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Unit 07 - Overview
• Studying and Building Memories
• Memory Storage and Retrieval
• Forgetting, Memory Construction, and
Memory Improvement
• Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity
• Solving Problems and Making Decisions
• Thinking and Language
Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.
Your Task:
• Write down the names of the seven dwarves
down the left side of a piece of paper
2
7 dwarves activity
• How difficult was it?
• 3 steps in memory:
– Encoding – getting info into the brain
– Storage – retain the information
– Retrieval – get the info back out later
– Note: 12 of 66 (18%) students remembered all 7
3
7 dwarves activity
• Tip of Tongue Phenomena 
– When the retrieval process produces some of the
information but not all – so the rest must be
“constructed”
– First letter, syllables, type of word (noun, verb,
adjective)
4
7 dwarves activity
• Recall vs. Recognition
– What is recall??
– What is recognition?? question
– Which do you believe is easier??
5
Here, try again:
• Circle correct ones; Cross out incorrect; Leave others alone
GROUCHY
JUMPY
GABBY
HOPEFUL
WISHFUL
PUFFY
GRUMPY
BASHFUL
NIFTY
HAPPY
FEARFUL
SHY
DUMPY
SLEEPY
DROOPY
SNEEZY
CHEERFUL
SNIFFY
WHEEZY
SMILEY
DOPEY
DOC
LAZY
POP
TEACH
SHORTY
STUBBY
91% recognize more dwarves then they recalled!
6
7 dwarves activity
• How did you list them?
– Patterns?
– Sound similarity
– Meaning
– First letter
Order of “most
remembered” to “least
remembered”:
Sleepy
Dopey
Grumpy
Sneezy
Happy
Doc
Bashful
7
7 dwarves activity
• Short term memory vs. long term memory
Transient;
passing;
Greater “hold”
time
temporary
• Turn paper over and try to write them down
again.
8
The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has
persisted over time. It is our ability to
encode, store and retrieve
information.
10
Studying Memory
• Memory
• Extremes of
memory
– Memoriad (LG p5)
– Clive Wearing
– Brain Games
Studying Memory
Memory Models
•
•
•
•
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Parallel
processing
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Atkinson and Shiffrin Theory
–Sensory memory
–Short-term memory
–Long-term memory
• Modified version of the threestage processing model of
memory
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
• Modified version of the three-stage
processing model of memory
–Working memory
Studying Memory
Memory Models:
Working Memory
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful
Versus Automatic Processing
• Implicit memory (aka nondeclarative
memory) – procedural memory not consciously
recollected
• Automatic processing handles
implicit memories (ex. space, time, frequency
of occurrences)
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Automatic
Processing and Implicit Memories
We process an enormous amount of information
automatically, such as the following:
1. Space: While reading a textbook, you
automatically encode the place of a picture
on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note the events
that take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of
things that happen to you.
17
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful
Versus Automatic Processing
• Explicit memory (aka declarative
memory) – facts & experiences we know
• Effortful processing required for
explicit memories
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful
Processing and Explicit Memories
• Effortful processing
• Sensory Memory
• Iconic
memory
• Echoic
memory
George
Sperling studyPsychSim5
Whole Report
Sperling (1960)
R G T
F M Q
L Z S
“Recall”
RTMZ
(44% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
The exposure time for the stimulus is so small
that items cannot be rehearsed.
20
Partial Report
S X T
J R S
P K Y
Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”
JRS
(100% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity
was larger than what was originally thought.
21
Time Delay
A D I
N L V
O G H
Low Tone
Time
Delay
“Recall”
Medium Tone
N__
(33% recall)
High Tone
50 ms (1/20 second)
22
Sensory Memory
Percent Recognized
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
80
60
40
20
0.15
0.30
0.50
Time (Seconds)
1.00
23
Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the
different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long
24
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Capacity of Short-Term and
Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term
memory, has…
• a limited capacity (7 ± 2)
• and a short duration (20 seconds).
