Download Growth hormone

01/12/2016
Endocrinology and Reproduction
Elisabet Stener-Victorin
Associate professor
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology
Group: Reproductive Endocrinology and Metabolism
General Consepts of Endocrine Control
 Hormone – Greek hormaein = ”excite”
 Hormones are produced by glands and other cells
 Hormones – Chemical substances that are secreted from
endocrine cells to exert an effect on other cells in the
body´and coordinate biological function
 Transported in the blood or via tissue fluid and reach
almost all cells in the body
 General
 Potential to affect all cells in the body
 Selective
 Affect cells in specific target organs, i.e. Cells with
hormon receptors
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General Consepts of Endocrine Control
 Autocrine signalling = regulate
the same cell as secreted the
substance
 Paracrine signalling = via extra
cellular fluid to target cells
 Endocrine signalling = via
blood to target cells
Classical Endocrine Organs
Other ”non-classical” hormone
producing glands e.g.
 CNS
 Kidney
 Stomach
 Small intestine
 Skin
 Heart
 Lung
 Placenta
Katch et al Essentials of Exercise Physiol. Figure 12.1
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Hormones Controls and Regulates
 Reproduction including gamete production,
fertilization, nourishment of the embryo and fetus
 Growth and development
 Regulates ion and water balance
 Regulates cellular metabolism and energy balance
 Mobilize the immun system by responding to
infection, trauma, and emotional stress
Homeostasis
 Maintance of steady states by coordinated physiological
mechanisms during rest and activity
 The endocrine system contributes to homeostasis by
controlling availablity of substrates and metabolism
 By regulating body fluid and ion balance
Homeostasis – like thermostat in the room
Body temperature
~ 37ºC
Blood glucose
4.4 – 6.1 mM
Ca2+
4.1 – 5.2 mg/dL
Phosphate
0.8 – 1.5 mM
Iron
65 – 176 µg/dL
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How is homestasis achived?
Three components in the endocrine
system:
1. Gland
2. Hormone
3. Target organ
Homeostasis
1. Hormone
2. Receptor
3. Response
Katch et al Essentials of Exercise Physiol. Figure 12.2
Principles for Feed-back
Positive (rare)
Negative
Endocrine
cell
Endocrine
cell
A
A
Complex multilevel
Hypothalamus
Releasing
hormone
Anterior
pituitary
Target
Endocrine
cell
Target
Endocrine
cell
B
B
Biological effect
Biological effect
Target
hormone
Target
Endocrine
cell
Endocrine cell hormone
Biological effect
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Principles for Feed-back and Biorythm
 Long feedback loop

Active hormone regulates the hypothalamus
 Short feedback loop

Active hormone regulates pituitary
 Ultrashort feedback loop

Pituitary hormones regulate the release
from hypothalamus via portal blood flow
Complex multilevel
Hypothalamus
Releasing
hormone
Anterior
pituitary
Target
hormone
Biorytm - Pulsatile release
 Circadian rythm (cortisol)
 Monthly rythm (female sex hormones)
 Life rythm (growth hormone)
Target
Endocrine
cell
Endocrine cell hormone
Biological effect
What regulates the hormone
production and secretion?
 Hormone secretion is mainly regulated by feed-back loops
 Cause changes in the body
 Low circulating/tissue levels  secretion
 High circulating/tissue levels  secretion
 Like the thermostat at home
 Hormone sensitivity and responsiveness
 Synergism e.g. estrogen – progesterone – prolactin – synergism in
milk secretion
 Antagonism e.g. insulin decrease and glucagon increase glucose
 Permissiveness e.g. cortisol on catecholamine's
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Hypothalamus –”the boss”
functional connections
Fysiologi, Lännergren, Westerblad, Ulfendahl,
Lundeberg och Studentlitteratur 2012
Fig. 4.4
Principle mechanisms of hormonal
transport and bioavailability
 Circulating hormone concentration → synthesis and secretion
 Protein binding
 Many hormone are bound to and transported with plasma proteins (e.g.
albumin) → only free hormones can exert and effect, be eliminated, and exert
feed back regulation
 Local enzymes in the tissue
 Activates e.g. testosterone to more potent forms DHT
 Inactiviates of e.g. cortisol in the kidney
 Pulsatility
 Some hormones are released to a higher/lower degree during specific time
points e.g. cortisol, GH, LH/FSH
 Type of receptors
 There can be different types of receptors to the same hormone in the tissue
 Different effect of the hormone depending on which receptor that is activated
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Different hormones classes - types
 Three main types:
1.
Amines - Tyrosine derivatives
2.
Peptides
3.
Steroids
4.
(Lipid hormones)
 Different types of hormones → different
prerequisite mechanisms → different effects e.g.:





