Download The Roman Baths Next stop, the Baths! The ancient Romans might

The Roman Baths
Next stop, the Baths!
The ancient Romans might hit the baths first, and then wander down to the
Forum, although many did prefer to get their shopping done early. In all but the
largest baths, there were separate hours for men and women. The women's time
slot was apparently much shorter, so that women probably had to be more
careful scheduling. Large baths had duplicate facilities.
The Public Baths were extremely popular. Roman women and men tried to
visit the baths at least once every day. The baths had hot and cold pools, towels,
slaves to wait on you, steam rooms, saunas, exercise rooms, and hair cutting
salons. They had reading rooms and libraries, as among the freeborn, who had
the right to frequent baths, the majority could read. They even had stores,
selling all kinds of things, and people who sold fast food. The baths were
arranged rather like a very large mall, with bathing pools.
The baths were packed. The people loved them. At one time, there were as
many as 900 public baths in ancient Rome. Small ones held about 300 people,
and the big ones held 1500 people or more! Some Roman hospitals even had
their own bathhouses. A trip to the bath was a very important part of
ancient Roman daily life.
Could kids use the baths? No. Was there an admission charge to the baths? Yes.
Could slaves use the baths? Properly, no. But the people who could, as a matter
of course, brought their slave attendants with them.
The Roman Legion
It's interesting to note that most Roman armor probably did not shine. They used a lot of
chain mail (a sort of cloth made of circular links), which doesn't shine. They also made
scale armor (metal plates about 3 inches long and about an inch wide, sewn together on a
linen/leather backing.) Some armor was made of leather, with metal on the inside,
probably against a backing of linen, to make three layers. The ancient Romans loved the
ornate and glittery, bit their armor most probably did not shine.
Still, the army was quite a sight! The army was organized into legions. Each legion has
5000 men. Each legion has its own leader, its own banner, and its own number. Each also
had its own nickname. They moved camp every night. Men would wander the new
campsite, visiting and drilling. The men could always find their way back to their own
legion. They simply looked for their legion banner. Once they found that, they looked for
their fighting group banner. Each legion was broken into several fighting groups. Camp
was very colorful.
A legionary's uniform included a rectangular shield, a short sword, a dagger, a metal
jacket, a belt, a helmet, a kilt, a shirt, and hobnailed sandals. The legion wore special hobnailed sandals. Unless they wanted to sneak in quietly, a legion on the move was quite a
sight.
Their hobnailed sandals were designed to make a loud noise as they marched. They were
also accompanied by trumpets and other noise makers. Add the many colorful banners
waving above their heads, and you can probably understand why an approaching legion
was an impressive sight and sound.
Each legionary served for 25 years. If they lived through their service, they could retire.
They were given land and a pension so that they live comfortably.
The legion was very organized, and very successful. When the legion marched into a new
region, some people gave up with a fight. The legion's fighting power was that famous!
Daily Life - Afternoon Activities
In the afternoon, wealthy Romans took some time
to rest at home, or to relax with friends.
The poor worked constantly.
Luncheon was usually a cold meal, eaten about 11 o'clock in the morning.
Lunch was bread, salad, olives, cheese, fruit, nuts, and cold meat left over from
dinner the night before.
Siesta: After lunch, the ancient Romans enjoyed a midday rest or siesta. In
summer, nearly everybody took a nap. In ancient Rome, the streets were as
nearly deserted during the midday rest period as they were at midnight. Even
kids got a 2-3 hour break from school during the midday rest. (After siesta, kids
returned to school to finish their school day.)
Ancient Roman Weddings
When did they get married? Both parties had to be adults, and they could not marry more than one person at a time. For the first 500
years in Rome, divorce was unknown. So, a great deal of care was taken selecting a marriage partner. Probably the groom had to be at
least 14 years old, and the bride had to be at least 12 years old. The bride and groom could not be closed related. In general, marriage
was forbidden between relatives four times removed, and between anyone connected by marriage. Thus, in ancient Rome, if you
happened to fall in love with your fourth cousin, or your sister's husband's brother, too bad!
Consent: Consent to the marriage had to be shown. Consent was very important and consisted of three steps. First, consent had to be
shown in public prior to the wedding ceremony. One way to show consent was for the future bride and groom to appear in public
holding hands! Consent was shown again during the wedding ceremony, and once again at the door of her new home, before she
entered. More on consent below!
Engagement: An engagement period before the wedding was considered good manners, but it wasn't a legal requirement. An
engagement ring was usual, when affordable. This ring was worn on the third finger of the left hand, as it is today, because the ancient
Romans believed that a nerve ran from this finger directly to the heart! The ancient Romans invented the use of rings as tokens of
friendship and engagement.
Dowries: A woman brought into her marriage what goods her family could supply, or goods she could supply herself. The bride's
family might provide slaves, clothing, jewels, furniture. These belongings became the property of her husband.
Wedding Preparations: On the night before her wedding day, the bride-to-be gave her bulla (her birth locket) to her father, and gave
her toys away to her family. She tried on her wedding dress, which was straight tunic, woven in one piece, which had to be long
enough to reach her feet. On the morning of her wedding day, the bride was dressed by her mother. The most important part of her
wedding dress was a belt, tied around her waist in the "knot of Hercules". (Hercules was the guardian of wedded life.) Only the
husband could untie this knot. Over her tunic wedding dress, the bride worn a flame colored veil. The veil was topped with a wreath of
flowers, which the bride had to gather herself.
The Wedding Ceremony: Only the three acts of expressing consent were necessary. Everything else varied. The actual ceremony
was held usually at the bride's father house, with guests present.
There had to be witnesses to the ceremony to make it legal, typically at least ten witnesses. The bride and groom would stand before a
priest, hold hands. The bride had agreed to the wedding by appearing in public holding hands with her future husband. Once again, the
bride had to consent to the marriage during the wedding ceremony, this time by saying words of consent in public. These words were
a chant, and were the same words for all brides and grooms. The bride would say: "Quando tu Gaius, ego Gaia." (When-and whereyou are Gaius, I then-and there-am Gaia.) This chant may have been chosen for the lucky meaning of the name.
After the words of consent, the bride and groom sat on stools, facing the alter. An offering was made to the god Jupiter, which usually
consisted of cake. Once the priest had made the offering, this cake was eaten by the bride and groom. Then followed congratulations
by the guests.
Wedding Dinner: After the actual wedding ceremony, there was usually a dinner at the bride's house or possibly the groom's. Dinner
was ended by passing out pieces of wedding cake, as it often is today.
Bridal Procession: After the dinner party, the bride was escorted to her husband's house. This ceremony was essential to the validity
of the marriage, so it could not be omitted. Anyone could join the procession, and many people did, just for fun. In the evening,
torchbearers and flute players appear at the bride's father's house. The mother held her daughter, and the groom took his bride with a
pretend show of force from her mother's arms. Then, everyone and anyone paraded over to the groom's house. On the way, nuts were
thrown, rather like we throw rice today.