25
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Capacity of Short-Term and Working
Memory
Ready?
MUTGIKTLRSYP
You should be able to
recall 7 ± 2 letters.
26
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Capacity of Short-Term and
Working Memory
• Magic number
Seven
–Plus or minus 2
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Chunking
• F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
• 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Mnemonics
–Visual imagery
–Peg word system
–ROY G BIV
–Acronym HOMES
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies
• Hierarchies
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Distributed Practice
• Overlearning
• Spacing effect
–Massed practice
–Distributed practice
• Testing effect
Memory Effects
1. Spacing Effect: We retain information better
when we rehearse over time.
2. Testing Effect: When memory is enhanced
after retrieval, rather that simply re-reading
target information. Ex. Doing the end of module
questions improves your memory so….keep testing yourself!
32
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Levels of Processing
• Shallow processing – acoustic (rhyme),
visual (what the word looks like)
• Deep processing – semantic (by meaning)
Study by Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975)
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Making Material Personally
Meaningful
• Making material meaningful
• Self-reference effect
Information that’s
relevant to YOU is
processed MORE
deeply and will be
MORE accessible for
recall!
Memory Storage
Retaining Information in the Brain
• Memories are NOT
stored in one part
of the brain.
• Inside Out – the
movie
Memory Storage
Retaining Information in the Brain:
Explicit-Memory System: The
Frontal Lobes and Hippocampus
• Hippocampus
–Amnesia
–Damage to either
hemisphere
–Consolidation
during sleep
Memory Storage
Retaining Information in the Brain:
Implicit-Memory System: The
Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia
• Cerebellum
• Basal Ganglia
• Infantile amnesia
Memory Storage
The Amygdala, Emotions, and
Memory
• Amygdala
• Flashbulb
Memories
Memory Storage
Synaptic Changes
• Aplysia
• Long-term potentiation
• Mild
neurocognitive
disorders
Synaptic Changes
Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller
Long-Term Potentiation
(LTP) refers to synaptic
enhancement after
learning (Lynch, 2002).
An increase in
neurotransmitter release
or receptors on the
receiving neuron
indicates strengthening
of synapses.
41
Memory Storage
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Measuring Retention
• Recall
• Recognition
• Relearning
1.Name the capital of France.
a.Brussels
b.Rome
c.London
d.Paris
2. The capital of France is ______.
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Measuring Retention
In relearning, the individual shows how much
time (or effort) is saved when learning material
for the second time.
List
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
It took 10 trials
to learn this list
1 day later
Saving
It took 5 trials
to learn the list
Relearning
Trials
X 100
Relearning
Trials
Original
Trials
10
5
10
X 100
50%
44
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Priming
• Priming
To retrieve a specific
memory from the web
of associations, you
must first activate one
of the strands that leads
to it. This process is
called priming.
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Scuba divers recall more
words underwater if they
learned the list
underwater, while they
recall more words on land
if they learned that list on
land (Godden & Baddeley,
1975).
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
State-Dependent Memory
• State dependent memory
• Mood
congruent
memory
We usually recall
experiences that are
consistent with our current
mood. Emotions, or moods,
serve as retrieval cues.
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues:
Serial Position Effect
• Serial position effect
–Recency effect
–Primacy effect
Forgetting
Forgetting and the Two-Track
Mind
• Anterograde
amnesia
• Retrograde
amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in
surgery, patient Henry M. (HM)
remembered everything before
the operation but cannot make
new memories. We call this
anterograde amnesia.
Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Which penny is real?
52
Forgetting
Storage Decay
• Storage decay
–Ebbinghaus curve
Forgetting
Storage Decay
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure:
Interference
• Proactive interference (forward acting)
• Retroactive interference (backwardacting)
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure:
Motivated Forgetting
• Self-serving
personal histories
• Repression
Motivated Forgetting: People unknowingly
revise their memories.
