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Topics that Always Important
What are the 4 major macromolecules? Recognize their monomers and polymers
Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acid
Monomers: monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acid and glycerol, nitrogenous base + five carbon sugar +
phosphate group
Polymers: polysaccharides, polypeptide bond, fats or lipids, RNA or DNA
General characteristics of enzymes
Enzymes: proteins that lower the activation energy required and allow reactions to happen at the normal
temperature of cells. Specific: only work on one particular reaction. Reusable: used over and over again for that
reaction. Named after their substrate (the reactant that the enzyme helps.) Substrate binds to enzyme at the
active sight.
How to think like a scientist 
Photosynthesis & Plant Structure (4)
What is the equation for photosynthesis?
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy of sunlight = C6H12O6 + 6O2
How does this process relate to cell respiration?
The products of cells respiration are the reactants for photosynthesis and the products of photosynthesis are the
reactants or cell respiration.
What are the major reactants and products of photosynthesis? When/where are each taken in or given
off during the overall light and dark reactions of photosynthesis?
Reactants: Carbon dioxide (Calvin cycle. From atmosphere), water (light reactions. From atmosphere. Split to
replace electrons and release hydrogen that adds to the gradient.), sunlight (light reactions. Pigments in
thylakoids absorb light)
Products: Glucose (Calvin cycle. Formed from carbon dioxide), oxygen (Light reaction byproduct from splitting
of water molecules)
ATP and NADPH are formed in the light reactions and used in the Calvin Cycle.
How are light reactions and Calvin cycle related?
The light dependent reactions produce NADPH and ATP. They are used in the Calvin Cycle to produce
glucose.
Why are plants green?
Plants contain chlorophyll a and b. They absorb violet-blue and orange-red. They reflect green which is what
gives plants there green color.
Location of photosynthetic processes within a plant cell
Chloroplasts
Light Dependent: Thylakoid membrane
Calvin Cycle (light independent): stroma
Identify structure and function of a plant leaf in cross section
What is the function of stomata?
Stomata allow the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen (needed for photosynthesis and respiration) between
the internal tissues of the plant and the outside atmosphere. They are also the main route by which water is lost
from the plant (water vapor), and they can be closed to conserve water, the movements being controlled by
changes in turgidity of the guard cells. At night the stomata may allow oxygen to diffuse in and carbon dioxide
out because only respiration is taking place. However in many plants the stomata close at night, preventing this
gas exchange.
Mitosis (8)
What function does cell division serve?
Allows organisms to grow larger and replace damaged or dead cells. When a cell no longer has enough surface
area to support its volume, the cell must divide.
What are the major events of: G1, S, G2, M phases?
G1: preparation for synthesis, normal cell functions, synthesis of RNA or other macromolecules.
S: replication of DNA
G2: preparation for mitosis
M: prophase: Nuclear membrane breaks down, Chromosomes condense, Microtubules from the mitotic
spindles, Centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell (plants DO NOT have centrioles- the centrosome is used
instead), The microtubules connect the kinetochore of each sister chromatid to the spindle poles around each
centriole
Metaphase: Spindles move chromosomes to the metaphase plate, perpendicular to the poles down the center of
the cell
Anaphase: Enzymes break down the connection of the sister chromatids at the centromere, Sister chromatids are
pulled apart to opposite ends of the cell, Sister chromatids are now called Chromosomes
Telephase: Chromosomes begin to expand, Nuclear envelope reappears making two nuclei
Draw a cell with 4 chromosomes as it progresses through G1, S, G2, and all the phases of mitosis.
G1
S
G2
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Describe the formation and function of spindle fibers.
Form from the centriole, specifically the microtubules that are the centriole
Function: Attach to the kintechore and pulls apart the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell
What is cytokinesis, centromeres, centrioles, chromatids?
Cytokinesis: divides the cell in two. In animals, the plasma membrane pinches in forming a cleavage furrow
until the cell completely pinches apart into two separate cells. In plants, cell plate forms down center of cell and
ultimately forms two separate cells.