Arrival at her new home: In front of the open door, the bride once more recited the consent chant. Then the bride was carried over
the threshold by her new husband, and the doors were closed against the general crowd. Invited guests, however, could enter. In the
fireplace, wood was laid ready for a fire. The bride lit this wood with her "marriage" torch, a special torch that had been carried in
front of her during the procession. The torch was then blown out, and tossed among the guests, who scrambled for it, like a bride's
flower bouquet is today.
Breakfast
The ancient Romans started their day with breakfast
The lower class Romans (plebeians) might have a breakfast of bread, dry or
dipped in wine, and water. Sometimes olives, cheese, or raisins were sprinkled
on the bread. In 1c CE, it became the custom to distribute bread daily to the
unemployed. Workmen, on their way to work, grabbed some bread, and ate it
on the way.
The upper class Romans (patricians) enjoyed fresh meat, fish, fruits,
vegetables, bread, and used honey to sweeten food. (Sugar was unknown).
They had slaves to cook and clean. Slaves cut their food for them, as they didn't
use forks or knives, but ate with their fingers. A wet towel was handy (or
brought by slaves) to tidy up after a meal. Early in the morning, schoolboys, on
the run, often stopped at a bakery for a quick meal, or to buy a pancake to eat
on their way to school.
Clothing & Hair Styles
Then, they got dressed to go out.
CLOTHING & HAIR STYLES: The very early Romans wore a toga. It looked like a white sheet 9 yards
long. Togas were arranged very carefully, in a stylish way. Togas fell out of style rather early. (The toga
was inconvenient, and people felt the cold when they wore it.) To get anyone to wear them, even very early
emperors had to legislate the wearing of togas by at least senators. Eventually, the emperors gave up. The
Romans switched to comfortable tunics, which looked like long tee-shirts. They were far more practical.
Tunics were made of cool linen, for summer wear, and warm wool, for winter wear. Sometimes, they worn
trouser like affairs.
Roman Men: Rings were the only jewelry worn by Roman citizen men, and good manners dictated only
one ring. Of course, some men did not follow "good taste", and wore as many as sixteen rings. Hairstyles
and beards varied with the times. In early Roman times, men wore long hair and full beards. For a while,
they were clean-shaven with short hair. About 1c CE, they had started to style their hair, and wear beards
again.
Roman Women: Women enjoyed gazing at themselves in mirrors of highly polished metal (not glass). The
ancient Roman women loved ornate necklaces, pins, earrings, bracelets and friendship rings. Pearls were
favorites. Women often dyed their hair, usually golden-red. They used false hairpieces to make their hair
thicker or longer. Sometimes, Roman women wore their hair up, in carefully arranged styles, held with
jeweled hairpins. Sometimes they wore it down, curled in ringlets. Parasols were used, or women might
carry fans made of peacock feathers, wood or stretched linen. Women's street shoes were made of leather,
like a man's. In the house, most Romans (men and women) wore sandals. Women's sandals were brightly
colored. Some were even decorated with pearls.
Roman Boys: Boys wore a tunic down to their knees. It was white, with a crimson border. Once a boy
became a man, he put aside his childish clothes, and wore an all-white tunic. A boy became a citizen at age
16 or 17. The year was selected by choosing the date which came closest to March 17th. Coming of age,
becoming a citizen, was quite a celebration. On a boy's sixteenth or seventeenth birthday, the boy dressed
himself in a white tunic, which his father adjusted. The day ended with a dinner party, given by the father,
in honor of the new Roman citizen.
Roman Girls: Girls wore a simple tunic with a belt at the waist. When they went outside, they wore a
second tunic that reached their feet.
BULLA: Children wore a special locket around their neck, given to them at birth, called a bulla. It
contained an amulet as a protection against evil and was worn on a chain, cord, or strap. Girls wore their
bulla until the eve of their wedding day, when their bulla was set aside with other childhood things, like her
toys. Boys wore their bulla until they day they became a citizen. Boys bullas were put aside and carefully
saved. A boy's bulla could be wore by the owner again, if he won special honors. For example, if he
became a successful general, and won the honor of triumph, he would wear his bulla in ceremonial parades,
to protect him from the evil jealously of men or gods.
Daily Life in the Countryside
Although life was socially much slower paced than it was in the city, it was
still Roman. The kids played the same games as kids did in the city. The atrium
was the center of the home. The baths were an important part of daily life.
There were many rural festivals to enjoy. Rich citizens escaped to their country
estates to oversee their farms, but mostly to enjoy some rest from the social
duties of the city. In the country, they enjoyed hunting, riding, fishing, and of
course, the baths, dinner, and a busy social life between the villas.
The average farmer probably worked hard seven days a week, but enjoyed the
local town on market day, selling his wares, meeting with friends, catching up
with news. His wife looked after the house and family and supervised the
slaves.
Dining was different than it was in the city. In the city, big meals were enjoyed
in the late evening. On the farms, the day ended with an early meal, usually
food left over from the large noon meal.
Daily Life
What we don't know: In spite of the many inscriptions and other pieces of the past scholars have
labored to put together for us, we still don't know much about ancient Roman daily life. We still don't
know whether the ancient Romans had wastebaskets, or how common cats were, or whether anyone kept
a dog indoors. We don't know if they made their bed in the morning or folded up their bedclothes, stashed
them away and used the bed as day furniture; or indeed, whether most of the time they had beds or just
futons on the floor. (Stuffed with what?) We know they had temples, but what did they do in there? It will
be interesting to see what will be discovered, as scholars continue to find inscriptions, and to put pieces of
the past together!
What we do know: We know quite a bit about Roman government, which was famous for power and
law, and a great deal about Roman religion with its many Roman gods and festivals.
Rome grew from an important city into a huge, crowded, noisy, smoky, dusty city, with beautiful temples
and public buildings. The rich had gracious homes, each with an entrance atrium, which was the center of
family life. For those who were not quite as rich, there were apartment buildings, some quite nice ones,
and there were shabby tenements for the poor. Narrow streets wound between the seven hills.
Some people walked around Rome. Some were carried in covered litters, with curtained couches carried on
poles by slaves. Soldiers strode though town in chain mail or leather armor. Workmen hurried in belted
tunics of dark wool. Before daylight, boys hurried to school. Later in the day, Roman citizens strolled
around town in white wool tunics. Shops lined the streets.
Down in the Forum, courts were in session, and the great Senate orators met and argued.
Even for the poor, life in the city was lively. There was always something going on, like the many religious
festivals with entertainment paid for by the rich, and chariot racing with an open track that ran between the
seven hills. These were free spectacles that all the people could enjoy.