Repression: A defense mechanism that
banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories from
consciousness.
Why do we forget?
Forgetting can occur
at any memory
stage. We filter, alter,
or lose much
information during
these stages.
Memory Construction Errors
Misinformation and Imagination
Effects
• Loftus memory studies
–Misinformation effect
Incorporating misleading
information into one's
memory of an event.
Memory Construction Errors
Source Amnesia
• Source amnesia (source misattribution)
• Déjà vu
– “already seen”
Memory Construction Errors
Discerning True and False
Memories
• Memory studies
• Children eyewitness recall
Memory Construction Errors
Repressed or Constructed
Memories of Abuse?
• Areas of agreement
– Sexual abuse happens
– Injustice happens
– Forgetting happens
– Recovered memories are incomplete
– Memories before 3 years are unreliable
– Hypnotic memories are unreliable
– Memories can be emotionally upsetting
Improving Memory
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Rehearse repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse
it and to help determine what you do not yet
know
Thinking and Concepts
• Cognition (thinking)
• Concepts
• Prototypes
Creativity
• Creativity
• Convergent
thinking
• Divergent
thinking
Creativity
• Sternberg’s five components of
creativity
–Expertise
–Imaginative thinking skills
–A venturesome
personality
–Intrinsic motivation
–A creative environment
Creativity
• Ways to boost creativity
–Develop your expertise
–Allow time for incubation
–Set aside time for the mind to roam
freely
–Experience other cultures and ways
of thinking
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
• Algorithms
–Step-by-step
• Heuristic
• Insight
• Confirmation
bias
• Mental set
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
Problem Solving: Strategies
and Obstacles
Forming Good and Bad
Decisions and Judgments
Forming Good and Bad
Decisions and Judgments
• Intuition
–Automatic unreasoned feelings and
thoughts
–Seat of their
pants
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
The Representativeness Heuristic
• The Representative Heuristic
–Prototype
–Likelihood of something
• Truck Driver versus a professor
of classics at an Ivy League
school.
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
The Availability Heuristic
• The Availability Heuristic
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
Overconfidence
• Overconfidence
Belief Bias Examples
• Some Communists are golfers
• All golfers are Marxists
• Conclusion: Some communists are Marxists.
Valid?
• Some Communists are golfers.
• All golfers are capitalists
• Conclusion: Some communists are capitalists.
Valid?
Belief Bias (continued)
• Democrats support free speech
• Dictators are not democrats
• Conclusion: Dictators do not support free speech
• Robins have feathers
• Chickens are not robins
• Conclusion: Chickens do not have feathers
Belief Bias – the tendency for our beliefs to distort our logic.
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
Belief Perseverance and
Framing
• Belief perseverance
–To cure it: Consider
the opposite
• Framing – the way we
present an issue. Framing can:
INFLUENCE OUR DECISIONS!
See p. 368 in text for some good examples
Clinging to an initial
conception after the
basis on which it was
formed has been
discredited.
Framing
• Handout 10-9 had different wording….AGAIN!!
Left Side
Right Side
Question 1
Question 2
• Risk Averse vs. Loss Averse
We tend to avoid risks (Risk Averse) when seeking gains.
But we choose risk to avoid a sure loss (Loss Averse).
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
The Perils and Powers of Intuition
• Intuition
–Intuition is huge
–Intuition is usually
adaptive
–Intuition is recognition
born of experience
Introduction
• Language
•
•
•
•
The jewel in the crown of cognition
The human essence
Other species know what they see;
Humans know much about what
we have NOT seen!!
Language Structure
• Phoneme
–English about 40 phonemes
–Learning another language’s
phonemes….it’s difficult!