Centromeres: where the two sister chromatids are attached
Centrioles: A minute cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in
the development of spindle fibers in cell division
Chromatid: One of the usually paired and parallel strands of a duplicated chromosome, joined by a single
centromere.
Meiosis (12)
Understand haploid versus diploid
Haploid: set, 23 unique chromosomes, “n”, gametes
Diploid: 2 sets, 46 chromosomes and 23 pairs, “2n”, homologues, somatic regular body cells
Differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction. How are they evident in animals and plants?
Asexual: one parent, offspring are genetically identical
Sexual: two parents, offspring are genetically different
Simple organisms reproduce asexually; most animals and plants reproduce sexually
What are Mendel’s Laws and how do they relate to meiosis?
Law of segregation: When the F1 generations were self-pollinated, the recessive trait reappeared. For each trait
an individual has two alleles (one from each parent). In turn, each individual can only pass one or the other of
its alleles to its offspring.
Law of independent assortment: The inheritance of one gene does not influence the inheritance of another. In
meiosis, the chromosomes line up randomly on the equator to be separated. If your parents are heterozygous for
any traits, this leads to lots of possibilities!
What are homologous chromosomes and sister chromatids?
Homologous Chromosomes: pairs of similar chromosomes. Similar in size, structure, and carry genes for the
same traits but may have different alleles. Each member of a pair comes from each parent.
Sister chromatids: One of the usually paired and parallel strands of a duplicated chromosome, joined by a single
centromere. Identical copies of the same chromosome
Reproduction & Development (10 – 12)
Plants
Sketch a flower and identify (1) carpel (2) stigma (3) anther (4) stamen (5) sepals (6) ovule & ovary
(7) petals (8) style. What are the functions of these parts?
Carpel: modified leaves, female structure. Contains stigma, style, and ovary
Stigma: receives pollen from male part or flower
Anther: produces pollen
Stamen: male structure. Contains anther and filament
Sepals: protects the developing flower when it is still in the bud
Ovule: small structure in ovary where ova develops
Ovary: carpals fuse to form hollow structure. Contains ovule
Petals: The petals attract insects (bees, butterflies etc.), birds and small
mammals (these are called agents of pollination) so the flower can be
pollinated and produce seeds.
Style: The style raises the stigma away from the Ovary to decrease the
likelihood of pollen contamination. It varies in length.
Describe the functions of phloem, xylem, ground and meristematic tissue
Phloem: transports food (sugars made)
Xylem: transports water
Ground tissue: fills plant’s body, gives shape and internal support
Meristematic tissue: source of new growth for the entire life of the plant
What is pollination? What is fertilization? What is the endosperm?
Pollination: Anther sheds pollen, Lands on stigma, Pollen germinates and forms a pollen tube, Tube grows
down towards ovule, carrying two sperm nuclei. Double Fertilization, One sperm nucleus fuses with egg, Other
sperm nucleus fuses with polar nuclei  triploid cell that develops into endosperm
Fertilization: union of sperm and egg
Endosperm: Transfers nutrients from mother plant to embryo. Some species – completely digested by embryo,
others… endosperm persists as nutrient source for young plant until photosynthesis begins.
Where does fruit come from? What is the selective advantage of fruits?
Fruit comes from a mature ovule. Fruits grow when the conditions are best for their survival.
What is germination? How does it proceed?
Germination: the process whereby seeds or spores sprout and begin to grow
Proceeding: Mitosis in zygote forms mass of cells (embryo), Endosperm forms: Transfers nutrients from mother
plant to embryo. Some species – completely digested by embryo, others… endosperm persists as nutrient source
for young plant until photosynthesis begins. Differentiation begins: small bumps form on embryo (cotyledons).
Elongation: Quick cell division elongates embryo. New cells differentiate into specialized structures. Seed Coat:
Maternal flower tissue encloses endosperm & embryo. Embryo stops growing (dormant.) No enzyme activity,
No transcription or translation, Very slow, little cell respiration. Waits for optimal conditions to sprout.
