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CHAPTER 21 Toward Empire
This chapter describes the Spanish-American War and the decision of the United States to
acquire an overseas empire.
1. AMERICA LOOKS OUTWARD
America had always expanded, but expansion during the 1890s had several novel aspects. The United
States now took strategically placed islands that were never intended to become more than
colonies.
A. Catching the Spirit of Empire
For generations, Americans had looked inward, but by the 1870s, there was a stirring of interest in
areas beyond the boundaries of the United States. As the frontier receded, some Americans felt it
would be necessary to expand abroad, especially in order to gain markets in Latin America, Asia and
Africa. The popularity of evolutionary ideas also encouraged expansion, because these ideas taught
Americans to view native people elsewhere as children in need of guidance. The missionary spirit was
also still strong, as illustrated by the popularity of Josiah Strong's book, Our Country (1885).
B. Reasons for Expansion
Stimulated by a closing frontier and an expanding economy at home, the United States became
increasingly interested in the worldwide scramble for colonies in the latter nineteenth century.
Advocates of Anglo-Saxon racial superiority exhorted expansion of American trade and dominion as
both our duty and destiny in "civilizing" the less advanced regions of the world.
C. Foreign Policy Approaches: 1867-1900
After the Civil War, the United States pursued an expansionist foreign policy. Under the leadership of
various secretaries of state such as William Seward and James Blaine, the United States acquired
Alaska and the Midway Islands and made unsuccessful attempts to gain Hawaii and Santo Domingo.
American foreign policy was especially successful at eroding European influence in Latin America.
The United States intervened on the side of Venezuela against Great Britain in a debt dispute, and
diverted Latin American trade from Europe through a series of reciprocity treaties.
D. The Lure of Hawaii and Samoa
Hawaii was a natural way-station between the United States and Asia, and therefore attracted
American attention. A large colony of Americans was already in Hawaii when, in 1875, the
United States bound the islands more closely by granting Hawaiian sugar free entry into the United
States. This arrangement ended, however, with the McKinley Tariff of 1890. Hawaii suffered an
economic slump, and its queen, Liliuokalani, proclaimed measures to lessen the influence of
the Americans in Hawaii. American settlers pulled off a coup and asked for annexation to the
United States. In Congress, anticolonial sentiment was strong enough to block annexation until
1898, when Hawaii was made an American possession in the midst of the excitement over the
Spanish-American War. The United States began its acquisition of Samoa in 1872, when it was
granted port facilities at Pago Pago. In 1899, the U.S. agreed to share control of the island
with Germany.
E. The New Navy
The United States had to rebuild its navy from scratch in the 1880s. Alfred Mahan, in a series of
influential books, argued that industrialism produced vast surpluses of agricultural and
manufactured goods, for which markets must be found. Markets involved distant ports requiring a
large merchant marine and a strong navy. He warned that America was in competition with strong
European states. Benjamin Tracy, who became secretary of the navy in 1889, supervised a program
of naval construction that began to give the United States an offensive capability at sea.
II. WAR WITH SPAIN
The easy victory over Spain in 1898 reaffirmed American belief in the special destiny of their
nation, but the results of the war, colonies and imperial responsibilities, disturbed many
citizens.
A. A War for Principle
In February 1895, another in a recurring series of rebellions broke out in Cuba. As Spanish tactics
to suppress the rebellion became more brutal, American public opinion, stimulated by the "yellow
press," increasingly favored Cuban independence. President McKinley, while sympathetic to the
insurgents, hoped to keep the United States out of a war with Spain. The Spanish government made
some concessions to McKinley, but resisted movement toward Cuban independence. The crisis
intensified in February 1898, when the Maine blew up in Havana harbor. The explosion was most
likely an accident, but most Americans blamed the Spanish. To pressure Spain and to prepare for
war, McKinley asked for and received a $50 million military appropriation. Spain, however,
remained steadfastly opposed to Cuban independence, so Congress took it upon itself to declare
Cuba free in April 1898. Congress promised at the same time not to annex Cuba (the "Teller
Amendment"). On April 25, when diplomatic channels had obviously failed, the United States
declared war.
B. "A Splendid Little War"
Americans responded enthusiastically to the call to arms, but the small regular army was ill-prepared
for rapid mobilization. Most soldiers fought in National Guard units, which often retained the
flavor of the small-town communities from which they were raised.