The ancient Romans started their day with breakfast. Then, they got dressed to go out. The kids went
school. Once they got dressed, the adults might wander down to the Forum to do their shopping and
banking. Next stop, the baths! In the afternoon, wealthy Romans took some time to rest at home. The poor
worked constantly. When the kids got home from school, they played with their friends, their toys, and
their pets. Dinner was different for the rich and the poor. But all Romans could enjoy the spectacles.
Admission was free!
The ancient Romans had gods for nearly everything. There were temples all over the Roman
Empire. There was a temple in the Forum. Every home had a household god. Most ancient
Romans had some sort of shine in their home, which might be a small display or a grand,
separate room, to honor the household god. The ancient Romans brought offerings of meat and
other items to many temples. Honoring their gods was part of ancient Romans everyday life.
Not all of the gods that the ancient Romans worshiped were originally Roman gods. The Romans
did a lot of traveling about as they developed their empire. Each time the Romans heard a myth
about a god or goddess or spirit or deity from the people they met (and conquered), if they liked
it, they adopted it and made it their own. When they heard about the Greek gods - they adopted
them all! The Roman changed many of the Greek god names to Roman names. Zeus became
Jupiter. Hera was renamed Juno. But the Romans left their personalities intact, along with their
position. Zeus/Jupiter became king of the Roman gods.
All the deities listed below are Greek and Roman gods except for Romulus and Remus. Those
particular twins do not exist in Greek mythology. They are a Roman invention.
Who's Who - Roman Deities
The world began with …
GAEA - Mother Earth
URANUS - Father Sky
SATURN - their son
Saturn's Boys
Neptune/PoseidonGod of the Sea
Jupiter/ZeusGod of the Sky
Ruler of the Gods
Pluto/HadesGod of the Underworld
Saturn's Girls
Ceres/DemeterGoddess
Agriculture
Juno/HeraQueen of Gods
(Position gained by marriage)
Goddess of Women
Vesta/HestiaGoddess
Home and Hearth (fire)
Next Generation (Kids)
APOLLO & DIANA (twins)
Apollo - god of light and music, in charge
of bringing out the sun
Diana - goddess of the hunt, in charge of
bringing out the moon
HERCULES - known for his incredible
strength.
MERCURY - god of speedy travel, god of
omens,
and Messenger of the gods (assigned
position)
VENUS - goddess of love
MINERVA - goddess of wisdom (no
mother, born directly from Jupiter's brain)
VULCAN - god of the forge, strong
weapons (Jupiter and Juno's son)
MARS - god of war (Jupiter and Juno's
son)
Next Generation
Twin sons of the war god Mars
Romulus & Remus (Founders of Rome)
Improvements under the Empire
When the Roman Republic failed, and Rome became an Empire, ruled by emperors, some things
stayed the same. Families still lived in one home. Old age was still honored. Everyone had to
worship the Roman gods. The center of each town was still the Forum. The rich lived in beautiful
homes. The poor worked all the time.
Many things changed. Although the Senate met and argued, and had advisory power, the real
power was now in the hands of an all-powerful emperor. The Roman people would never have
accepted a king. However, they seemed to have no problem accepting the leadership of a dictator,
who called himself an emperor. Under Augustus, the first Roman emperor, the people got used to
being ruled by one leader.
Other changes included:

Establishment of Public Health Programs: The government created new public health
programs. One program distributed free bread to workmen on their way to work in the
morning.

Reduction in Crime: Under the empire, the Roman legionnaires policed Rome's streets.
They worked in small groups. They could quickly band together in large groups as
necessary. Their hob-nailed sandals made quite a loud sound on Rome's cobblestone
streets. When criminals heard the legionaries approaching, they typically scattered. The
legionaries were armed and well trained.

Improvements for Women: Life was very different for women during the Empire than
it was under the Republic. During the Empire, it was legal for women to own land, run
businesses, free slaves, make wills, inherit wealth, and get a paid job. Women could even
use the public baths. There were separate hours for men and women, but women were
allowed inside. These were all new privileges.

Public Theatre: Under the empire, Rome built huge theatres. Plays were no longer
performed only in the Forum. Admission was free.
Free Spectacles: The government constructed other huge public buildings and improved open-air
facilities. These were used to host events called spectacles. Chariot racing was held in the Circus
Maximus. The Colosseum hosted the gladiator games. Admission to spectacles was free.
Roman Education
Rome as a Kingdom: In early Roman days, kids did not go to school. A Roman boy's education took
place at home. If his father could read and write, he taught his son to do the same. The father instructed his
sons in Roman law, history, customs, and physical training, to prepare for war. Reverence for the gods,
respect for law, obedience to authority, and truthfulness were the most important lessons to be taught. Girls
were taught by their mother. Girls learned to spin, weave, and sew. The rich had tutors for the children, but
mostly, the kids were taught at home. In early Roman days, kids did not go to school. A Roman boy's
education took place at home. If his father could read and write, he taught his son to do the same. The
father instructed his sons in Roman law, history, customs, and physical training, to prepare for war.
Reverence for the gods, respect for law, obedience to authority, and truthfulness were the most important
lessons to be taught. Girls were taught by their mother. Girls learned to spin, weave, and sew. The rich had
tutors for the children, but mostly, the kids were taught at home.
Rome as a Republic: About 200 BCE, the Romans borrowed some of the ancient Greek system of
education. Although they did not add many subjects, they did begin sending their boys, and some of their
girls, with their father's permission, to school, outside their home, at age 6 or 7.
The goal of education in ancient Rome was to be an effective speaker. The school day began before
sunrise, as did all work in Rome. Kids brought candles to use until daybreak. There was a rest for lunch and
the afternoon siesta, and then back to school until late afternoon. No one knows how long the school year
actually was; it probably varied from school to school. However, one thing was fixed. School began each
year on the 24th of March!
The children studied reading, writing, and counting. They read scrolls and books. They wrote on boards
covered with wax, and used pebbles to do math problems. They were taught Roman numerals, and recited
lessons they had memorized. At age 12 or 13, the boys of the upper classes attended "grammar" school,
where they studied Latin, Greek, grammar, and literature. At age 16, some boys went on to study public
speaking at the rhetoric school, to prepare for a life as an orator.
Did the kids of the poor go to school? At the poorer levels, no. School was not free. Nor should anyone
imagine large classes in special buildings. Children, educated outside of the home, were sent to the house
of a tutor, who would group-tutor. Children, educated in the home, were taught by intelligent and gifted
slaves. Children, in poorer homes, did not have slaves to teach them; they were taught by their parents, as
they were in early Roman days.
Rome as an Empire: During the empire, the Senate lost most of its power. The emperor was allpowerful. Still, education continued as it did during the Republic. Kids studied reading, writing, counting,
literature, and how to be an effective speaker.
Augustus, the first Roman emperor, ruled for 45 years. It was during the reign
of Augustus that people got used to being ruled by one leader. Rome went on
to greatness under the Empire, but the Roman Republic was no more. For 45
years, Rome was at peace. This period is the beginning of the Pax Romana, or
Roman Peace.
