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A Beginning Common Sense List of Motivations
behavioral
• wanting or needing to obtain desirable consequences (rewards) or
escape/avoid undesirable consequences — anticipated or actual;
• wanting or needing something as elicited by classical conditioning
(bio-behavioral).
biological
• wanting or needing an increase or decrease in stimulation or arousal
in order to resolve boredom (under-stimulation) or reduce some form
of stress or tension (psycho-physiologically over-stimulation);
• wanting or needing to decrease hunger, thirst, pain, terror, sex drive,
etc., which also involves decreasing aversive internal physical
stimulation;
• wanting or needing to sleep, rest, or wake up;
• wanting or needing to have physical control of one’s body;
• wanting or needing to act on anger against others (bio-emotionalsocial);
• wanting or needing to act on a psycho-physiological feeling of love for
someone, oneself, or other things such as animals, nature, and
religious beliefs (bio-social);
• wanting or needing to feel safe and secure (bio-emotional-social).
Modified version of a list developed by Professor Bill Huitt and available on his website. Used here with his written permission.
A Beginning Common Sense List of Motivations
cognitive
• wanting or needing to attend to something interesting, challenging,
promising, or threatening;
• wanting or needing to acquire knowledge or understanding;
• wanting or needing to decrease cognitive dissonance, inconsistency,
or uncertainty among thoughts and beliefs and associated behavior;
• wanting or needing to solve a problem or eliminate a threat or risk;
• wanting or needing to eliminate inconsistency between one’s bad
actions and one’s need for self-esteem — mind games or distorting
the facts in one’s own favor;
• wanting or needing to be optimistic or hopeful;
• wanting or needing to perceive sensory input in a manner that gives
one a sense of being oriented and having cognitive control;
• wanting or needing self-respect or a positive self-concept;
• wanting or needing to grow and to achieve specific goals;
• wanting or needing to create something good or beautiful;
• wanting or needing to be in control of one’s life;
• wanting or needing to believe in a supreme being or creator who
values humans enough to give them immortality;
• wanting or needing to feel competent;
• wanting or needing to attribute causes to events.
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A Beginning Common Sense List of Motivations
affective
•
•
•
•
wanting or needing to increase specific good feelings and moods;
wanting or needing to decrease specific bad feelings and moods;
wanting or needing to act on feelings of empathy (bio-soc-emotional);
wanting or needing a “thrill” (sensation seeking or thrill seeking).
social
• wanting or needing to imitate models with status who are able to
obtain rewards;
• wanting or needing to be valued and admired by significant others
(cognitive-behavioral);
• wanting or needing to help and support others in need when one is
being empathetic and not reacting to fear;
• wanting or needing to punish those one believes have wronged them
or wronged someone they love or care about (bio-social);
• wanting or needing to help others in spite of threats to self and related
fear – courage (social-affective);
• wanting or needing others to care about (social-affective).
• wanting or needing to be socially responsible and socially conscious.
Modified version of a list developed by Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here with written permission
Many explanations have been given
for why human beings do what they do:
Drives
Goals/Incentives
Instincts
Excitement/Arousal
Achievement
Friendship/Affiliation
These explanations of
motivation can be divided
into five categories:
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004
Self-Fulfillment
Power
behavioral
biological
emotional
cognitive
social
Motivation Defined
The following definitions reflect the consensus that
motivation is an internal state (sometimes described as
a need, desire, or want) that activates behavior and/or
thought and gives either or both direction.
– An internal state or condition that activates behavior
and gives it direction;
– A desire or want that energizes and directs goaloriented behavior;
– The influence of needs and desires on the intensity
and direction of behavior;
– The arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior;
– Physiological and psychological factors that account
for the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior
(Davis and Palladino, 2005).
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here with his written permission
Types of Motivation
INTRINSIC
VS
EXTRINSIC
Arrangement by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2004
Intrinsic & Extrinsic Motivators
•Intrinsic motivator:
» Some behaviors have directly rewarding results
»
that satisfy drives (e.g. food when hungry,
entertainment when bored).