Process:
1. Good water, oxygen temperature
2. Embryo resumes metabolism, growth, development
3. Enzymes made – digest food in endosperm & cotyledons  goes to growing areas of embryo
4. Respiration ramps up
5. Water restores turgor pressure to embryo cells
6. Embryo cells swell & grow
7. Seed coat ruptures
8. Embryonic root emerges
9. Shoot grows up through soil
Animals
Explain major differences between internal fertilization and external fertilization.
External: simple aquatic animals, gametes released into water, no guarantee of fertilization, no protection for
zygote
Internal: male ejaculates sperm into female, fertilization inside female body, gametes protected, increased
likelihood of fertilization, requires fewer gametes, zygote protected inside female body
Differentiate between morula, blastula, gastrula, neurula.
Morula: 16 cells to 64 cells
Blastula: at the end of cleavage, all cells are same size and appearance, usually hollow, shape depends on
structure and arrangement of the egg and yolk
Gastrula: after differentiation and morphogenesis. Forms primary germ layers
Neurula: The stage of a vertebrate embryo when gastrulation is largely finished and a neural plate is forming,
ending with formation of the neural tube.
What happens in cleavage? Morphogenesis? Gastrulation?
Cleavage: division, immediately after fertilization
Morphogenesis: process of differentiation
Gastrulation: form primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
Identify the location of the primary germ layers and what tissues they give rise to.
Ectoderm: outer layer, will form skin, nervous system and related structures
Mesoderm: middle layer, will form bone, muscles, heart, blood
Endoderm: inner layer, “tube like”, will form lining of digestive system
Compare and contrast a sperm cell with an egg cell.
Sperm: mobile, smaller, nucleus, flagella, mitochondria, not stored food so it cannot survive for long
Egg: Large, immobile, nutrient storehouse, can survive longer
What is the function of fertilization? How do we know when it has been completed?
The function is to reproduce. HCG is released and the woman’s menstrual cycle stops
How are molecules exchanged during mammalian development?
The placenta: forms in gastrulation, chorion forms villi into uterine lining.
Genetics (13)
Understand the role of probability in genetics. Can you predict events involving: coins? cards?
Mendelian inheritance reflects the rules of probability. Rule of multiplication “and”: chance that two or more
independent events occur simultaneously.
Rule of addition “or”: chance of an event that can occur in two or more different ways
What is the likelihood of having a boy? What is the likelihood of multiple children with the same
disorder if given the genetic background of the mom and dad?
50% chance. Need to know the genetic background. Would use rule of multiplication
How are new combinations of alleles generated through crossing-over, sexual reproduction, and
mutation?
Crossing over: The exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes, resulting in a mixture of parental
characteristics in offspring
Sexual reproduction: Homologous chromosomes line up randomly during meiosis so each sperm and egg
receive a random set of chromosomes
Mutation: one allele is directly changed to another
What is nondisjunction? What can it cause? How is that related to Down Syndrome?
Nondisjuction: homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis
The spindle fibers do not work properly
Down syndrome is where there is an extra 21st chromosome
Compare and contrast genotype with phenotype.
Genotype: genetic makeup, what alleles you have
Phenotype: what you look like, what alleles are expressed
What does it mean to be heterozygous? Homozygous? Dominant? Recessive? A carrier? A hybrid?
Heterozygous: has two different alleles. One dominant and one recessive
Homozygous: has two of the same alleles
Dominant: allele that is expressed most of the time. If heterozygous, dominant allele is expressed
Recessive: allele that is expressed less of the time. Only expressed when homozygous recessive
Carrier: Has one normal allele and one defective allele.
Hybrid: Of mixed character; composed of mixed parts
Describe the following modes of inheritance – incomplete dominance, multiple alleles, codominance, sexlinked traits. How they work genetically, and how they affect phenotype.