The phrase "Roman Peace" is a bit misleading. The Romans continued to
expand their empire during this period. They did not always do so peacefully.
Things were not always peaceful in the city of Rome. Rome did not always
have the best leadership. Some emperors were very cruel. Some were insane.
But the empire continued to be stable. For around 200 years, the Roman
Empire was united.
The Romans were great builders. Many of their incredible buildings and
engineering projects were constructed during this period of relative peace.
Culture and literature flourished. Much of Greek culture was adopted during
this period.
Plebeians and Patricians
There were two main classes of people in ancient Rome the Patricians and the Plebeians.
Patricians: The patricians were the upper class, the nobility and wealthy land owners.
Plebeians: The plebeians were the lower class. Nicknamed "plebs", the plebeians included everyone in
ancient Rome (except for the nobility, the patricians) from well-to-do tradesmen all the way down to the
very poor.
Things that were the same in both classes
Pater Familias: The family was structured in the same way in both classes. The head of the family was the
oldest male. That could be the father, the grandfather, or perhaps even an uncle. Everybody in one family
lived under one roof. Women had no authority except in the home. Old age was honored.
Atrium: Life in the home of wealthy tradesmen and patricians centered around the atrium, the central
courtyard.
Slaves: If they could afford it, both classes had slaves to do the work.
Citizenship: The citizens of Rome were adult freemen from both classes - plebs and patricians. Women,
children, and slaves were not citizens. People from all classes considered themselves Romans.
Religion: Both classes worshiped the same gods and attended religious festivals.
Language: Both classes spoke the same language, Latin.
Forum: Both classes enjoyed the activities in the Forum, including the many free activities such as
jugglers.
Things that were different
Social Life: A wealthy plebeian family and a wealthy patrician family did not meet socially. Under the
kings, it was illegal for a pleb and a patrician to marry. In 445 BCE, about 60 years after the Roman
Republic was formed, a new law was written that said it was no longer illegal for plebs and patricians to
marry.
Apartment Houses: Many plebeians lived in apartment houses called flats. Some the apartments were
above or behind their shops. Even fairly well to do tradesmen might chose to live in an apartment-building
compound over their store, with perhaps renters on the upper stories. Their own apartments might be quite
roomy, sanitary and pleasant, occasionally with running water. But others were not that nice.
The Poor, Unsanitary Living Conditions: In the poorer apartment houses, an entire plebeian family
(grandparents, parents, children) might all be crowded into one room, without running water. They had to
haul their water in from public facilities. Fire was a very real threat because people were cooking meals in
crowded quarters, and many of the flats were made of wood. They did not have toilets. They had to use
public latrines (toilets). The lower class Romans (plebeians) might have a breakfast of bread, dry or dipped
in wine, and water. Sometimes olives, cheese, or raisins were sprinkled on the bread.
Rich and Poor Life Style: The rich had beautiful mosaics on the floors of their home. They wore lots of
jewelry made of gold and gemstones. They had beautiful clothing. They enjoyed a great deal of leisure
time. The poor wore shabby clothing. Their jewelry was made of painted clay. They worked all the time.
Rise of Christianity
During the first century CE, a new religion took hold in Rome. It was called
Christianity. The followers of Christianity were called Christians. Christians
believed in one god. They refused to worship the Roman gods. In ancient
Rome, that was against the law. Christians were hunted as criminals.
In spite of persecution, Christians grew in numbers rapidly. Christians actively
looked for converts. They told others about the benefits of being Christian.
Christians came from every walk of life in ancient Rome, but Christianity had
great appeal to Rome's poor.


Life After Death: Christianity promised life after death in heaven. In the
Roman religion, only gods went to heaven. Emperors were considered
gods. Everyone else went to the underworld.
Equality: Christianity promised equal opportunity. You had to be born
into the nobility. You could join Christianity and be equally a Christian.
After nearly 300 years of persecution, in 313 CE, Emperor Constantine ruled
that Christianity was legal and that Christians would no longer be persecuted
for their beliefs. This does not mean that Rome finally had religious freedom. It
meant only that it now legal to worship Roman gods or to be Christian. Every
other religion was still illegal. The lack of religious freedom in ancient Rome
contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire.
Roman Achievements
Here are some Roman achievements, many of which
influence our life today:
1. Technology: The invention of concrete, roman roads, roman arches,
aqueducts
2. Medicine: Public health programs including welfare programs for the
poor
3. Language: Roman language (Latin), the root of the romance languages
4. Religion: Roman mythology and the Catholic faith, which kept learning
alive after the fall of the Western Roman Empire
5. Roman Law, including the law that states a person is innocent until
proven guilty (from the Twelve Tables)
6. Literature: Virgil's Aeneid
7. Art: Statues, jewelry, rings, mosaics, more
8. Customs, including the use of rings to denote friendship, engagements,
and weddings, and the use greenery to decorate during winter holidays,
and other holiday customs
Games: Many board and ball games including knuckleball (jacks) and hoops
Roman Entertainment
All Romans could enjoy the spectacles. Admission was
free!
Even for the poor, life in the city was lively. The ancient Romans enjoyed
many different kinds of entertainment. Since most events were free, poor
people could attend as well as the rich. Plays were performed in large open air
theaters. There were lots of theatres, and even the small ones could seat 7,000
people. Some events were scheduled during the day, some were scheduled at
night.
If wealthy Romans stayed home, they lit oil lamps, to enjoy the evening.
Wealthy Romans might invite friends over for a dinner party. The poor, unless
they went out, went to bed as soon as it got dark as they couldn't afford to keep
oil lamps burning.
If ancient Romans wished to go out, there was always something going on, like
the great State festivals including shows in the theatres, races, and fights in the
arenas. These were free spectacles that citizens could enjoy.
Roman Families
IN EARLY TIMES, under the Kingdom (Etruscan Rule) and the Republic: (600 BCE to
about 1c CE)
Before the Imperial Age (Age of Emperors), in very early Roman times, a typical Roman family included
unmarried children, married sons and their families, other relatives, and family slaves.
The ruler of the family was the oldest male. That could be the father, the grandfather, or perhaps even an
uncle. His title was pater familias. The pater familias led religious ceremonies, taught his sons how to farm,
and made all the important decisions. This word was law as far as his family was concerned. He owned the
property, and had total authority, the power of life and death, over every member of his household.
Even when his children became adults, he was still the boss. But, he was also responsible for the actions of
any member of his household. He could order a child or an adult out of his house. If anyone in his
household committed a crime, he could be punished for something his family did. It was not against the law
for the head of the house to put a sick baby out to die or to sell members of his family into slavery.
However, the Romans expected a pater familias to treat his family fairly. There were no laws to stop him
from treating them unfairly, but there was social pressure.