Many behaviors are engaged in because they are
valued, beneficial to self and/or others, and elicit
rewarding feelings (e.g., pride, self-worth,
compassion).
•Extrinsic motivator:
» Externally available stimulus not related to the
»
satisfaction of immediate drives, desires, or
needs (e.g. money).
Includes immediate external environmental
consequences of behavior, and others’
encouragement.
Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Source: Bell, Vaughan (2002). Motivation and Emotion. PPT slide retrieved from http://www.cf.ac.uk/psych/home/bellv1/conf/VaughanMotivationEmotionLecture2004.ppt#5
Accompanying MS Word Lecture at http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&q=fast+route+is+quick%2C+inaccurate&btnG=Search. Written permission granted.
Sources of Motivation
• Explanations regarding the sources of motivation can be
categorized as extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic
(inside the person).
• Intrinsic sources can be subcategorized as (a) body
(physical), (b) mind (mental), (c) mind (feeling), or
(d) transpersonal (spiritual).
• Needs are dispositions toward action that are associated
with subcategories (a-c) above.
• It appears likely that the initiation of behavior may be
more related to emotions and/or the affective domain
(optimism vs. pessimism; self-esteem; etc.), while
persistence may be more related to conation (volition) or
will and one’s goal-orientation.
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here with his written permission.
MOTIVATION
EXTRINSIC
Operant
Conditioning
INTRINSIC
Cognition
Social
Cognition
Affect
Biology
Conation
Spirituality
Copied with written permission from Professor Bill Huitt’s. Those interested in locating the works cited in these
slides should visit his website at http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/motivation/motivate.html. Motivation is one of
many topics he covers. For a complete list, go to the index at http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/edpsyindxc.html.
Dr. Bill Huitt is a helpful and informed professor who would be willing to assist you online if you have a question.
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here with his written permission.
1. Biological
1a. Human Instincts, if they exist, are
involuntary, unlearned, and triggered by
environmental events called releasing stimuli.
•
• 1b. Drive Reduction views motivation as
reducing physiological imbalances. A drive is an
internal motivational state that is manifest as a
physical need.
• 1c. Optimum Arousal-Level proposes that we
seek an optimum level of arousal and that our
level at any given time can be too high or too low.
Any form of stimulation or cognitive activity
affects arousal, but each is qualitatively unique.
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here with his written permission.
1a. INSTINCT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Instinct theories of motivation were among the first and were
popular in the early 20th century (e.g. McDougall, 1908). They began
to decline in popularity in 1930 with the introduction of Behaviorism.
Some of the first theories of motivation attributed human behavior to
instincts. Freud’s explanation of motivation is rooted in a belief in
instincts. One 1920's list included the following human instincts:
acquisitiveness
escape
mating
rivalry
submission
cleanliness
fear
modesty
secretiveness
sympathy
self-assertion
?
combativeness
food-seeking parental love
constructiveness
hunting
play
shyness
?
curiosity
jealousy
repulsion
sociability
?
McDougall, William (1908, 2003). Introduction to Social Psychology, 30th Edition. Dover Publications.
Adapted by Dr. Gordon Vessels.
1b. Biological Drives
 Drive-Reduction Theory (1940s and 50s)
 Proposes that a physiological need creates an aroused
state (a drive) that motivates a person to satisfy this
need.
Need
(e.g., for
food, water)
Drive
(hunger, thirst)
Drive-reducing
behaviors
(eating, drinking)
We act to reduce the push exerted by drives, internal stimuli that represent
biological needs. Behavior helps us to maintain homeostasis, or a steady
biological state. When an internal system is out of balance, a drive builds up to
force balance restoration. Typically primary and secondary drives are identified.
Still, our behavior is not always consistent with our drives. You may be hungry
right now, but you're not eating. Perhaps the biggest hole in this theory is that
some behaviors do not decrease internal tensions, they increase them.