Incomplete dominance: neither allele is dominant or recessive. if RR and WW are mixed you get RW. RR (red)
and WW (white) = RW (pink)
Multiple alleles: More than two alleles code for one trait. C-full color, dominates over Cch, Ch, c, Cch –
chinchilla, dominates over Ch and c, Ch- himalayan, dominates over c, c- albino, recessive to all
Codominance: Both alleles are dominant, neither is recessive. B=black, W=white. BB=black, WW=white,
BW=black and white
Sex-linked traits: Trait can be dominant or recessive, Probability of inheritance is altered because the trait is on
the X chromosome. Female with XX1 and male with XY gives offspring with XX, XX1, XY, and X1Y. One
normal female, one normal male, one carrier female, and one defected male
How is the sex of offspring determined?
It depends if the father gives an X or Y chromosome
Blood types – genetic basis, inheritance, compatibilities
Blood types: A, B, O, AB. Multiple alleles, Polygenic and Codominance! Multiple alleles- A, B, O. Polygenicone gene controls type, another gene controls rH factor (+, -). Codominance- A and B are codominant but both
dominate over O. Inherit one allele from each parent. AB is the universal recipient and O is the universal donor.
A can receive from A or O. B can receive from B or O. AB can receive from A, B, AB, or O. O can receive
from O.
Monohybrid & dihybrid crosses. Genetic problem solving.
Pedigree analysis.
carrier female
carrier male
DNA & Processes (8 , 9; 15.4)
What is transcription? Translation? Replication?
Transcription: DNA codes for RNA
Translation: RNA codes for proteins
Replication: DNA codes for DNA
DNA structure : nucleotide, nucleosomes, chromosomes, gene
Nucleotides: Sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous base. A, T, C, G. Hydrogen bonds connect them
Nucleosomes: DNA and associated bound proteins
Chromosomes: threadlike structure within the nucleus containing the genetic information that is passed from
one generation of cells to the next
Gene: Sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and determines a trait
Compare and contrast RNA and DNA
RNA: single stranded, ribose sugar, uracil, RNA polymerase, 3 major forms, working copy
DNA: double stranded, deoxyribose sugar, thymine, DNA polymerase, 1 major form, maser copy
Steps in DNA replication
Denature: binding of enzymes to existing DNA, at replisome origins, double helix is unwound
Annealing: 4-15 nucleotides of RNA added to ssDNA
Extension: synthesis of new matching strand for each existing strand
What is a mutation? Distinguish between gene mutations and chromosomal mutations
Mutation: change in a DNA sequence that effects genetic information.
Gene mutation: when a change is made in a single gene
Chromosomal mutations: when a change is made that affects the whole chromosome
Describe what happens to DNA sequence in the following mutations: (1) missense (2) nonsense (3)
addition (4) deletion (5) point mutation
Missense: change an important amino acid
Nonsense: change in an amina acid to a sop codon
Addition: nucleotide(s) added to sequence (cause frameshift)
Deletion: nucleotide(s) skipped in sequence (cause frmaeshift)
Point mutation: 1 or a few bases change
What is the relationship amongst DNA, RNA and protein?
DNA codes for RNA and RNA codes for proteins
What are the functions of : mRNA, tRNA, rRNA?
mRNA: single stranded linear RNA, carries information from DNA to ribosomes
tRNA: short coils of RNA in cytoplasm, matches amino acids to mRNA
rRNA: helps form the structure of ribosomes, along with proteins, long coils or RNA
Compare and contrast and intron and exon
Intron: do not code for proteins, get rid of them
Exons: sequences that code for proteins and are expressed, kept
Define a codon and its purpose.
Codon: three nucleotide sequence on mRNA that codes for a single amino acids. Codes for amino acids which
code for proteins
Given the following half of an DNA molecule, GCAAGGCCCGGGAAA, what would be the
complementary half?
CGTTCCGGGCCCTTT
Given the same half of DNA above, what would be the mRNA transcribed from it? How many amino
acids would the mRNA code? Given a genetic code, translate the sequence.
