Download Organizational Behavior Lecture 1

Organizational Behavior
Lecture 1 – introduction to organizational behavior
What is an organization?
An organization is a social arrangement for achieving controlled performance in pursuit of collective
goals
What is organizational behavior?
The scientific study of structure, functioning and performance of organizations, and the behavior of
groups and individuals within them.
Levels of study in OB
1) Individuals: how people behave and respond to changes
2) Group: how groups form and develop in organizations
3) Whole organization: what directions the organization wishes to go in, what strategic changes
are planned and how they are to be implemented
Contemporary issues in OB
• Diversity- welcoming and valuing difference
• Team-working – a flexible way of organizing work
• Organization culture- shared values that shape the organizational performance
• Flexible working practices – adaptability as a strategy
• Technology – as a catalyst for change in organizations
Organizational environment
… the issues, trends and events outside the boundaries of the organization which influence internal
decisions and behaviors.
Organizational boundaries
• Mental boundaries: relate to core ideas and concepts that are central and particular to the
organization.
• Social boundaries: relate to the identity and social bonding tying the organization
• Physical boundaries: relate to formal rules and physical structures regulating human action and
interaction in the organization
External environment factors,
Trends and development
leads to
internal organization structures,
processes and behaviors
Technological
innovation
International
trade
Mature markets
End of ‘cold war’
Globalization
More dangers,
more
competition,
more speed
More
opportunities,
new markets,
fewer barriers
Organizational adaptation and change
External influences on organizations
PESTLE analysis
Political, economic, social, technological, legal and ecological.
The external – internal link detailed
External environmental
pressures:
Political factors
Economic factors
Social factors
Legislative factors
Environmental factors
Possible future scenarios
Lead to change in
External organization
response:
Organization strategy
Organization structure
Management style
Working practices
Employment patterns
Innovative solutions
Specific organizational responses to environmental types
Lecture 2 - Personality
Personality is concerned with understanding how individuals behave in patterned ways across time
Personality in OB
Dimensions of personality
Genetic and
environmental factors
Work competencies
Situational factors
Job demands
Overall job performance
Idiographic versus nomothetic assumptions about personality
Idiographic
• Personality cannot be measured meaningfully
• Phenomenological approach
• Environmental and social influences are seen as critical
Nomothetic
• Personality is predictable and measurable
• Positivistic approach
• Personality is largely inherited and resistant to change
• Statistical studies of large groups
Idiographic theories
The ideographic approach the study of personality emphasizes the uniqueness of individual, challenging
the assumption that we can all be measured and compared on the same dimensions
Psychoanalytic theories
Focus on unconscious forces – the personality results from a dynamic organization of internal instincts
that determine individual’s adjustment to his environment.
Projective assessment techniques
Are based on abstract or ambiguous images, which the person being assessed is asked to interpret in a
manner, which reveals their inner feelings, and motives, as there are projected into their interpretations
of the images presented.
Thematic Apperception Test: person is asked to tell a story about the picture
Rorschach Inkblot test: people are asked to report what they see.
Kelly’s theory of personal constructs
- People learn behaviors through observing the behaviors of relevant others, they develop and
test hypotheses about the social world
Repertory grid technique
• Identify a list of elements or social objects that he/she is likely to have constructs about.
• Identify a list of bipolar constructs which can be differentiate between the chosen social
elements
• Rate each element on each construct using a rating scale
Nomothetic theories
The nomothetic approach to the study of personality emphasizes the identification of universal
personality traits and looks for systematic relationships between different aspects of personality.
Trait theories concepts
• A personality type is a descriptive label for a distinct pattern of personality characteristics
• A personality trait is a relatively stable quality or attribute of an individual’s personality
influencing behavior in a particular direction
Big five personality types and some associated traits
Personality in organizational settings:
• Personnel selection – important predictor of job performance
• Training and development – important predictor of stress and job related attitudes
Typical job stressors:
• Working conditions
• Management style
• Job design
• Quality of relationships
• Job security
• Divided loyalties
Lecture 3 - Motivation
Motivation
Motivation is the cognitive decision-making process through, which goal-directed behavior is initiated,
energized, directed and maintained.
Key concepts in motivation theories
- Drives: an innate, internal force that when activated by deprivation, produce specific behaviors
- Motives: needs acquired through learning in social contexts that when activated by
environmental stimuli produce specific behaviors
Content theories of motivation are concerned with what motivates people.