Hydrophobic vs hydrophilic
Pass the cell membrane
Free vs bound in the blood
Bind on the surface or inside the cell
Do they change ”signals” or do they change the number or proteins
Elisabet Stener-Victorin
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Hormone classes 1
1. Amine hormones
 Derives from one or two amino acids
 Water soluble
 Eg. Norepinephrine, thyroid hormones
 Bind to G-coupled membrane receptors
 When bound to their receptor, they activate a
cascade of intracellular signaling molecules
called second messengers
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Hormone classes 2
2. Peptide-derived hormones
 Peptides = Proteins e.g. insulin and glucagon → synthesized by ribosomes as prohormones
 Water soluble, most circulated freely and are membrane impermeable
 Bind to G-protein coupling receptors and exert their effect by modulating second
messengers
Water soluble hormones
 Amines
 Thyroid hormones (T3, T4) → Like steroid-hormones
 Catecholamine's (adrenalin, norepinephrine) → Short half-time,
receptor localized in the cell membrane, activates second messengers
and modifies already existing proteins
 Protein/peptid hormones – from several amino acids
 Pancreas (insulin, glucagon), hypothalamus (GnRH), hypofys (FSH, LH)
→ Short half-time, receptor localized in the cell membrane, activates
second messengers and modifies already existing proteins,
 AND induce protein synthesis
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How does water soluble
hormones exert their effects?
1 Hormone (1st messenger)
binds receptor.
Extracellular fluid
Adenylate cyclase
G protein (GS)
5 cAMP activates protein
kinases.
Receptor
GDP
2 Receptor
activates G
protein (GS).
Hormones that
act via cAMP
mechanisms:
Epinephrine
ACTH
FSH
LH
3 G protein
activates
adenylate
cyclase.
Glucagon
PTH
TSH
Calcitonin
4 Adenylate
cyclase
converts ATP
to cAMP (2nd
messenger).
Active
protein
kinase
Inactive
protein kinase
Triggers responses of
target cell (activates
enzymes, stimulates
cellular secretion,
opens ion channel,
etc.)
Cytoplasm
Marieb E, N., Hoehn, K. Human anatomy and Physiology Figure 16.2
Hormone Class 3 - Steroid hormones
 All derives from cholesterol
 Hyodrophobic, membrane permeable, and change protein expression
 Hydrophobic = protein bound
 Slower effect and more long lasting effects
 Two main types of receptors:
 Steroid receptors bind to receptor in cytosol and translocate to the nucleus
 Thyroid receptors bind to the receptor directly in the nucleus
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Steroid and thyroid hormone transport
 Approx 90% of steroid and thyroid hormones in the blood are bound to
plasma proteins
 Only the free hormone that is biological active
 Free hormone and carrier-bound hormone – dynamic equilibrium
Transport protein
Principle hormone(s) transported
Specific
Corticosteroid-binding protein (transcortin)
Cortisol, aldosterone
Thyroxid-binding globulin
Thyroxin, triiodothyronine
Sex hormone-binding globulin
Testosterone, estrogen
Nonspecific
Serum albumin
Most steroids, thyroxin, triiodothyronine
Transthyretin (prealbumin)
Thyroxin, some steroids
Elisabet Stener-Victorin
01/12/2016
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How does steroid hormones
exert its effect?
 Receptors located in cytoplasm
 Hormone–receptor complex
enters the nucleus
 Binds to DNA, direct gene
activation/inhibition by
transcription and translation
 Regulates mRNA synthesis and
protein synthesis
 Steroid hormones produced and
secreted from 4 main organs
 Adrenal cortex (cort, aldost)
 Ovaries (E2 and T)
 Testicles (T)
 Placenta (E2, PR)
Marieb E, N., Hoehn, K. Human anatomy and Physiology Figure 4.2
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Cells can regulate their receptor
number and/or function in several ways
 Hormone excess → ↓ number of receptors for that hormone per cell i.e.
down-regulation
 Lack of hormone → ↑ number of receptors i.e. up-regulation
 Chronic exposure of cells to a hormone may cause desensitization
Hormone response – what more regulates it?
 Rate of production → stored or synthezised?
 Bound or free state
 Rate of degradation
Hypothalamus – “the boss”
Elisabet Stener-Victorin
01/12/2016
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Hypothalamus
 Hypothalamus
 Part of the limbic system
 Control hormonal release
from pituitary
 Neuroendocrine and
endocrine control:
 Posterior pituitary (neuro): Efferent
nerves secreting hormones
 Anterior pituitary (adeno): Portal
system secreting many hormones
Elisabet Stener-Victorin
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Hypothalamus
Regulates basal body functions:
 Biorhythms (suprachiasmatic nucleus)
 Body temperature
 Sleep
 Defense – alarm – fear – aggressively
 Growth
 Reproduction and behavior
 Delivery
 Thirst (osmoreceptors)
 Urine (osmoreceptors and antidiuretic hormone, ADH)
 Appetite – target organ for leptin
 Basal metabolic activity (thyroid releasing hormone)
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Pituitary Gland
Elisabet Stener-Victorin
01/12/2016
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Posterior Pituitary (neurohypophysis)
 Oxytocin → synthesized in
paraventricular nucleus
 Stimulates milk secretion
 Stimulates uterine contractions during
delivery
 Arginine vasopressin = antidiurethic
hormone (ADH) → synthesized in
supratoptic nucleus
 Regulates blood volume
 ADH secretion regulated by
hypothalamic osmorecetors
 Main effect of ADH – decrease water
excretion and increase water absorption
in the kidney
Källa: Netter. Atlas of Human Anatomy. Ciba-Geigy 1989
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Anterior pituitary - adenohypophysis
Hypothalamic
neurons synthesize
GHRH, GHIH, TRH,
CRH, GnRH, PIH.
Hypothalamus
Anterior lobe
of pituitary
Superior
hypophyseal
artery
2 Releasing hormone
stimulate or inhibit release of
hormones made in the anterior
pituitary
3 In response to releasing
hormones, the anterior
pituitary secretes
GH, TSH, ACTH,
FSH, LH, PRL
Anterior lobe
of pituitary
1 Hypothalamic neurons secrete
releasing or inhibiting hormones
into the portal plexus
Hypophyseal portal system
A portal
• Primary capillary
plexus
system is
• Hypophyseal
two
portal veins
capillary
• Secondary
plexuses
capillary plexus
(beds)
connected
by veins.
Marieb E, N., Hoehn, K. Human anatomy and Physiology Figure 16.4c
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anterior pituitary - adenohypophysis
Katch et al Essentials of Exercise Physiol. Figure 12.4
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Hormone release and homeostasis
 Hypothalamus
 Pituitary
 Growth hormone