• Morpheme
–Includes prefixes and suffixes
Language Structure
• Grammar
– Semantics: meaning
– Syntax: combining
The system of rules in a language
that enable us to
communicate/understand others
Language Development
• Receptive language
• Productive language
–Babbling stage
–One-word stage
–Two-word stage
–Telegraphic speech
Language Development
Language Development
Explaining Language
Development
• Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar
–Language acquisition device
–Universal grammar
Language Development
Explaining Language
Development
• Statistical Learning and Critical
Periods
–Statistical learning
–Critical (sensitive)
period
The Brain and Language
• Aphasia
• Broca’s Area
• Wernicke’s
Area
Language and Thought
Language Influences Thinking
• Whorf’s linguistic determinism
• Bilingual advantage
Language and Thought
Language Influences Thinking
The End
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Psychology’s History and Approaches
Research Methods
Biological Bases of Behavior
Sensation and Perception
States of Consciousness
Learning
Cognition
Motivation, Emotion, and Stress
Developmental Psychology
Personality
Testing and Individual Differences
Abnormal Psychology
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Social Psychology
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Definition
Slides
Memory
= the persistence of learning over time
through the encoding, storage and
retrieval of information.
Encoding
= the processing of information into the
memory systems – for example, by
extracting meaning.
Storage
= the process of retaining encoded
information over time.
Retrieval
= the process of getting information out of
memory storage.
Parallel Processing
= the processing of many aspects of a
problem simultaneously; the brain’s
natural mode of information processing for
many functions. Contrasts with the stepby-step (serial) processing of most
computers and of conscious problem
solving.
Sensory Memory
= the immediate, very brief recording of
sensory information in the memory
system.
Short-Term Memory
= activated memory that holds a few items
briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone
number while dialing before the
information is stored or forgotten.
Long-Term Memory
= the relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system.
Includes knowledge, skills, and
experiences.
Working Memory
= a newer understanding of short-term
memory that focuses on conscious, active
processing of incoming auditory and
visual-spatial information, and of
information retrieved from long-term
memory.
Explicit Memory
= memory of facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and “declare.” (Also
called declarative memory)
Effortful Processing
= encoding that requires attention and
conscious effort.
Automatic Processing
= unconscious encoding of incidental
information, such as space, time and
frequency, and of well-learned information,
such as word meanings.
Implicit Memory
= retention independent of conscious
recollection. (Also called nondeclarative
memory)
Iconic Memory
= a momentary sensory memory of visual
stimuli; a photographic or picture-image
memory lasting no more than a few tenths
of a second.
Echoic Memory
= a momentary sensory memory of auditory
stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds
and words can still be recalled within 3 or
4 seconds.
Chunking
= organizing items into familiar, manageable
units; often occurs automatically.
Mnemonics
= memory aids, especially those techniques
that use vivid imagery and organizational
devices.
Spacing Effect
= the tendency for distributed study or
practice to yield better long-term retention
than is achieved through massed study or
practice.
Testing Effect
= enhanced memory after retrieving, rather
than simply rereading information. Also
sometimes referred to as a retrieval
practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
Shallow Processing
= encoding on a basic level based on the
structure or appearance of words.
Deep Processing
= encoding semantically, based on the
meaning of the words; tends to yield the
best retention.
Hippocampus
= a neural center that is located in the limbic
system; helps process explicit memories
for storage.
Flashbulb Memory
= a clear memory of an emotionally
significant moment or event.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
= an increase in a cell’s firing potential after
brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a
neural basis for learning and memory.
Recall
= a measure of memory in which the person
must retrieve information learning earlier,
as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
Recognition
= a measure of memory in which the person
need only identify items previously
learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
Relearning
= a measure of memory that assesses the
amount of time saved when learning
material again.
Priming
= the activation, often unconsciously, of
particular associations in memory.
Mood Congruent Memory
= the tendency to recall experiences that are
consistent with one’s current good or bad
mood.
Serial Position Effect
= our tendency to recall best the last (a
recency effect) and first items (a primacy
effect) in a list.
Anterograde Amnesia
= an inability to form new memories.