Benoit, Anthony (2002). Emotion and Motivation: Module 33-38 course outline. Retrieved from http://environmentalet.org/psy111/motimotion.htm#theoriesm
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
1b. Drive Theory (internal) vs
2. Incentive Theory (external)
• 1b. Drive theories stress internal factors
in motivating behavior; drives are often
tied to physiological processes such as
thirst, sex, and aggression i.e. they might
exist regardless of the outside world.
• 2. Incentive theories stress the influence
of external stimuli or events. i.e. something
external stimulates us directionally e.g. the
smell of baking bread may induce hunger.
Source: Bell, Vaughan (2004). Motivation and emotion PPT lecture presentation. Used as a source with written permission.
Retrieved from http://www.cf.ac.uk/psych/home/bellv1/conf/VaughanMotivationEmotionLecture2004.ppt#6 Accompanying MS Word lecture
at http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&q=fast+route+is+quick%2C+inaccurate&btnG=Search.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
1950s & 1960s:
The Post-Drive-Theory Years
• These are transitional decades
• Two post-drive theories
– 1c. Arousal theory (biological theory 3)
• Environment affects how aroused the brain becomes psychophysiologically.
• A curvilinear relationship between arousal and behavior (see
next three slides).
– 2. Incentive theory (behavioral theory)
• Motivational states could be acquired through experience and
external stimuli
• New motivational concepts: incentives
• Moment-to-moment changes of motivation
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
medium
We perform best when the tasks or
challenges we take on produce a moderate
level of arousal. Task difficulty factors into
this with low-difficulty tasks yielding lower
arousal than high-difficulty tasks.
low
Performance
high
Arousal and Peak Performance
low
medium
high
Arousal
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
Arousal: Yerkes-Dodson Law
100
PERFORMANCE %
Tasks of moderate
difficulty
U-shaped curvilinear relationship
between arousal and performance
75
50
25
0
Adapted from Craig, Scotty (2002). Motivation and
emotions, a PPT presentation retrieved from
http://www.psyc.memphis.edu/students/craig/1102/12
Motivation%20&%20Emotions.ppt#1
LOW AROUNSAL
HIGH AROUSAL
OPTIMUM AROUSAL
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
100
PERFORMANCE %
Tasks low in difficulty
Arousal: Yerkes-Dodson Law
75
50
25
0
LOW AROUNSAL
Adapted from Craig, Scotty (2002). Motivation and emotions, a PPT presentation retrieved from
http://www.psyc.memphis.edu/students/craig/1102/12Motivation%20&%20Emotions.ppt#1
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
HIGH AROUSAL
OPTIMUM AROUSAL
100
PERFORMANCE %
Tasks of high difficulty
Arousal: Yerkes-Dodson Law
75
50
25
LOW AROUNSAL
OPTIMUM AROUSAL
HIGH AROUSAL
Adapted from Craig, Scoty (2002). Motivation and emotions, a PPT presentation retrieved from
http://www.psyc.memphis.edu/students/craig/1102/12Motivation%20&%20Emotions.ppt#1
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
2. Behavioral Theory (Incentives)
• Each of the two major theoretical models in behavioral
psychology posits a primary motivational factor.
• Classical conditioning states that biological responses
to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior. This
does not explain motivation to the extent that operant
conditioning does.
• Operant conditioning proposes that the primary factor is
the consequences of behavior and related expectations
via conditioning: the application of positive or negative
“reinforcers” provides incentives to increase behavior; the
application of positive or negative “punishers” provides
disincentives that decrease behavior.
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here with his written permission
3. Cognitive Theories
3a Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Cognitive dissonance theory is similar to
“disequilibrium” in Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development. CD theory states that
when there is a discrepancy between two
beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and
an action, we will act to resolve these
discrepancies and distort the facts to our
advantage if necessary. Beliefs about self can
be involved, and protecting self-esteem is
often pivotal
3a. Cognitive Dissonance
• Festinger (1957) proposed a very specific
•
•
•
cognitive source of motivation that produces
a motivating psychophysiological state.
They discovered what happens when a
person is faced with a combination of their
own actions, beliefs, and thoughts that are
contradictory, conflicting, inconsistent, or
dissonant.