CGUUCCGGGCCCUUU
5 amino acids
Arginine, Serine, Glycine, Proline, Phenylalanine
What is the structure and function of a virus?
Nonliving, genetic material surrounded by a protein coat, requires a host cell to reproduce, categorized by
genetic material (single or double stranded DNA or RNA), categorized by shape of protein coat (enveloped,
helix, isohedron). Function is delivering DNA in cloning experiments, delivering gene segments in gene
therapy, and attacking cancer cells.
Evolution (16, 18, 19)
What is binomial nomenclature?
Used to name organisms. Genus then species
What are some of the general characteristics that differentiate the 5/6 kingdoms?
Domain, cell type, cell structure, body type, organism’s nutrition
What were Charles Darwins’ observations and conclusions about life on the Galapagos Islands?
Observations: There were many types of beaks for the finches and different finches on different islands have
different beaks. There were many adaptations in other organisms also.
Conclusions: As the food supply changed, the finches adapted different beaks to help them get food. Also, there
is different food on different islands, so the finches adapted when they were placed on new islands. Also natural
selection played a role.
Understand each of the following terms and their relationship to each other: natural selection, survival of
the fittest, descent with modification, acquired characteristics
Natural selection: increased reproduction success leads to increased allele frequency
Survival of the fittest: the organisms with the most useful adaptations survive and reproduce
Descent with modification: each living species has descended, with changes from other species over time,
ultimately from one common ancestor.
Acquired characteristics: An acquired characteristic is a non-hereditary change in function or structure in living
biotic material caused by disease, mutilation, repeated use or disuse, or other environmental influence.
What is a gene pool?
All of the alleles/genes in a certain population at a certain time
Circulation (7)
What is the purpose of a circulatory system?
Transport of nutrients throughout the body and carry waste away.
Distinguish between an open and closed circulatory system. Name an organism that possesses each.
Open: blood exits the blood vessels (grasshopper)
Closed: blood stays within the blood vessels (humans)
Differentiate between the function and structure of : capillaries, veins, arteries
Arteries: carry blood away from heart, think walls, strong, no valves, high pressure
Veins: carry blood toward heart, thin walls, less strong, valves, low pressure
Capillaries: connects arteries to veins, very thin, weakest, no valves, lowest pressure
Trace the flow of blood through a mammalian heart
Right atrium, Right ventricle, Pulmonary artery, Lungs, pulmonary vein, Left atrium, Left ventricle, Aorta,
Small artery, Capillaries, Small veins, Large Veins, Right atrium
Compare and contrast two-chambered, 3-chambered and 4-chambered hearts
2 chambered: one atrium and one ventricle, single circulation, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mix
3 chambered: two atria and one ventricle, double circulation, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mix
4 chambered: two atria and two ventricles, double circulation, oxygenated and deoxygenated blood remain
separate
What controls the heartbeat?
Controlled by the autonomic nervous system. (You don’t need to think about it). Brain sends impulse to SA
node (pacemaker) in right atrium. SA node sends impulse to AV node (Atria contract). AV node sends impulse
down septum to conducting fibers (Ventricles contract). Ave.- 72x per min., pumps about 70mL each time
What are the components of blood and what are the major functions of each?
Red blood cells (erythrocytes): most numerous cells, Bioconcave disk-shaped, produced in bone marrow, last
for about 120 days, old red blood cells are destroyed in the liver and spleen, Lose nuclei with age, transport
oxygen (hemoglobin)
White blood cells (leukocytes): less common than red blood cells, produced in bone marrow (may mature at
other locations), contain nuclei, may live for days, months or years, guard against infection, fight pathogens in
the body (Immune system), can increase # when needed, “pus”
Plasma: Makes up about 55% of the blood, Straw-colored fluid, 90% water, 10% sugars, salts, gases, enzymes,
nutrients hormones, etc., 3 important plasma proteins, Transports most substances besides O2 around the body,
Delivers CO2 waste to lungs, Nutrients from small intestine to all cells
Platelets: aids in blood clotting
Label parts of the heart
Septum