A women had no legal protection. She was not a citizen of Rome. Her job was to take care of the house
and to have children. Mothers who could read and write taught their children how to read and write. She
taught her girls how to cook and sew and care for a family. But women could leave the home to shop or see
a play or visit a temple. Women who could afford it used slaves to shop and cook. Wealthy women could
leave the house, but spent a large part of their day on personal grooming - styling their hair, and dressing
ornately.
Children were trained to obey their elders and be loyal citizens. You couldn’t talk back. If you talked back,
you could find yourself out the door. You could try to go to a friend’s house, but the odds were good that
they would not take you in.
Some families kept slaves. Slaves were treated well, in most cases, because they were property. They had
food to eat, jobs to do, and clothes to wear. But they were not free to look for a better family. They were
slaves. They were owned.
DURING THE IMPERIAL AGE, the age of Emperors: (late 1c CE to about 500 CE):
Although families still lived in one home, during the Imperial Age, women could own land, run
businesses, free slaves, make wills, be heirs themselves, and get a job in some professions. The ancient
Romans tried to help their family grow through marriage, divorce, adoption, and re-marriage. After a
divorce, ex-in-laws were still important, as were their children. Adopted children had the same rights as any
of the other children, rights based on their sex and age. In addition to wives and children, wealthy ancient
Roman homes supported slaves.
Old Age: The ancient Romans greatly respected and cared for their elderly. When the older members
of a family became too tired for other activities, they could always play with their grandchildren and great
grandchildren, all of whom had all been born under their roof, and would one day be honoring them at the
Parentalia, the festival of the dead.
Slaves: Wealthy ancient Romans had slaves. In some homes, slaves were treated like valued servants. In
others, they were severely abused. Slaves kept the furnaces burning in the bath houses, cooked meals in
smoking chimneys in the kitchens, cleaned, sewed, and did the household and garden labor for wealthy
Romans. Intelligent and gifted slaves also tutored the kids (those kids who studied their subjects at home),
kept the accounts, and sometimes ran vast farm estates or commercial departments of their masters' firms.
Roman Holidays & Festivals
The ancient Romans loved games and festivals. They were either preparing for or
enjoying some sort of festival or celebration just about every day of the year! In the
process, the ancient Romans "invented" the origins of many of the fun holiday activities
we enjoy today.
Valentine's Day: The ancient Roman festival called Lupercalia honored love. On this
day, young people in ancient Rome chose future marriage partners by drawing names
from a hat. Can you imagine choosing your husband or wife by drawing a name from a
hat? As you might guess, some of these relationships did not turn out very well and did
not last very long. But some worked out very well. Some couples stayed married for life.
The Roman god Cupid has played a role in the celebration of love for a very long time.
To the ancient Romans, Cupid was the son of Venus (the Roman goddess of love &
beauty.)
May Day: Some people believe the ancient Romans "invented" the May Pole! Like
other ancient civilizations, the ancient Romans worshipped many gods and goddesses. To
honor the deities of new life and flowers, legend suggests they cut down a tree, decorated
it with ribbons, then danced around it. This was the beginning of the May Pole. It could
be true. It would certainly be in character!
No one is quite sure who first originated the idea of May Day, but for all the ancient
cultures, the coming of summer was cause for celebration. It meant food could be
gathered and planted. As part of their celebration, some ancient people gathered flowers
and put them on window ledges to keep out pesky spirits. Others filled baskets with gifts
and greenery to give to friends and loved ones.
Decorating with greenery: The ancient Romans loved celebrations. They especially
enjoyed a holiday they celebrated around the 25th of December. The Romans feasted,
gave gifts, were merry, and decorated their homes with greenery, customs they borrowed
from the ancient Greeks!
Roman Houses - The Atrium
The lower class Romans (plebeians) lived in apartment houses, called flats,
above or behind their shops. Even fairly well-to-do tradesmen might chose to
live in an apartment-building compound over their store, with maybe renters on
the upper stories. Their own apartments might be quite roomy, sanitary and
pleasant, occasionally with running water. But others were not that nice.
In the apartment houses, or flats, an entire family (grandparents, parents, and
children) might all be crowded into one room, without running water. They had
to haul their water in from public facilities. Fire was a very real threat because
people were cooking meals in crowded quarters, and many of the flats were
made of wood. They didn't have toilets. They had to use public latrines
(toilets).
The upper class Romans (patricians) lived very differently. Their homes
were single family homes, which in ancient Rome meant the great
grandparents, grandparents, parents, and kids of one family lived in a home
together. Homes were made, quite often, of brick with red tile roofs, with
rooms arranged around a central courtyard. The windows and balconies
faced the courtyard, not the street, to keep homes safe from burglars. There
were painting on the walls and beautiful mosaics on the floor. There was very
little furniture, and no carpeting. Wealthy Romans might have a house with a
front door, bedrooms, an office, a kitchen, a dining room, a garden, a temple,
an atrium, a toilet, and a private bath.
Roman Roads
There is an old expression, "All roads lead to Rome." In ancient Rome, Rome
was the heart of the empire. Each time a new city was conquered, a road was
built from that city back to Rome.
Roads were built in straight lines. Many had gutters. Along the side of road, the
Romans built road signs called milestones. Milestones did not give any
information about other towns in the area. Milestones told how far it was back
to Rome.
Roman Theatre/Pantomime
The Romans loved live theatre. Plays were only performed during religious
ceremonies and religious festivals. However, since the ancient Romans
celebrated over 200 holidays a year, there were many opportunities for plays
to be staged. Someone had to pay for the play, as actors received a small fee.
Usually a wealthy noble would pay the bill, in honor of the gods, and give
the play to the people as a gift.
There was a Forum in the center of each town of size. The Forum was an
open area, and used as the marketplace. Typically, there were buildings
around the Forum including a major temple. When it came time to stage a
play, a wooden platform was built in the Forum.
The actors were men. Each actor played several roles. They wore simple
costumes that could be changed quickly and in public. The actors held up
happy face masks and sad faced masks, to help the audience understand
what was going on in the play. Over time, masks became very elaborate.
During the play, the Roman people would talk to each other. Because it was
noisy, sometimes people would raise their voices so they could be heard.
That made it even more noisy. So that everyone could follow along with the
story told by the actors, no matter how noisy the crowd became, the actors
would sometimes use a technique called pantomime. Pantomime is a play
without words. The actors used dance, music, hand gestures, facial
expressions, elaborate sets, and costumes to present the play.
Actors were not highly respected in ancient Rome. It could be a dangerous
occupation. When the Romans saw a play they did not like, they shouted at the
actors and told them to get off the stage. If they did not get off the stage, the
audience might begin to throw things at them.
Spartacus - Gladiator & Slave
Spartacus was born a freeman. He joined the army, but he ran away. When he was
caught, he was sold into slavery to work as a gladiator. Some gladiators were freemen.
But most, like Spartacus, were slaves, who had been sold to a gladiator school. When
these men were not fighting, they were locked up in the gladiator school, to make sure
they did not escape.
