early in life and causing personal distress or problems in social and occupational functioning.
Disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood, or adolescence - Includes mental retardation, learning
disorders, communication disorders, pervasive developmental disorders, attention-deficit and disruptive
disorders, tic disorders, and elimination disorders.
Sexual and gender identity disorders - Any of a wide range of difficulties with sexual identity, deviant sexual
behavior (paraphilias), or sexual adjustment.
Anxiety vs. fear * Anxiety is a response to an unclear or ambiguous threat; anticipation of harm.
Fear is more focused an intense; a response to a clear or specific threat.
Anxiety disorders
Adjustment disorder (“nervous breakdown”) * - An emotional disturbance caused by ongoing stressors within
the range of common experience.
Panic attacks
Agoraphobia
Panic disorder
Generalized anxiety disorder
“Freefloating anxiety”
Social phobia
Specific phobia
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Obsession
Compulsion
Acute stress disorder * - You are tormented for less than a month by the emotional aftereffects of horrible
events you have experienced.
Posttraumatic stress disorder * - You are tormented for more than a month by the emotional aftereffects of
horrible events you have experienced.
Causes of anxiety disorders
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Obsessions
Compulsions
Stress disorders
Acute stress disorder * - A psychological disturbance lasting up to 1 month following stresses that would produce
anxiety in anyone who experienced them.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) * - A psychological disturbance lasting more than 1 month following
stresses that would produce anxiety in anyone who experienced them.
Mood disorders
Norepinephrine
Serotonin
Major depressive disorder
Bipolar disorder
Bipolar I
Bipolar II
Dysthymia * - Moderately depressed mood on most days during the last two years.
Cyclothymia * - Moderate mania and moderate depression persisting for two years or more.
Suicide
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) * - Mood disorder related to lack of sunlight during the winter months.
Phototherapy * - A treatment for SAD using wide-spectrum fluorescent lights.
Psychosis
Schizophrenia (“split mind”) is often diagnosed in late teens or early twenties.
Delusions * - False beliefs held against all contrary evidence.
Depressive * - Feel that they have committed an unforgivable sin or horrible crime.
Somatic * - Believe that their body is “rotting away” or is emitting foul odors.
Grandeur * - Think that they are extremely important.
Influence * - Feel that they are being controlled by others or unseen forces.
Persecution * - Believe that other are “out to get them”; extreme suspicion.
Reference * - Assigning great personal meaning to unrelated events.
Hallucinations
Emotional disturbances
Withdrawal
Flat affect
Process Schizophrenia (Slow developing)
Reactive Schizophrenia (Fast developing)
Positive symptoms (Type I) * - Are the presence of inappropriate behaviors. Patients may experience hallucinations, are
often disorganized and deluded in their talk, and may exhibit inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage.
Negative symptoms (Type II) * - Are the absence of appropriate behaviors. Patients may have toneless voices,
expressionless faces, or mute and rigid bodies.
Subtypes of schizophrenia: *
Disorganized * - The most serious type of schizophrenia, marked by extreme social withdrawal, hallucinations,
delusions, silliness,
inappropriate laughter, grotesque mannerisms, and other bizarre behavior.
Paranoid * - A type of schizophrenia characterized by delusions of grandeur and persecution.
Catatonic * - Characterized by complete silliness or stupor or great excitement and agitation; patients may exhibit “waxy
flexibility” and assume unusual posture and remain in it for long periods of time.
Undifferentiated * - Schizophrenia lacking the specific features of the above classifications.
Residual * - Withdrawal, after hallucinations and delusions have disappeared.
Dopamine hypothesis
GABA and glutamate
Brain abnormalities
Shrinkage of the Thalamus
Expressed emotion
Overattention to stimuli
Underattention to stimuli
Predisposition model of schizophrenia
Genetic factors
Tardive dyskinesia * - A neurological disorder associated with excessive use of major tranquilizers.
Somataform disorders
Dissociative disorders
Dissociative amnesia
Dissociative fugue
Dissociative identity disorder (DID)
Personality disorders (Moderate impairment)
Antisocial personality disorder
Dependent * - Lack confidence and are extremely submissive and dependent on others (clinging).
Narcissistic * - Think they are wonderful, brilliant, important, and worthy of constant admiration.
Histrionic * - Are dramatic and flamboyant; exaggerate emotions to get attention from others.
Personality disorders (High impairment)
Obsessive-compulsive * - Demand order, perfection, control, and rigid routine at all times.
Schizoid * - Feel very little emotion and can’t form close personal relationships with others.
Avoidant * - Are timid, uncomfortable in social situations, and fear evaluation.
Personality disorders (Severe impairment)
Borderline * - Self-image, moods, and impulses are erratic, and they are extremely sensitive to any hint of
criticism, rejection, or abandonment by others.
Paranoid * - Deeply distrust others and are suspicious of their motives.
Schizotypal * - Are loners, they engage in extremely odd behavior, and their thought patterns are bizarre, but
they are not actively psychotic.
Childhood disorders
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Sexual and gender identity disorders * - Any of a wide range of difficulties with sexual identity, deviant sexual behavior,
or sexual adjustment.
Sexual dysfunctions
Gender identity disorder
Paraphilias * - Sexual deviations that are considered to be compulsive and destructive. Typically they cause guilt, anxiety,
or discomfort for one or both participants.
Pedophilia - Sex with children, or child molesting.
Fetishism - Sexual arousal associated with inanimate objects.
Exhibitionism – “Flashing” or displaying genitals to unwilling viewers.
Voyeurism – “Peeping Tom” viewing genitals of others without permission.
Transvestic fetishism - Sexual arousal from wearing clothes of opposite sex.
Sexual sadism - Deriving sexual pleasure from inflicting pain.
Sexual masochism - Desiring pain as part of the sex act.
Frotteurism - Sexually touching or rubbing against an unwilling person.
“Medical student disease”
CHAPTER 13
THERAPIES
Psychotherapy
Insight therapies
Psychodynamic therapies
Psychoanalysis
Free association
Transference
Interpersonal therapy
Humanistic therapy
Person-centered
Non-directive
Gestalt therapy
Directive therapy
Relationship therapy
Family therapy
Couple therapy
Group therapy
Behavior therapy
Behavior modification
Token economy
Time out
Systematic desensitization
Flooding
Exposure and response prevention
Aversion therapy
Cognitive behavior therapies
Rational emotive therapy (RET)
Beck’s cognitive therapy
Biomedical therapy
Antipsychotic drugs
Antidepressant drugs
Lithium
Psychosurgery
Culture/gender sensitive therapy