Thyroid
Adrenal gland
Pancreas
Gonades (ovary/testis)
Marieb E, N., Hoehn, K. Human anatomy and Physiology Figure 16.1
Regulation of anterior pituitary hormones
Källa: Endokrinologi. Werner 2004
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Growth Hormone (GH) → IGF-1
 GH stimulates body growth
 Important for normal body development
 Metabolic effects
 Protein synthesis → increase amino acid transport into cells,
enhance DNA and RNA transcription, RNA translation of protein
and decrease protein and amino acid catabolism
 Increase blood glucose → Glycogenolys (glucose production by
breakdown of glycogen) in the liver, increased gluconeogenesis
and insulin production (similar to type 2 diabetes)
 Decrease glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue
 Lipolysis (break down of fat cells) → increase concentrations of
fatty acids
Growth Hormone axis
 GH has a pulsatile secretion
pattern
 Maximal secretion during the first
hours of sleep
 GH highest in adoloscents (peaking
late puberty)
 Adulthood - decreased size of the
pulsatile burst, no change in
number of pulses
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Growth Hormone Regulation
Inhibits GHRH release
Stimulates GHIH
release
Inhibits GH synthesis
and release
Feedback
Anterior
pituitary
Hypothalamus
secretes growth
hormone—releasing
hormone (GHRH), and
somatostatin (GHIH)
Growth hormone
Direct actions
(metabolic,
anti-insulin)
Indirect actions
(growthpromoting)
Liver and
other tissues
Produce
Insulin-like growth
factors (IGFs)
Effects
Effects
Skeletal
Fat
Carbohydrate
metabolism
Increased
fat breakdown
and release
Increased blood
glucose and other
anti-insulin effects
Extraskeletal
Increased cartilage Increased protein
synthesis, and
formation and
cell growth and
skeletal growth
proliferation
Increases, stimulates
Reduces, inhibits
Initial stimulus
Physiological response
Result
Hormone release and homeostasis
 Hypothalamus
 Pituitary
 Growth hormone
 Thyroid
 Adrenal gland
 Pancreas
 Gonades (ovary/testis)
Marieb E, N., Hoehn, K. Human anatomy and Physiology Figure 16.1
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Thyroid Hormone (TH)
 Two related compounds
 T4 (thyroxine); has 2 tyrosine molecules + 4 bound iodine atoms
 T3 (triiodothyronine); has 2 tyrosines + 3 bound iodine atoms
 Major metabolic hormone – set basal metabolic rate
 Increases metabolic rate and heat production
 ↑ Mitochondria
 ↑ blood flow, heart rate, and cardiac output
 ↑ Respiration
 ↑ Expression of NA+/K+ ATPase → ↑ neural signaling → muscle tremor
(hyperthyroidism)
 Plays a role in:
 Maintenance of blood pressure
 Regulation of tissue growth
 Development of skeletal and nervous systems
 Reproductive capabilities
Control of Thyroid Function
Action of Thyroid hormones
 Metabolic Actions
 Permissive Actions – on catecholamine's by
increasing synthesis of β-adrenergic receptors
 Growth and Development
Basal metabolism
Carbohydrate
metabolism
Protein metabolism
Lipid metabolism
Thermogenes
1.
2.
Low thyroid hormones