One day, in 73 BCE, Spartacus did just that - he escaped. Around 70 other gladiators
escaped with him. They armed themselves with knives from the cook's shop. They found
a wagon full of gladiator weapons. They stole those, too. They camped on Mount
Vesuvius. Rome sent an army of 3000 soldiers to capture the runaway slaves. Spartacus
attacked from the rear. The Roman army was defeated. Rome tried again. This time they
sent 6000 men. Spartacus won that battle as well.
When other slaves first heard that Spartacus had escaped, some ran away and joined
Spartacus. But when Spartacus and his men defeated the Roman army, many slaves ran
away to join him. The people knew Spartacus. He was a gladiator. He was famous.
Rome's slaves felt if they could reach Spartacus, Spartacus would keep them safe. In a
very short amount of time, Spartacus and his followers had swelled from 70 to over
100,000 people.
Rome was terrified. The wealthy Roman way of life was dependant upon slaves. That is
one reason so many poor Roman citizens were out of work. Slave labor was free. About
1/3 of the people in the Roman Empire were slaves. Wealthy citizens could not allow this
revolt to succeed, not if they wanted to keep their lifestyle.
Catching Spartacus was not easy. Spartacus and his followers spent their first winter with
plenty of good food that they stole from the surrounding countryside. They prepared for
battle. They made weapons. They drilled. The gladiators taught others how to fight like a
gladiator.
Spartacus and his followers were hunted for two years. They defeated every effort to
capture them. When Rome finally caught up with him, they killed Spartacus and
everyone with him.
After the people of Rome had chased away the last of the Etruscan kings, the
people declared Rome to be a republic. What is a republic? A republic is a
government run by elected officials. The new government of the Roman
Republic ordered the letters SPQR to be chiseled on public buildings, armor,
coins, and even park benches. The letters SPQR were chiseled on anything that
belonged to the state. Under the Republic, the state was composed of the Senate
and the People of Rome. That's what SPQR stood for - ‘Senatus Populus Que
Romanus’ - the Senate and the People of Rome. It was a publicity campaign,
and it worked! Every time the people saw the letters SPQR, they were
reassured that things had changed. The kings were gone. It was a time of new
leadership and new government. It was the time of the Roman Republic.
Status of Women in Ancient Rome
Women were not citizens of Rome. Only adult free men were citizens. The ancient
Roman men believed that a women had to be under a guardianship. That guardianship
could be a father or a husband. But they believed a women was unable to direct her own
activities. As Cicero once said of early Roman men, 'Our ancestors, in their wisdom,
considered that all women, because of their innate weakness, should be under the control
of guardians.'
During the 200 years when Rome was a kingdom (under the Etruscans), a wife was
the center of the household. It was her job to take care of her home and family. She
taught her daughters how to cook and sew. But women had no rights. A woman could not
even make a suggestion to her husband. Her guardian, her husband or father, had
complete control over her activities. In most families, women could shop, visit a temple,
or chat in public. But she could not participate in government. Few women wanted
additional rights.
During the 500 years that Rome was a Republic, women gained no legal freedoms, but
women were allowed, in private, to make suggestions about business to their husbands.
That was a huge change. Towards the end of the Republic period, and throughout much
of Empire period, a new form of marriage became popular. This marriage allowed a wife
to be placed under the control of her family instead of her husband. Typically, her family
was more lenient and also further away. While under family control, wealthy women
could hire someone to manage their money and land. The manager did what she told him
to do. That gave wealthy women a tremendous amount of freedom.
During the 500 years that Rome was an Empire, women gained considerable freedom.
Under the Empire, it became legal for women to own land, run businesses, free slaves,
make wills, inherit wealth, and get a paid job. Women were still considered to be under
the guardianship of her father or husband.
Drinking wine was part of daily life. In very early days, women were not allowed to drink
wine. Their husband might kiss them on the mouth to see if they had been drinking. It
sounds sweet, but if a husband believed his wife had been drinking, she could be severely
beaten. During the Empire, women could drink wine! Life was very different during
the Empire than it was in the days of early Rome.
The Campus
Roman Games (Field & Track) In the city, there was a place called the
Campus. This was the old drill ground for soldiers. It was a large section of
plain near the Tiber River. Over time, the Campus became ancient Rome's field
and track playground. Even such famous people as Caesar and Augustus
exercised on the Campus. Young men, all over Rome, gathered at the Campus
to play and exercise. On the Campus, men participated in foot racing, jumping,
archery, wrestling and boxing. After a bout of exercise, they might jump in the
Tiber River for a swim, or wander off to the Baths, to relax.
All over Rome, men practiced riding, fencing, wrestling, throwing, and
swimming. In the country, men went hunting and fishing. At home, men played
ball before dinner, which were games of throwing and catching. A popular
game was to throw a ball as high as they could, and then catch it before it hit
the ground. Women did not join in these games.
The Circus Maximus
The ancient Romans loved chariot racing. In early Roman times, young nobles
used to race their chariots around the 7 hills of Rome. People had to scatter to
get out of the way. They stopped for no one.
In the 6c BCE (about 2,500 years ago!), the ancient Romans built the Circus
Maximus in the city of Rome. Basically, the Maximus was a race track. It was
designed to race chariots. Women could attend the races. They could sit with
men. That was very unusual. The original Circus Maximus was built out of
wood. It burnt down a couple of times. During the Roman Empire, the Circus
Maximus was rebuilt using marble and concrete (an ancient Roman
invention!).
The Circus Maximus was not the only circus in the Roman Empire. The
Romans built circuses, outdoor racetracks, all over the Empire. The Circus
Maximus was the most well known race track. It could seat over 250,000
people! Admission was free. Anyone could attend the races, including Rome's
poor. There were races every day. It was the height of success to race in the
Circus Maximus.
The Colosseum
The Colosseum was a huge public entertainment center. The Colosseum
could seat 45,000 spectators. Some people were not lucky enough to have a
seat in the Colosseum. If you didn't mind standing, the Colosseum could hold
up to 70,000 spectators! This is where the ancient Romans gathered to watch
bloody combat between gladiators, and battles between men and wild animals.
This is where they threw people to the lions! To see men being killed was very
entertaining to the ancient Romans. On occasion, they flooded the Colosseum
with water, to hold naval battles. During the battles, many competitors died.
The ancient Romans were great builders. They built things to last. The
Colosseum was built of concrete, faced with stone, as were most amphitheaters.
It was built in the early days of the Roman Empire, around 70 CE. It was
designed to host huge spectacles. Anyone could attend the events in the
Colosseum. Admission was free.
