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Review Sheet #1
Chapters 1 and 2
The Scientific Method and Neurobiology
Intro:
What is psychology? Observable behavior AND mental processes
Definition (remember:it is a SCIENCE)
How is it different from other disciplines?
How is it different from psychiatry? Medical Doctors, prescribe
Key Names
William Wundt-est. first psychology laboratory in Germany
William James-introducted functionalism.Wanted to consider the functions of our thoughts and
feelings
Edward Titchner-Introduced structuralism and introspection (looking inward). Student of
William Wundt.- Goal was to discover the elements of the mind.
G. Stanley Hall-First president of the American Psychological Association. Was inspired by
William Wundt’s, Principles of Physiological Psychology
Sigmund Freud-Psychoanalysis!!
Approaches (early)
Structuralism- used introspection(looking inward) to explore the elemental structure of the
human mind
Functionalism-focuses on how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable us to
adapt, survive, and flourish.
Subfields
Applied: psychology put into practice
Basic: grounded in research
Chapter 1: (Research Methods)
- Famous people: Wilhelm Wundt, Sigmund Freud, John Watson, BF Skinner (operant
conditioning)
- Types of descriptive research: case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, correlation
(correlation does NOT mean causation and be wary of CONFOUNDING
variables….anything that can cause a difference that is not the independent variable)
- Experimental study is the only type of research that determines CAUSE AND EFFECT
- The major psychological perspectives (to explain human behavior):
o Biological (body & brain)
o Cognitive (thinking)
o Behavioral (observed)
o Socio-cultural(environment)
o Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic
(unconscious drives/motives)
The Scientific Method
- Understand the difference between correlation research methods (shows only
predictability) such as the survey method and the scientific (experimental) method
(shows cause and effect).
- Thesis and Hypothesis
o Independent variable (what is tested) v. Dependent variable (what is measured)
o Experimental v. Control groups (experimental is tested – receives the ID v. the
control group is the basis of comparison- no treatment or a placebo)
o Controls (to reduce bias): Possibilities include random selection of all subjects,
random assignment to groups, double-blind, replication, and a placebo (if a drug
experiment).
o Operational definition:a statement of procedures (operations) used to define
research variables making it possible for another scientist to replicate.
o Sample must be a representative sample!! (sample truly reflects the population
being tested)
o Internal Validity (results are attributed to the independent variable) v.
External Validity (extent to which results can be generalized to the real
world)
This scientific methodology helps to overcome “hindsight bias”(you knew it all along)
and “overconfidence”
- Ethical considerations in psychological research: Guidelines to the APA requirements
o Must have: informed consent, no harm to the subjects, debriefing afterwards and
confidentiality of the results
o Examples in Psychology: 1970s Milgram Study (Stanly Milgram) on obedience.
Controversial because participants weren’t fully aware of all information.
As well as Zimbardo Prison Study: lasting physical harm.
STATISTICS
- The use of inferential statistics: used to determine our level of confidence in claiming
that a given set of results would be extremely unlikely to occur if the result was only up
to chance. Useful tool in hypothesis testing
o Scientists want to be able to generalize their results!!
o Null Hypothesis: states that the treatment had no effect in an experiment
o Alternate Hypothesis:states that the treatment did have an effect
o Statistically significant: a result can be generalized with some level of
confidence to the population (null hypothesis is rejected)
o Alpha: is the accepted probability that the result of an experiment can be
attributed to chance rather than the independent variable. Set at .05.
o Type I Error: False positive (IV made a difference when it really didn’t)
o Type II Error: False negative (IV didn’t make a difference when it really did)
o P-Value: The probability of making a Type I error. Indicates the results are
statistically significant (not due to chance). If P=.05, we only have a 5% chance of
making a Type I error.
The Null is True
The Null is False
Fail to Reject the Null
Correct
Type II Error
Reject the Null
Type I Error
Correct
Chapter 2: Neurobiology
-
Neurotransmissions and the nervous systems: (neurotransmission is often nicknamed the
“all-or-nothing response” to explain the electrical firing of neurons and the chemical
release of neurotransmitters)
o Axons, dendrites, synaptic gap and myelin sheath (parts of a neuron)
o Action potential-depolarization (positive ions flood in such as potassium and
sodium), refractory period (recovering can’t fire), threshold, reuptake (absorbing
remaining neurotransmitters)
o Specific neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine (memory and muscle contraction),
endorphins (natural painkillers), serotonin (related to arousal, sleep, pain, mood,
and hunger), dopamine (reward, imbalances are evident in Parkinsons-too little
and Schizoophrenia-too much),
o Inhibitory(inhibit or stop a cell from firing) vs. excitatory (excite or cause the
neuron to fire)
o Types of neurons: Sensory (afferent-arriving to the brain), Motor (efferentexiting the brain) [remember SAME], and Interneurons (reflexes)
o Psychoactive drugs can be Agonists (excite) and antagonists (inhibit)
o Structure of the nervous systems: central, peripheral, autonomic, somatic,
sympathetic (fight or flight) and the parasympathetic (calming) [remember
SYMpathy for one in crisis; PARAchute to calm down slowly]
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The endocrine system: Involves our major glands such as the adrenal(secrete
ephiniphrine and norepinephrine) and pituitary (master) glands and hormones such as
adrenaline, testosterone, estrogen and norepinephrine.
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The Brain: The three general region are the Brainstem (Medulla), the Limbic System
(emotion….amygdala-emotion, hippocampus-memory, and hypothalamus-hunger) and
the Cerebral Cortex-wrinkled outer layer of brain that is involved in higher level thinking.
o The brainstem includes the medulla (heartbeat and breathing), the reticular
formation (arousal center), the cerebellum (balance) and the thalamus (the
“sensory switchboard”)
o The limbic system includes the hippocampus (memory), the hypothalamus
(directs the endocrine system/”pleasure center”), and the amygdala (emotions
such as anger and aggression)
o The cerebral cortex is the brain’s neural covering and the brain’s information
processing center where neurons communicate
o Plasticity-the brain can adjust and adapt!!
o Association areas-responsible for associating information in the sensory and
motor cortices. Higher level mammals have more associating areas.
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The four lobes include the: occipital (vision), parietal (sensory cortex), temporal
(hearing) and frontal (personality and judgments – ex. Phinneas Gage)
The two hemispheres include the:
o Right: spatial and creative
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o Left: language and logical math reasoning
o Broca’s area – making speech (left frontal)
o Wernicke’s areas – comprehending speech (left temporal)
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Brain imaging techniques:
o Some show brain anatomy: CAT scans (x-ray pictures), MRIs (measures
magnetic activity)
o Some show brain activity: EEGs (measures electrical impulses), PET scans
(measures glucose consumption)
o Some show both: fMRI (uses magnetic field and measures oxygen levels)