Retrograde Amnesia
= an inability to retrieve information from
one’s past.
Proactive Interference
= the disruptive effect of prior learning on the
recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference
= the disruptive effect of new learning on the
recall of old information.
Repression
= in psychoanalytic theory, the basic
defense mechanism that banishes from
consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories.
Misinformation Effect
= incorporating misleading information into
one’s memory of an event.
Source Amnesia
= attributing to the wrong source an event
we have experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined. (Also called source
misattribution.) Source amnesia, along
with the misinformation effect, is at the
heart of many false memories.
Deja Vu
= that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this
before.” Cues from the current situation
may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an
earlier experience.
Cognition
= the mental activities associated with
thinking, knowing, remembering, and
communicating.
Concept
= a mental grouping of similar objects,
events, ideas, or people.
Prototype
= a mental image or best example of a
category. Matching new items to a
prototype provides a quick and easy
method for sorting items into categories
(as when comparing feathered creatures
to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
Creativity
= the ability to produce novel and valuable
ideas.
Convergent Thinking
= narrows the available problem solutions to
determine the single best solution.
Divergent Thinking
= expands the number of possible problem
solutions (creativity thinking that diverges
in different directions).
Algorithm
= a methodical, logical rule or procedure that
guarantees solving a particular problem.
Contrasts with the usually speedier – but
also more error-prone – use of heuristics.
Heuristic
= a simple thinking strategy that often allows
us to make judgments and solve problems
efficiently; usually speedier but also more
error-prone than algorithms.
Insight
= a sudden realization of a problem’s
solution; contrasts with strategy-based
solutions.
Confirmation Bias
= a tendency to search for information that
supports our preconceptions and to ignore
or distort contradictory evidence.
Mental Set
= a tendency to approach a problem in one
particular way, often a way that has been
successful in the past.
Intuition
= an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling
or thought, as contrasted with explicit,
conscious reasoning.
Representativeness Heuristic
= judging the likelihood of things in terms of
how well they seem to represent, or
match, particular prototypes; may lead us
to ignore other relevant information.
Availability Heuristic
= estimating the likelihood of events based
on their availability in memory; if instances
come readily to mind (perhaps because of
their vividness), we presume such events
are common
Overconfidence
= the tendency to be more confident than
correct – to overestimate the accuracy of
our beliefs and judgments.
Belief Perseverance
= clinging to one’s initial conceptions after
the basis on which they are formed has
been discredited.
Framing
= the way an issue is posed; how an issue is
framed can significantly affect decisions
and judgements.
Language
= our spoken, written, or signed words and
the ways we combine them to
communicate meaning.
Phoneme
= in language, the smallest distinctive sound
unit.
Morpheme
= in a language, the smallest unit that
carries meaning; may be a word or a part
of a word (such as a prefix).
Grammar
= in a language, a system of rules that
enables us to communicate with and
understand others. In a given language,
semantics is the set of rules for deriving
meaning from sounds, and syntax is the
set of rules for combining words into
grammatically sensible sentences.
Babbling Stage
= beginning at about 4 months, the stage of
speech development in which the infant
spontaneously utters various sounds at
first unrelated to the household language.
One-Word Stage
= the stage in speech development, from
about age 1 to 2, during which a child
speaks mostly in single words.
Two-Word Stage
= beginning about age 2, the stage in
speech development during which a child
speaks mostly two-word statements.
Telegraphic Speech
= early speech state in which a child speaks
like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly
nouns and verbs.
Aphasia
= impairment of language, usually caused by
left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s
area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s
area (impairing understanding).
Broca’s Area
= controls language expression – an area of
the frontal lobe, usually in the left
hemisphere, that directs the muscle
movements involved in speech.
Wenicke’s Area
= controls language reception – a brain area
involved in language comprehension and
expression; usually in the left temporal
lobe.
Linguistic Determinism
= Whorf’s hypothesis that language
determines the way we think.