1) Intrinsic motivation ( ex. Desire for meaningful work)
2) Extrinsic motivators ( ex pay)
Process theories of motivation are concerned with how various factors; both psychological and material
operate to produce motivated behavior.
Maslow’s needs hierarchy
Self-actualization
.. the desire for personal fulfillment to develop our potential, to become everything that we are capable
of becoming
Alderfer’s ERG theory
1) Existence needs (maslow’s physiological and safety needs)
2) Relatedness needs (maslow’s social and esteem needs)
3) Growth needs (maslow’s self-actualisation needs)
Herzberg’s two factor theory
Vroom’s expectancy theory
Equity theories of motivation
The equity calculus
My rewards (my effort and contribution) = your rewards ( your effort and contribution)
Motivational process in ET
Equity theory: the causal chain
1) Perception of inequity
2) Experience of tension
3) Motivation of resolve
4) Action to resolve
5) Equity restored
Strategies for reducing inequality
• Alter your outcomes
• Adjust your inputs
• Alter the comparison person’s output
• Alter the comparison person’s input
• Compare with someone else
• Rationalize the inequality
• Leave the group/organization
Goal settings theory
- People become satisfied when they achieve specific goals
- The more difficult the goal, the greater the effort directed towards its achievement and the
greater the satisfaction experienced on its achievement
Important features of goals
- Difficulty- goals should be difficult but not achievable
- Specificity – goals should be expressed in clear language in quantifiable terms
- Participation – goals that are negotiated are more motivating than those that are assigned
-
Acceptance – goals should be shared by the ones involved in goal accomplishments efforts
Feedback on progress towards goal achievement is critical
Relationship between Goal difficulty & group performance
Hackman and Oldham’s job characteristics model
Lecture 4 – Learning
Learning: is the key process of acquiring knowledge through experience which leads to an enduring
change in behavior
Main learning theories:
• Behaviorist theories: classical conditioning theory, operant conditioning theory
• Cognitive learning theories: cybernetic theories; social learning theories
Classical conditioning
• Conditioning – type of learning in which an association is made between a stimulus and a
response
• Classical conditioning – the association of a response normally elicited by one stimulus to a new
stimulus because the two are repeatedly paired
Operant conditioning theory
The learning process by which a given behavior is changed by the consequences of that behavior
Types of behavioral consequences
• Positive reinforcement is the attempt to encourage desirable behaviors by introducing positive
consequences when the desired behavior occurs
• Negative reinforcement is the attempt to encourage desirable behaviors by withdrawing
negative consequences when the desired behavior occurs.
• Punishment is the attempt to eliminate or to weaken undesirable behaviors through the
application of negative consequence following undesired behavior
Operant conditioning summary
Antecedents
> behavior
> consequences
Behavioral modification is a set of techniques for encouraging desired behaviors and discouraging
unwanted behaviors using the principles of operant conditioning
Behavior modification – main steps
• Identify critical behaviors
• Measure the frequency of behaviors
• Establish the antecedents and consequences of these behaviors
• Develop an intervention strategy to strengthen the desired behaviors and weaken the
dysfunctional ones
• Evaluate the effectiveness of interventions
Punishment works when:
- Its quick and short
- Is limited in intensity
- Is administered immediately after the behavior
- Is closely related to the behavior
- It is clear
Cognitive learning theories
Cognitive theories affirm that learning is internal and affected by meaning, thoughts and is based on
information processing
Socialization: the process through which individual behaviors, values, attitudes and motives are
influenced to conform with those seen as desirable in a given social or organizational context.
Organizational learning: the process through which organizations process information in order to create
valued outcomes like innovation, efficiency, environmental alignment and competitive advantage.
Single loop learning: the ability to use feedback to make continuous adjustments and adaptations to
maintain performance to a predetermined standard.
Double loop learning: the ability to challenge and to redefine the assumptions underlying performance
standards and to improve performance
Lecture 6 – Perception and communication
Perception is the dynamic psychological process responsible for attending to, organizing and
interpreting sensory data
•
•
•
Recognize stimulus
Combine specific features into more complex forms
Detect specific features of stimulus
Bottom-up processing
Top-down processing
•
•
•
Formulate perceptual hypothesis about the nature of the stimulus as a whole
Select and examine features to check hypothesis
Recognize stimulus
Perception and information processing:
Selective attention
Perceptual organization
The process through which incoming stimuli are organized or patterned in systematic and meaningful
ways
Social perception
Refers to the process that influence the way we perceive and make judgments about other people.