According to Festinger this causes a a
tension or cognitive dissonance, often
resolved through rationalization and other
reality distortions.
For example, thinking or behaving in a
manner that is inconsistent with one’s moral
standards or one’s positive opinion of self
Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
3b. Attribution Theory
The second approach is (Heider,
1958). Every individual tries to
explain success or failure through
"attributions," which are either
internal or external, and either under
one’s control (effort, ability) or out of
one’s control (luck, task difficulty).
Heider, F.
(1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal. Relations. New York: Wiley.
3b. What is Attribution Theory
 Attribution theory is concerned with
answering the question, “Why do people do
what they do?”
 It is a theory concerned with how people
formulate explanations about the causes of
their own behavior and that of others.
 The causal explanations assume that behavior
is caused by things either inside or outside the
person, and within or outside their control.
 People attribute a causal explanations to an
atypical behavior because they want to make
sense of it.
Created by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
3b. Fritz Heider & Attribution Theory
As far back as 1944, Heider hypothesised
that . . .
1. People perceive behavior as being
caused; and
2. The causes of behavior are thought to be either
inside or outside the person.
Heider, F. (1944). Social perception and phenomenal causality. Psychological Review, 51, 358-374.
Heider concluded in 1958 that people are
“naïve lay scientists” who explain the causes
of events as best they can.
Heider, F. (1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal.
Relations. New York: Wiley.
Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
3b. Dispositional & Situational
Attributions
• Internal (dispositional) attributions: internal
characteristics such as attitude, mood, ability,
or personality.
• External (situational) attributions: behavior
has been caused by outside factors, which
– Implies the actor could not help it and had no
control over it
• Planned behaviors are attributed internally.
• Involuntary behaviors . . . internal or external.
• Attributions of cause reflect what the observer
perceives as the person or event responsible.
London South Bank University (2005). Information retrieved from http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/psycho/teaching/ppfiles/devsoco-attribution.ppt#5
Slide prepared by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
3b. Weiner’s Attribution Theory
Weiner’s theory focuses on achievement.
It identifies (a) ability, (b) effort, (c) task
difficulty, and (d) luck as causes to which
achievement or lack thereof is attributed.
Furthermore, attributions are scaled along
three dimensions: (a) locus of control, (b)
stability, and (c) controllability.
Causal attributions affect reactions to
success or failure (e.g. a perceived internal
locus of control brings a positive feeling of
success and a willingness to take credit).
London South Bank University (2005). Information retrieved from http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/psycho/teaching/ppfiles/devsoco-attribution.ppt#5
Slide Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
3b. Weiner’s Attribution Theory
To what is success
attributed? What is
the cause?
Stable
Unstable
Internal
Ability
Effort
Task
Difficulty
Luck
Locus of Control
External
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
3b. Weiner’s AttributionTheory
High Achievers
Low Achievers
Locus of
Control
Perceived
internal
locus
Perceived
external
locus
Stability
Perceived
high
ability
Often
doubt their
ability
Controllability
Confidence
and high
self-esteem
Low selfconfidence
and subject
to chance
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
3b. Attribution Dimensions & Combinations
Internal
Stable
External
Unstable
Stable
Unstable
Special
Help or No
Help from
Others
Luck or
Chance
Controllable
Usual
Effort
Special
Effort
Help or No
Help from
Others
Not
Controllable
Ability
Mood
Task Difficulty
London South Bank University (2005). Information retrieved from http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/psycho/teaching/ppfiles/devsoco-attribution.ppt#5
Slide arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
4. Cognitive-Behavioral Theories or
“Expectancy” or “Value-Expectancy” Theories
4a. Vroom (1964) proposes that Motivation = Perceived
Probability of Success (Expectancy) X Connection Between
Success and Reward (Instrumentality) X Value of
Obtaining the Goal (Value). Since the three factors of
Value, Expectancy, and Instrumentality are multiplied by
each other, a low value in one will result in a low value in
motivation. If one doesn't believe he can be successful
OR does not see a connection between his activity and
reward OR does not value the results of success, then
motivation is lacking.