The Evening Meal
Dinner was different for the rich and the poor
During the Republic: (And perhaps almost through the second century BCE) Romans ate mostly
vegetables, and dined very simply. Meals were prepared by the mother or by female slaves under
her direction. A table was set up in the atrium of the house. The father, mother, and children sat
on stools around the table. Often the kids waited on their parents. Table knives and forks were
unknown, but the Romans had spoons like ours today. Before food was served, it was cut into
finger food, and eaten by using your fingers or a spoon. In the last two centuries of the Republic,
this simple style of living changed a bit. A separate dining room was designed. In place of
benches or stools, there were dining couches.
During the Imperial Age:
The lower class Romans (plebeians) might have a dinner of porridge made of vegetables, or,
when they could afford it, fish, bread, olives, and wine, and meat on occasion.
Since many of the lower class were citizens, the ancient Romans had a program to help them,
somewhat like a welfare program. The welfare program was called the annona.
There was also a separate WIC-type or school-lunch program (the alimenta), just for kids, which
was instituted, or at least greatly developed in early 2c CE.
In the regular food welfare system, people were issued welfare stamps, which were little tokens,
called tesserae. How these were issued (remember there was no open public postal system), and
how Romans identified themselves to the authorities in the first place, we (the authors of this
article) do not know. You showed up with your tokens (tesserae) and containers, at large
government warehouses. You got wheat flour -- or bread already baked from government
bakeries, and other foodstuffs. Meat was distributed on special occasions with special tokens.
The upper class Romans (patricians) had dinners that were quite elaborate. The men had the
dinner parties; (decent) women and children ate separately. They ate many different foods, drank
lots of wine, and spent hours at dinner. Quite often, the men's dinner parties had entertainment,
such as dancing girls or a play, or both. Men reclined on couches, arranged around the dinner
table. In their separate dining quarters, women and children usually sat on chairs. As things
loosened up in the late Empire, decent women could go to a dinner party.
To make up for it, there were several types of events that only women attend, the most prominent
of which was the religious/social Festival of the Bona Dea, the "Good Goddess", held in the
house of the hostess. If a man went to the Bona Dea, even the woman's husband in what was after
all his own house, he could be put to death! Julius Caesar divorced one of his wives because
there were rumors that a man had slipped into the Bona Dea festival at his house. Although it was
never proved, it was on that occasion that Caesar said that not only Caesar's wife should be above
reproach, she should be "seen" to be, as well.
The Forum
Once they got dressed, adults might wander
down to the Forum to do their shopping and banking.
The Forum was the main marketplace and business center, where the
ancient Romans went to do their banking, trading, shopping, and marketing. It
was also a place for public speaking. The ancient Romans were great orators.
They loved to talk (although not nearly as much as the ancient Greeks!) The job
of their orators was not to argue, but to argue persuasively! People thronging
the Forum would stop and listen, then wander away to do their shopping, and
perhaps leave a gift at a temple for one of their gods. The Forum was also used
for festivals and religious ceremonies. It was a very busy place.
The Grand Pantheon
The Grand Pantheon was a temple first built in the very early days of the
Roman Empire. It was dedicated to all the Roman gods. The Romans used
concrete (an ancient Roman invention) to build the dome of the Pantheon,
which even today is still one of the largest single-span domes in the world. The
construction of this building greatly influenced western architecture.
Pompeii
Pompeii was an ancient Roman city, buried by a volcanic eruption. 2000 years
later, archaeologists uncovered the city. The people in ancient Pompeii did not
have a chance to escape. The city had been quickly buried by volcanic ash.
When archaeologists dug out the city, two thousand years later, they found
petrified bread still in the ovens that had been baking that day. Archaeologists
learned a great deal from the ruins of this ancient city because it had been so
well preserved.
12 Tables
After a 16-year battle with their last king, Tarquin the Proud, the people of Rome vowed
never to be ruled by a king again. The people wanted to be ruled by elected leaders. They
wanted to vote on any laws suggested. They wanted to vote on who would rule over them
each year. In 509 BCE, over 2500 years ago, the citizens of Rome created a new
government. They called it THE ROMAN REPUBLIC.
Although many things changed, and much improved, women, children, and slaves were
still not citizens of Rome. They had no voice in government. Only adult free Roman men
were citizens.
But, things did improve under the Republic. About 50 years after the Roman Republic
was formed, the leaders of the Republic wrote down many of the old laws, to make sure
everyone understood them. History refers to this group of laws as "The Twelve Tables"
because the written laws were organized into 12 sections.
These laws talked about property, crime, family, theft, marriage and inheritance. It does
not really matter what they said, although the laws did try to be fair. What matters is that
these laws were written down. They were engraved on tablets of metal and put on display
at the Forum in the city of Rome, so that everyone could see them. Each law applied to
every Roman citizen, be he rich or poor. That was a huge change for the better!
Here are a few of the lawsin the Twelve Tables
These have been reworded
1. If you are called to go to court, you must go. If you don’t show up, you
can be taken to court by force.
2. If you need a witness to testify and he will not show up, you can go once
every three days and shout in front of his house.
3. Should a tree on a neighbor's farm be bend crooked by the wind and lean
over your farm, you may take legal action for removal of that tree.
4. If it's your tree, it’s your fruit, even if it falls on another man’s land.
5. A person who had been found guilty of giving false witness shall be
hurled down from the Tarpeian Rock.
6. No person shall hold meetings by night in the city.
Emperor Nero
There are many stories and legends about Emperor Nero. Most are not very
pleasant. Nero was not the first insane emperor in office. But he was certainly
one of the most famous.
Nero did not go insane all at once. Rather, he went insane slowly. As time went
on, his behavior became more and more odd, and then more and more
murderous.
The leaders of Rome in the Senate wanted to do something about it, but they
were afraid. It was not until Nero ordered some of the members of the Senate to
kill themselves that they finally took action. The Senate ordered Nero's
immediate execution. When Nero heard about it, he killed himself.
The legend of Romulus and Remus
The ancient Romans loved to hear the story of Romulus and Remus. In their
eyes, this story explained why Rome had the right to rule.
According to the legend, Romulus and Remus justified their right to rule
because their mother was a princess and their father was the war god Mars.
Rhea was married to Mars, the Roman god of war. Rhea had twin sons. She
loved her boys, but there were plots afoot by other gods and goddesses to harm
her father, herself, her husband, and her children. To protect the boys, she set
them adrift on the river, hoping someone would find them. Who would not love
such beautiful boys?
Sure enough, first they were found by a she-wolf who fed them. Then a
shepherd and his wife adopted the boys.
As the twins grew older, they decided they did not want to take care of sheep.
They wanted to be kings. They decided to build a city on the shores of the
Tiber. They both wanted to be the only king. They quarreled. In a fit of rage,
Romulus picked up a rock, killed his brother, and made himself king.
That’s how Rome started.
The Etruscans How Rome Began
Nearly 3000 years ago, a tribe of people called the Latins lived in a small
village on the Tiber River. This village grew to become the famous city of
Rome.