C. "Smoked Yankees"
African Americans served both in the regular army and as volunteers. Their presence in the camps and
staging areas in the South led to a number of incidents in which the black troops refused to accept
segregation.
D. The Course of the War
The war lasted only ten weeks. Almost as soon as it was declared, Commodore George Dewey crushed
the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay. The United States suddenly realized that the Philippines were now
open for occupation, and hurriedly sent an expeditionary force. In June 1898, the United States invaded Cuba, and
after tough fighting, laid siege to Santiago. After a Spanish attempt to escape by sea was defeated, the
Spanish forces surrendered. American troops also occupied Puerto Rico.
III. ACQUISITION OF EMPIRE
The treaty ending the Spanish-American War called for Spanish recognition of Cuban independence;
Spanish cession of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands to the United States; and U.S. payment of $20
million to Spain.
A. The Treaty of Paris Debate
Promptly submitted to the Senate for ratification, the Treaty of Paris set off a storm of debate throughout
the country. Members of an AntiImperialistic League argued that American acquisition of colonies would
prove to be undemocratic, costly, and potentially harmful to the interests of labor and racial harmony.
Proponents of imperialism repeated the economic, strategic, and intellectual arguments justifying American
expansionism. The Senate ratified the treaty in February 1899, with only two votes to spare.
B. Guerrilla Warfare in the Philippines
Demanding independence, Filipino insurgents led by Emilio Aguinaldo fought a guerrilla war against
American takeover of the islands. Proving much more difficult and costly than the war against Spain, the
Philippine-American War (1899-1902) convinced American leaders of the need to prepare the island
archipelago for eventual self-government.
C. Governing the Empire
The Supreme Court ruled that the Constitution did not automatically apply to America's new
possessions. Congress was allowed to extend whatever provisions of the Constitution it
considered useful. Congress organized Hawaii, Alaska and Puerto Rico as territories and
granted citizenship to their inhabitants. Guam was placed under the control of the navy.
The United States occupied Cuba until the Cubans adopted a constitution, which included
the Platt Amendment, giving the United States the right to intervene in Cuban affairs.
D. The Open Door
In March 1900, the United States announced that the "Open Door" policy would regulate
relations with China. This meant that no European nation should carve out a sphere of influence
in China and exclude others from trading in the area. Once again, the United States had
meddled in the affairs of a foreign nation without considering the consequences.
IV. CONCLUSION: OUTCOME OF THE WAR WITH SPAIN
The Spanish-American War had various results: it paved the road to the White House for
Teddy Roosevelt, it reunited North and South to the detriment of American blacks,
and it confirmed the Republicans as the majority party. It also made it necessary to
station American soldiers outside the country.
CHAPTER 21 Toward Empire LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Analyze how and why United States territorial expansion in the 1890s differed from the nation's earlier
expansionist moves.
2. Explain the economic, strategic, and intellectual factors sparking American interest in overseas expansion in the
latter nineteenth century.
3. Illustrate how the USA reasserted the Monroe Doctrine and promoted Pan-American interests during this era.
4. List the territories acquired by the United States during this era and explain the various processes of acquisition.
5. Describe the causes, major events, and consequences of the Spanish-American War.
6. List and explain the factors contributing to the growth of American newspapers in the 1890s, noting especially the
popularity of "yellow journalism."
7. Evaluate the performance of President McKinley in resolving international problems.
8. Discuss the treatment and performance of African American soldiers during the Spanish-American War.
9. Contrast the arguments offered for and against ratification of the treaty ending the Spanish-American War and
providing for American colonies.
10. Describe the causes, course, and consequences of the Philippine-American War (1899-1902).
11. Describe the processes by which civil government was established in American territories.
12. Explain the origin and purpose of the Open Door policy in China.
Chapter 21 Review Questions (HOMEWORK)
Identify these terms or names, your answers must be HAND-WRITTEN, turn in for HW.
1. Roosevelt
2. James G. Blaine
3. Queen Liliuokalani
4. William McKinley
5. Alfred Thayer Mahan
6. The Maine
7. Anti-Imperialist League
8. Emilio Aguinaldo
9. William Howard Taft
10. Open Door Policy