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.
4b. Rotter’s Theory Combines
Behaviorism and Personality Research
To understand behavior, one must take (a) the individual (life
history of learning and experiences) and (b) the environment
(stimuli the person is aware of and responding to) into account.
If you change the way the person thinks, or change the
environment he or she is responding to, you change behavior.
Behavior Potential
is the likelihood of
engaging in a
particular behavior
in a specific
situation.
=f
Expectancy is the
subjective probability
that a given behavior
will lead to a
particular outcome,
or reinforcer.
Reinforcement Value
refers to the
desirability of these
outcomes. Things we
want to happen, that
we are attracted to,
have a high
reinforcement value.
Behavior Potential (BP), Expectancy (E) and Reinforcement Value (RV) can be
combined into a predictive formula for behavior: BP = f(E & RV)
Psychological Situation. Although the psychological situation does not figure directly into
Rotter's formula for predicting behavior, he believes it is always important to keep in mind that
different people interpret the same situation differently.
Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. New York: Prentice Hall. Slide designed by Dr. Gordon Vessels, 2005.
4c. Expectancy-Value Theory (Cognitive Behavioral)
Atkinson’s (1957) expectancy-value theory states that
achievement, performance, persistence, and choice
are directly linked to an individual’s expectancyrelated and task-value beliefs.
Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behaviors. Psychological Review, 64, 359-372.
The expectancy aspect focuses on beliefs about
efficacy, competence, expectations for success, and
failure, plus feelings of control over outcomes.
The value aspect focuses on incentives, personality,
character, and reasons for engaging in activities.
Most expectancy-value theorists see expectancies and
values as positively related.
Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behaviors. Psychological Review, 64, 359-372.
4e. Values-Expectations + Internal-External
Leonard, Beauvais, and Scholl (1995) proposed 5 factors as the sources: (1)
Instrumental Motivation (rewards and punishers), (2) Intrinsic Process
Motivation (enjoyment, fun),
(3) Goal Internalization (self-determined values and goals), (4) Internal SelfConcept-Based Motivation (matching behavior with internally-developed ideal
self), and (5) External Self Concept-based Motivation (matching behavior with
externally-developed ideal self). Individuals are influenced by all five factors,
though in varying degrees that change from situation to situation.
Leonard, Nancy, Beauvais, Laura Lynn, and Scholl, Richard W. (1995). A Self-concept based model of work motivation. Paper presented at the annual
Academy of Management meeting. Retrieved from http://www.cba.uri.edu/Scholl/Papers/Self_Concept_Motivation.HTM.
Factors one and five are external. Individuals who are instrumentally
motivated are influenced by immediate actions in the environment (e.g.
operant conditioning); individuals who are self-concept motivated are
influenced by their constructions of external demands and ideals (e.g., social
cognition).
Factors two, three, and four are internal. Intrinsic means the specific task
is interesting and provides immediate internal reinforcement (e.g., cognitive
or humanistic theory). The individual with a goal-internalization orientation is
task-oriented (e.g., humanistic or social cognition theory); the person with an
internal self-concept orientation is influenced by individual constructions of
the ideal self (humanistic or psychoanalytic theory).
Modified version of a list developed by Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here with the written permission of Bill Huitt.
5. Social Learning/Cognition Theories
• Social learning theory suggests that modeling (imitating others) and
vicarious reinforcement (watching others have consequences applied
to their behavior) are important motivators. Associated with Bandura.
Social cognition theory proposes reciprocal determinism. In this view,
the environment, an individual's behavior, and the individual's
characteristics (e.g., knowledge, emotions, cognitive development)
influence and are influenced by each other.
• Albert Bandura highlights the concepts of self-efficacy (the belief that a
particular action goal can be accomplished) and self-regulation (the (a)
establishment of goals, (b) development of a plan, (c) commitment to
implement that plan, (d) implementation of the plan, and (e)
subsequent reflection and modification or redirection).