Around 900 BCE, a mysterious group of people arrived on the Italian
peninsula. Nobody knows where they come from, but archaeologists believe
they probably arrived from Asia Minor.
The Etruscans must have known the Greeks. Their alphabet was based on the
Greek alphabet. Their gods looked like humans, just like the Greek gods. But
the Etruscans were not Greeks. From the artifacts they left behind, scientists are
fairly certain that in the Etruscan culture, women and men were fairly equal in
status. That was certainly not the Greek way of life.
The Etruscans organized their towns into city-states, each ruled by a king. The
city-states worked together in a league - the Etruscan League.
The league began to trade with people in the east and people along the African
coastline. Their trade routes included the tiny village on the Tiber River. Even
in very early times, Rome was a busy place. The early Romans (the Latins)
learned a great deal from the Etruscan traders.
While the Etruscans were building their own civilization, the city of Rome
grew more powerful. Soon, Rome was a center of trade and commerce. Some
of Rome's early kings were Etruscans.
Punic Wars
A long time ago, when Rome was still a Republic, a big fight broke out between Rome and Carthage. Carthage was an
ancient city-state in North Africa, about 300 miles from Rome. Carthage and Rome had never liked each other, but they
had, for the most part, left each other alone in the past. Both cities were busy building empires of their own. Carthage
had grown into a huge empire. Carthage had a strong army, a strong navy, and a strong government.
First Punic War: One day, Rome took a good look at how big Carthage was getting. The problem, as Rome saw it, was
that Carthage controlled three islands off the coast of Italy. That was too close for comfort. Rome decided that Carthage
needed to join the Republic. Carthage disagreed. Carthage and Rome fought for 20 years. This was the first Punic War.
Nobody won. After 20 years of fighting, all they had accomplished was to kill a lot of people and to cause a lot of
hatred. To end the fighting, Carthage offered Rome a deal. Carthage said: “If you’ll go away and leave us alone, we’ll
give you the island of Sicily.” Rome took the deal. They also took Sardinia and Corsica, the other two islands off the
coast of Italy. Carthage was furious. But they were tired of fighting Rome. Carthage decided to fight Spain instead, and
make up the land they had lost there. The general took his army and his nine-year-old son, Hannibal, and left for Spain.
Before he left home, he made his son swear that as soon as he was old enough, Hannibal would fight the Romans and
make them pay for all the lives they had cost. Hannibal promised. That was the beginning of the legend of Hannibal,
military genius.
Hannibal: Over the next several years, while fighting in Spain, Hannibal learned to be a strong leader. His Dad and his
men had taught him well. But mostly, he was naturally tricky. Hannibal won most of his battles by coming up with
clever ideas. One time, while fighting at sea, Hannibal had his men dump barrels full of live snakes onto the deck of an
enemy ship. The enemy had not expected Hannibal to do that. They weren’t prepared to fight snakes. Hannibal won
that battle easily. A few years after his Dad died, the soldiers in Spain chose him to be their new general. He was only
26 years old at the time. Hannibal did not hesitate. He took the job, married a Spanish princess, and started wars with
several cities in Spain. His plan was to conquer all of Spain.
Second Punic War: One of the cities he attacked happened to be good friends with Rome. Rome decided to lend a
hand. But Rome did not send help to Spain. They declared war on Carthage, Hannibal’s hometown and the center of
the Carthage Empire. That was fine with Hannibal. He had never forgotten the promise he had made to his father. He
had orders from Carthage to fight Rome. He needed to take Rome by surprise. He decided to attack Rome from the
north. Rome would never expect that. Hannibal’s plan was to march 90,000 foot soldiers, 12,000 cavalry, and 37
elephants from Spain, through Gaul, over the Alps, into Italy, and then take Rome by force. His plan did not work as
expected. The route was more rugged that he had expected. He lost nearly all his elephants and half his men on the trip.
He expected people in Northern Italy to help him. They did help him by leaving him alone, but they would not join his
army. Carthage did not have a strong navy to use to send supplies. Hannibal came up with a new plan. Instead of
marching on Rome, he drove Rome crazy by attacking smaller outposts and stealing food and weapons, food intended
for Rome. Hannibal and his men stayed on the Italian peninsula for 15 years, causing trouble where he could. In 203
BCE, Rome had had it with Hannibal. They couldn’t catch him, so they attacked Carthage instead. Carthage, in a panic,
called Hannibal home. Before Hannibal could arrive, Carthage had agreed to peace terms with Rome. Terms:
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Carthage would leave Spain, Gaul, and Italy
Carthage would reduce their navy to 20 warships
Carthage had to pay 5000 talents (the money of the time) in war damages
Once Hannibal arrived home, the leaders in Carthage changed their minds. They decided not to honor their peace
terms. Rome was furious. They sent an army to Carthage. Hannibal’s army lost, but Hannibal managed to get away. If
possible, Rome was even more furious. Carthage had not kept their promise. Again. Rome still did not have their hands
on Hannibal. This time, the peace terms were more severe. Terms: Carthage called it quits. They left Spain. They left
Gaul. They left Italy. They reduced their navy. They paid the talents they owed each year, promptly. The 2 nd Punic War
was finally over.
Julius Caesar
Julius Caesar was a great general and an important leader in ancient Rome.
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During his lifetime, he had held just about every important title in the Roman Republic including
consul, tribune of the people, high commander of the army, and high priest.
He suggested new laws, most of which were approved by the Senate.
He reorganized the army.
He improved the way the provinces were governed.
The Romans even named a month after him, the month of July for Julius Caesar. When Julius Caesar said
he had something to say, the people flocked to the Forum to hear his ideas. His ideas had been good ones.
The people trusted him. Julius Caesar told the people that he could solve Rome's problems.
Certainly, the Republic had problems. Crime was everywhere. Taxes were outrageous. People were hungry.
Many were out of work. It was easier to use slaves to do work than hire Roman people, but the dependency
on slave labor was causing Rome unemployment problem.
The people were angry that their government had not been able to solve the many problems facing the
Republic. Julius Caesar spoke publicly to the people about these problems, and promised to solve them if
he could.
The people supported Caesar. The people wanted to see Julius Caesar in a strong position of power so he
could solve the problems facing the Republic. As Julius Caesar became more popular with the people, he
also became more powerful.
Leaders in the Senate began to worry. They were afraid Julius Caesar might take over the government by
force, and rule Rome as a king. After all, Caesar had his own army, one of the finest, perhaps the finest.
The leaders of ancient Rome had vowed that the Roman people would never be ruled by a king again. Their
worried were justified. They were right. Julius Caesar did want to take over the government.
One of the laws of the original Twelve Tables was that no general could enter the city with his army. Julius
Caesar ignored this law. In 49 BCE, he entered Rome with the Roman Legion, and took over the
government. The poor people of Rome, who made up the bulk of the population, were glad. The people
called him "father of the homeland“. The Senate was furious.
To find out what happened next, explore the links below.