 Gluconeogenesis
 Glycogenolys
 Synthesis
 Proteolysis
 Lipogenes
 Lipolys
 Serum cholesterol

High thyroid hormones

 Gluconeogenesis
 Glycogenolys
 Synthesis
 Proteolysis
 Lipogenes
 Lipolys
 Serum cholesterol

Glycogenolys = breakdown of glycogen
Gluconeogenesis = generation of glucose from
substrates like pyrovate, lactate, glycerol and
glucogenic amino acids
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Parathyroid Glands and Parathyroid Hormone
 Four tiny glands embedded in the
posterior aspect of the thyroid
 Contain cells that secrete parathyroid
hormone (PTH)
 PTH—most important hormone in the
calcium (Ca2+) homeostasis
 Calcium function – Necessary for:




Structural: Bone, teeth, connective tissue
Muscle contraction
Blood clotting
Nerve impulse transmission and stability of
excitable membranes
 Enzyme activity
Calcium homeostasis
Hypocalcemia (low blood Ca2+) stimulates
parathyroid glands to release PTH.
Rising Ca2+ in
blood inhibits
PTH release.
Bone
1 PTH activates
osteoclasts: Ca2+
released into blood.
Kidney
Ca2+ reabsorption
in kidney
tubules.
3 PTH promotes
kidney’s activation of vitamin D,
which increases Ca2+ absorption
from food.
2 PTH increases
 PTH primary physiological effect is
to decrease calcium
 It´s main effect in the
 Bone: Stimulates net resorption
→↑ Ca2+ in the blood
 Kidney: Increase Ca2+ reabsorption,
inhibits reabsorption of phosphate
and promotes kidney activation of
vitamin D
Intestine
Ca2+ ions
PTH Molecules
Bloodstream
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Hormone release and homeostasis




Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Growth hormone
Thyroid
 Adrenal gland
 Pancreas
 Gonades (ovary/testis)
Marieb E, N., Hoehn, K. Human anatomy and Physiology Figure 16.1
Regulation of anterior pituitary hormones
Källa: Endokrinologi. Werner 2004
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Adrenal Gland Hormones
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Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis
Hypothalamus - Pituitary
 Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH) from
hypothalamus stimulates
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from
adenohypophysis which stimulates
 Adrenal cortex to stimulates three different
steroid hormones:
 Mineralcorticoids - aldosteron
 Glucocortoids - cortisol
 Sex steroids – androgens and estrogens
Lännergren J, Westerblad H, Ulfendahl M,
Lundeberg T och Studentlitteratur 2012
Fig 15.8
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Regulation of aldosterone
Primary regulators
↓Blood volume
and/or blood
pressure
Other factors
↑ K+ in blood
Stress
↑ Blood pressure
and/or blood
volume
Hypothalamus
Kidney
Renin
Initiates
cascade
that produces
Heart
CRH
Anterior
pituitary
Direct
stimulating
effect
ACTH
Angiotensin II
Atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP)
Inhibitory
effect
Zona glomerulosa
of adrenal cortex
Enhanced
secretion
of aldosterone
Targets
kidney tubules
↑ Absorption of Na+ and
water; increased K+ excretion
↑ Blood volume
and/or blood pressure
HPA axis is regulated by
stress and diurnal variation
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Cortisol – Diurnal Variation – Circadian Rhytm
 How to measure cortisol concentrations?
 Saliva
 24 h urine
Elisabet Stener-Victorin
01/12/2016
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Glucocorticoids – cortisol – zona fasciculata
 Cortisol is the most significant glucocorticoid - Important for life
 Released in response to ACTH, patterns of eating and activity, and stress
 Metabolic effects
 Proteolysis, lipolysis, gluconeogenesis—formation of glucose from fats and proteins, promotes
rises in blood glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids (insulin antagonist), increased hunger
 Cardiovascular effects (important for life)
 Permissive effect on α1-receptors → catecholamines can contract vessels
 CNS
 Memory, sensory integration, limbic system
 Bone and Connective tissue
 Stimulates bone resorption (decomposition), inhibits bone formation, inhibits K+
uptake in the intestine, increase K+ from the kidney
 Immune system
 Stimulates bone resorption (decompostion), inhibits bone formation, inhibits K+
uptake in the intestine, increase K+ from the kidney
permissiveness is a biochemical phenomenon in which the presence of one hormone is required in order
for another hormone to exert its full effects on a target cell
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Short-term stress
More prolonged stress
Stress
Sympathetic
-Adrenal
(SA) axeln
Nerve impulses
HypothalamusPituitary-Adrenal
(HPA) axis
Hypothalamus
CRH (corticotropinreleasing hormone)
Spinal cord
Corticotroph cells
of anterior pituitary
Preganglionic
sympathetic
fibers
To target in blood
Adrenal medulla
(secretes amino acidbased hormones)
Catecholamines
(epinephrine and
norepinephrine)
Short-term stress response
1. Increased heart rate
2. Increased blood pressure
3. Liver converts glycogen to glucose and releases
glucose to blood
4. Dilation of bronchioles
5. Changes in blood flow patterns leading to decreased
digestive system activity and reduced urine output
6. Increased metabolic rate
Adrenal cortex
(secretes steroid
hormones)
ACTH
Mineralocorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Long-term stress response
1. Retention of sodium
and water by kidneys
2. Increased blood volume
and blood pressure
1. Proteins and fats converted
to glucose or broken down
for energy
2. Increased blood glucose
3. Suppression of immune
system
Marieb E, N., Hoehn, K. Human anatomy and Physiology Figure 16.16
Gonadocorticoids (Sex Hormones)
 Most are androgens (male sex hormones) that are converted
to testosterone in tissue cells or estrogens in females
 May contribute to
 The onset of puberty
 The appearance of secondary sex characteristics
 Sex drive
 In women – most important after menopause
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Hormone release and homeostasis





Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Growth hormone
Thyroid
Adrenal gland
 Pancreas
 Gonades (testis/ovary)
Marieb E, N., Hoehn, K. Human anatomy and Physiology Figure 16.1
Endocrine pancreas
Exocrine
Secretes bicarbonate ions and digestive enzymes
Endocrine
1. -cells secrete glucagon and increase
glucose release from the liver into the blood.
Antagonistic effect to insulin. Pro-glucagon is
also expressed in intestinal L cells → GLP-1
2. -cells secrete insulin, pro-insulin, C-peptide
and amylin – decrease blood glucose
3. -cells secrete somatostatin – inhibits
secretion of insulin and glucagon and inhibit
GI-tract
4. F-cells secrete pancreatic poly peptide (PP) –
inhibits gastric acid secretion
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Glucose homeostasis
 Glucose is the most
important energy source
in human (and most
other lifeforms)
 Tight regulation under
several hormones:





GH
Cortisol
Adrenaline
Insulin
Glucagon
Katch et al Essentials of Exercise Physiol. Figure 12.9
Insulin signalling and muscle contraction
IR
Glukos
p -Tyr
IRS-1
PI3-K
 Mitochondrial biogenesis
 Oxidative stress
AS160
GLUT-4
Akt
Muskel
Contraction –
insulin independent
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Insulin resistance
Insulin
Resistance
Normal β-cell
function
Compensatory
hyperinsulinemia
Abnormal β-cell
function
Relative insulin deficiency
Hyperglycemia
Normoglycemia
Type 2 diabetes
Insulin resistance in peripheral target tissues
 Liver
 ↓Glycogen synthesis
 Muscle
 ↓GLUT4 transloc.
 ↓Glucose uptake
 ↓Glycogen synthesis
 ↓Glucose oxidation
 Liver
 Adipose tissue
 ↑Gluconogenesis
 ↑Lipogenesis
 ↑Lipolysis
 ↑TG
 ↑FFA
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Glucose metabolism
Insulin need
Insulin production
Healthy
(Normoglycemia)
Type I
diabetes
(Hyperglycemia)
IR
(Normoglycemia)
Type II
diabetes
(Hyperglycemia)
Metabolic syndrome
Dyslipidemia
Elevated blood
pressure
Insulin resistance
Glucose intolerance
Abdominal
obesity
Increased risk of developing
Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)
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Metabolic syndrome
International Diabetes Federation (IDF) 2005

1. Visceral obesity: Waist  94 cm (men) and waist  80 cm (women)
and at least 2 of the following:

2. High triglycerides: >1,7 mmol/L

3. Low HDL-cholesterol: < 1,03 mmol/L (men) <1,29 mmol/L (women)

4. Blood pressure 130/85 or medication

5. Fasting plasma glucose ≥5,6 mmol/L or diagnosed type 2 diabetes
Hormone release and homeostasis






Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Growth hormone
Thyroid
Adrenal gland
Pancreas
 Gonades (testis/ovary)
Marieb E, N., Hoehn, K. Human anatomy and Physiology Figure 16.1
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Regulation of anterior pituitary hormones
Källa: Endokrinologi. Werner 2004
Circulating sex steroid hormone levels
in men and women
Estradiol - females
Testosterone - male
Estradiol - male
Testosterone - females
Ober et al 2008 Nat Rev Genet
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Male hormonal (androgenic)
effects
1.
Development – male sexual
differentiation
Puberty – secondary sexual changes and
muscle/bone/voice/phallus(penis)/libido
Post-puberty – prostate growth, muscle
mass and sexual function
2.
3.
Leonidas Lundell
6 december 2014
91
Regulation of sex steroids in men
 Androgenic effects in the body:








Development of male genitalia
Male pattern hair growth
Growth of the larynx and vocal cords
Sperm production
Muscle growth
Visceral fat accumulation
Increased sexual drive and potens
Aggressive behavior
Leyding celler → produce
testosteron
ABP = androgen binding protein
Marieb E, N., Hoehn, K. Human anatomy and Physiology Fig 27.10
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Tunica
albuginea
Degenerating corpus
luteum (corpus albicans)
Oocyte
Cortex
Granulosa cells
Late secondary follicle
Mesovarium and
blood vessels
Germinal epithelium
Vesicular
(Graafian)
follicle
Antrum
Oocyte
Primary
follicles
Ovarian
ligament
Zona
pellucida
Theca
folliculi
Ovulated
oocyte
Medulla
Corpus luteum
Developing
corpus luteum
Corona
radiata
Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Ovary axis (HPO)
Källa: Human Anatomy & Physiology Av Elaine N. Marieb & Katja Hoehn Fig 27.21
32
01/12/2016
Menstrual cycle
Pituitary hormones
(blood)
”Ovary cycle” –
follicle development
Källa: Human Anatomy & Physiology Av
Elaine N. Marieb & Katja Hoehn Fig 27.22
Ovary hormone
(blood)
Endometrium
[email protected]
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01/12/2016
Endocrinology and Reproduction
Part 2
Elisabet Stener-Victorin
Associate professor
Department of Physiology and Pharmacology
Group: Reproductive Endocrinology and Metabolism
Describe the pathophysiology (cause and
symptoms) of the following endocrine disorders:










Dwarfism, gigantism, acromegaly
Cretinism
Goiter
Hyperthyroidism
Hypothyroidism
Osteoporosis
Cushings syndrome and Cushings disorder
Type 1 diabetes and Type 2 diabetes
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
Hypothalamic insufficiency
Elisabet Stener-Victorin
01/12/2016
68
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