Key concepts: Stereotypes and attitudes.
Sources of errors in person perception (stereotypes)
• Not collecting enough information
• Using irrelevant information
• Seeing only what we expect to see
• Allowing early information to affect judgment
• Basing our judgment on our own characteristics
• Using stereotypes uncritically
• Basing attribution on irrelevant evidence
Personal information
The more we know about someone, the less likely we are to rely on stereotypes
Direct contact
The more opportunities there are for focusing on the unique characteristics of individuals, the less likely
it is that stereotypes will be used to make judgments
Motivation
In situations where individuals need to get to know one another, the more likely it is that stereotypes
will reduce
Check assumptions
If we check our assumptions about the causes of behavior we are less prone to use stereotypes.
Attitudes consist of three components:
1) Cognitive (beliefs about an object)
2) Affective (feelings about an objective)
3) Behavioral (ways of acting with respect to an object)
Cognitive dissonance theory
Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that we have an inner drive to hold all our attitudes and beliefs in
harmony and avoid disharmony.
Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This
produces a feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to
reduce the discomfort and restore balance etc.
The three components of organizational commitment
1) Continuance commitment – a desire to remain with the organization
2) Affective commitment – a positive feeling about working for the organization
3) Normative commitment- a belief in the organization’s goals
Communication
The transmission of information and the exchange of meaning, between at least two people.
The communication process
Barriers to effective communication
• Power differences
• Gender differences
• Physical surroundings
• Language
• Cultural diversity
• Limitations of the communication environment
Dimensions of non-verbal behavior
• Eye movements/behavior
• Tone and pitch of voice
• Facial expressions
• Distance
• Posture
• Limb movements
Effective communication guidelines
• Face-to-face
• Reality checks
• Time and place
• Empathetic listening
• Assertiveness
Lecture 6 – Individuals in groups
Groups impact on…
- Individual self-perceptions
- Individual performance
- Individual behavior
-
Individual attitudes
Social influence- the process where attitudes and behaviors are influences by the real and implied
presence of others
Groups and self-representations
• Social identity – the part of the self-concept derived from group membership
• Self-concept – the set of perceptions we have about ourselves
• Self-esteem – a set of evaluative judgments about ourselves
Group influences on performance
• Social facilitation – increase in individual performance due to the presence of others
• Social loafing- the tendency for individuals to exert less effort in group situations as compared to
when working alone
Social loafing in brainstorming
N u m ber o f Ideas G enerated
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
72
67
48
34
25
1
2
4
8
12
N u m ber o f G ro u p M em bers
A relative increase in group output……………………………………………..and a decrease in individual output
People are more motivated when they think their work is identifiable and separable from the work of
others in the team
Performance in simple tasks goes
UP
An integrated model of social influence
Individual efforts
can be evaluated
Presence of
others
Individual efforts
cannot be
evaluated
Alertness
Relaxation
Performance in complex tasks
goes DOWN
Performance in simple tasks goes
DOWN
Performance in complex tasks
goed UP
Group influences on individual behavior and attitudes
• Group norms regulate individual behavior
• Norms = expected modes of behavior and beliefs that are established either formally of
informally
• Pivotal norms = central to group objectives
• Peripheral norms = important but not crucial for group performance
Conformity
A change in beliefs or behavior in response to real or imagined group pressure when there is no direct
request to comply with the group nor any reason to justify the behavior change
Normative influence
The normative social influence involves conforming in order to be accepted or liked by a group, not
necessarily because one actually believes the things one is doing or saying.
Informational influence
Informational is basically when we conform to others behavior because we believe it provides
information about reality. It is often when we care about getting the right answer and trying to be
rational.
Group norms are important because..
• They facilitate group task achievement and group survival
• They increase the predictability of group member’s behaviors
• They reduce the embarrassing interpersonal problems for group members
• They express groups’ core values and identity
Group norms formation
• Explicit statement by supervisor
• Critical events in group’s history
• Initial pattern of behaviors
• Transfer behaviors from past situations
Individual obedience to group norms
Conversion
The shift of private opinions, beliefs or attitudes of the group members as a result of a divergent opinion
systematically expressed and defended by a minority
Minorities are efficient when
• They are visible
• Create a cognitive tension
• Are consistent
• Are persistent
• Are unyielding
• Are self-confident
• Seek defectors from majority
Obedience to authority
A situation in which an individual changes his/her behavior in response to direction from others