• All of these concepts are incorporated into various eclectic
“expectancy” and “values and expectancy” theories to be described
and elaborated in the next few slides.
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here with his written permission.
5a. Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory
Bandura’s social-cognitive model of motivation places
emphasis on self-efficacy.
“Bandura defined self-efficacy as individuals’ ‘confidence in their
ability to organize and execute a given course of action to solve a
problem or accomplish a task’; he characterized it as a
‘multidimensional construct that varies in strength, generality,
and level (or difficulty)’ ” (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002, p. 110).
Self-efficacy focuses on EXPECTATIONS:
• Expectations for success (Outcome Expectations) — a
belief that certain behaviors will result in certain outcomes.
• Efficacy Expectations — a belief about whether or not one
can perform the behaviors necessary to attain a certain
outcome
Extracted from Eccles, Allan & Wigfield, Jacquelyn (2002). Development of Achievement Motivation, First Edition. San Diego,
CA: Academic Press.
Bandura
mentions several
motives
for imitating
a
5b.
Bandura’s
Social
Learning
Theory
model:
a. past reinforcement
b. promised reinforcement (incentives)
c. vicarious reinforcement -- seeing and recalling the
model
being reinforced.
These are traditionally viewed as things that “cause”
learning
Bandura proposes instead that they cause us to show
what
we have learned, that is, they are motives.
Negative “motivations” give us reason not to imitate:
d. past punishment.
e. promised punishment (disincentives)
d. vicarious punishment.
He states that punishment does not work as well as
Reinforcement
and can produce undesirable
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here with his writtenpermission
6. Humanistic Theories of Motivation
6a. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow is known for his hierarchy of needs theory. He proposed
that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain
lower-level or deficiency needs must be satisfied before activities that could
satisfy higher-level needs can be seriously pursued.
“According to Maslow, there are several types of needs (physiological,
safety, love, and esteem) that must be satisfied before a person can act
unselfishly. He called these ‘deficiency needs.’ As long as we are motivated
to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards growth, toward selfactualization” (Gwynne, 1997, para 3).
Gwynne, Robert (1997). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved from http://web.utk.edu/~gwynne/maslow.HTM
6a. Maslow's “Metamotivation”
Self actualizing people are motivated differently than
those who are not self-actualizing. Maslow calls this
Metamotivation or “B-Motivation” for (Being
Motivation). Self-actualizers are not preoccupied by
reducing tensions but by the desire to enrich their lives.
The motivation to self actualize is intrinsic – actions for
the sake of actions rather than for some external reward.
Maslow's “D – Motivation” or
“Deficiency Motivation”
D-Motivation rectifies deficiencies and the physical,
emotional, and cognitive tension or discomfort associated
with them – biologic, psychological gratification through
lower level needs
Falikowski, A. (2002). Mastering Human Relations, 3rd Edition. Pearson Education. Summary information on Motivation retrieved from
Karen Hamilton’s webpage at http://webhome.idirect.com/~kehamilt/ipsymot.html. Slide arrangement by Dr. Gordon Vessels, 2005.
Maslow’s Needs in Detail
Extracted from http://web.utk.edu/~gwynne/maslow.HTM
Physiological Needs
“Physiological needs are very basic needs such as air, water, food, sleep, sex, etc. When these are not satisfied we
may feel sickness, irritation, pain, discomfort, etc. These feelings motivate us to alleviate them as soon as possible to
establish homeostasis. Once they are alleviated, we may think about other things.”
Safety Needs
“Safety needs have to do with establishing stability and consistency in a chaotic world. These needs are mostly
psychological in nature. We need the security of a home and family. However, if a family is dysfunction, i.e., an abusive
husband, the wife cannot move to the next level because she is constantly concerned for her safety. Love and
belongingness have to wait until she is no longer cringing in fear. Many in our society cry out for law and order because
they do not feel safe enough to go for a walk in their neighborhood. Many people, particularly those in the inner cities,
unfortunately, are stuck at this level. In addition, safety needs sometimes motivate people to be religious. Religions
comfort us with the promise of a safe secure place after we die and leave the insecurity of this world.”
Love Needs
“Love and belongingness are next on the ladder. Humans have a desire to belong to groups: clubs, work groups,
religious groups, family, gangs, etc. We need to feel loved (non-sexual) by others, to be accepted by others.
Performers appreciate applause. We need to be needed. Beer commercials, in addition to playing on sex, also often
show how beer makes for camaraderie. When was the last time you saw a beer commercial with someone drinking
beer alone?”
Esteem Needs
“There are two types of esteem needs. First is self-esteem which results from competence or mastery of a task.
Second, there's the attention and recognition that comes from others. This is similar to the belongingness level,
however, wanting admiration has to do with the need for power. People who have all of their lower needs satisfied,
often drive very expensive cars because doing so raises their level of esteem. ‘Hey, look what I can afford-peon!’ "
Self-Actualization
“The need for self-actualization is "the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is
capable of becoming." People who have everything can maximize their potential. They can seek knowledge, peace,
esthetic experiences, self-fulfillment, oneness with God, etc. It is usually middle-class to upper-class students who take
up environmental causes, join the Peace Corps, go off to a monastery, etc.”
Gwynne, Robert (1997). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Retrieved from http://web.utk.edu/~gwynne/maslow.HTM
6b. GLASSER’S CONTROL/CHOICE THEORY
Glasser's Basic Needs:
1. need to survive and reproduce
2. need to belong, love, share, cooperate
3. need for power
4. need for freedom
5. need for fun or pleasure and excitement
All basic needs are produced by genetics and biology. Everyone is motivated.
All people control their behavior to maximize need satisfaction: behavior is
inspired by what a person wants and needs most (love, power, freedom, etc.)
BUT how needs are satisfied is not universal. We all have a picture album in
mind where we store images of what we want and what we have. We have an
ideal world in mind. The picture of the ideal may change. Some people have
an unrealistic picture. If what we want and what we get is equivalent, then little
frustration occurs. The greater the frustration, the greater the motivation to
act ( this explains why people fly into action).
Falikowski, A. (2002). Mastering Human Relations, 3rd Edition. Pearson Education. Summary information on Motivation retrieved from
Karen Hamilton’s webpage at http://webhome.idirect.com/~kehamilt/ipsymot.html. Slide arrangement by Dr. Gordon Vessels, 2005.
6c. Achievement Need Theory
Personality
Traits
Motive to
Achieve
Success
Motive to
Avoid
Failure
Situational
Conditions
X
X
Probability
of
Success
Incentive
Value of
Success
Resultant
Tendency
=
=
Emotional
Reactions
Approach
Success
Focus on
Pride of
Success
OR
OR
Avoid
Failure
Focus on
Shame of
Failure
Behavior
Observed
Seek out
achievement
situations,
50/50 risks,
challenges;
evaluative
situations;
good
performance
Avoid
achievement
situations;
avoid risk of
failure/shame;
perform poorly
in evaluating
situations.
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt, available on his website. Used here with his written consent.
6c. Need for Achievement Theory
McClelland (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, &
Lowell, 1953) proposed that all humans have
a distinct internal motive to:
• Seek achievement
• Attain realistic but challenging goals
• Advance
Individuals are thought to posses a strong
need for feedback regarding their
achievement and progress, and need a sense
of accomplishment.
Arranged by Dr. Gordon Vessels 2005
7. Psychoanalytic Theory of Motivation
The psychoanalytic theories of motivation propose a
variety of influences. Freud (1990) suggested that all
action or behavior is a result of potentially harmful
internal, biological instincts classified into two
categories: life (sexual) and death (aggression).
Freud's students broke with him over this concept.
For example, Erikson proposed that interpersonal
and social relationships are fundamental along with
invariant developmental crises that must be resolved
or responded to in some way; Adler proposed that the
need for power is basic; Jung proposed that
temperament and the search for meaning is basic.
Modified version of information made available by Professor Bill Huitt on his website. Used here with his written permission