Download Chapter 7 Livestock Nutrition

Feedstuffs Used in Livestock Diets
(Their Classification, Descriptions and Nutrients Content)
1. Objectives
• Objectives:
– Understanding of feeds grouping and their general nutritional
properties
– Identification of various feeds and their nutrient content
Feedstuffs Classification
Feedstuffs are generally grouped into two
groups:
1. Roughages
2. Concentrates
1. Roughages
Roughages are also called as forages
Characteristics of Roughage Feedstuffs
 Bulky (Low weight per unit volume)
 High content of cell wall material (25-30%
crude fiber)
 Mostly for ruminant animals
Generally low in energy
Higher in fiber
Higher mineral content
Extremely palatable to ruminants
Nutritive value can be extremely variable (species,
age, parts)
Must be present in ruminant’s rations to maintain
health rumen and milk fat content
Limited inclusion in beef finishing diets, excluded
from swine or non ruminant’s rations
Roughages classification based on nutrients:
1. Proteinaceous Roughages
○ CP content 15 – 30 %
○ Source of protein
○ Highly digestible
○ Some contain anti nutritive factors
○ Leguminous trees/shrubs
2. Carbonaceous Roughages
○ CP content <10%
○ CF content >18%
○ Source of fiber
○ Non-legume forages, low quality roughages
─ Grasses
─ Crop residues
Roughages classification based on physical
condition:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pasture, Range Plants, & Fresh Fed Forages
Hay/Dry Forages & Roughages
Silage
Crop residues
1. Pasture, Range Plants, & Fresh Fed Forages:
○Pasture grass
○ Forages that are not allowed to ferment before
feeding
2. Hay or Dry Forages & Roughages
○All feeds that are cut and cured
○Carbonaceous Roughages
 Generally low in protein
 Straw
 Stalks
 Weathered grass
○Proteinaceous Roughages
 Legume hays
 Some grass hays
 Legume/grass mixtures
3. Silages
• Ensiled forages
• Carbonaceous
– Corn silage
– Grass silage
• Proteinaceous
– Alfalfa silage
– Clover silage
4. Crop Residues
Parts of a crop after the main product was
harvested
− Straw
− Sugarcane/maize top
2. Concentrates
• Feedstuffs containing high concentration of
nutrients (energy, protein, mineral or vitamin or
their combination)
Concentrates classification based on nutrients:
1. Energy Concentrate Feeds
• <20% CP, <18% CF
• May be ensiled
• Carbonaceous Concentrates
– All cereal grains & sorghums
– Byproduct feeds
» Bran
» Middlings
» Cobs
» Molasses
2. Protein Concentrate Feeds
• >20% CP
• Vegetable Origin
–
–
–
–
Soybean Meal
Cottonseed Meal
Corn Gluten Meal
Brewer’s Dried Grains
• Animal Origin
– Animal tissues
» Meat & Bone Meal
» Blood Meal
» Most are banned/restricted from livestock diets
– Fish Products
» Fish Meal
– Milk Products
» Whey protein
– Feather Meal
3. Mineral Supplements
• Calcium Carbonate
• Limestone
• Others
4. Vitamin Supplements
• Fish Oil
• Others
5. Feed Additives
 Characteristics of Concentrate Feeds
 Carbonaceous Concentrates
○ <20% CP, <18% fiber
○ Generally, high energy feeds
○ General Nutritive Characteristics
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
High in energy
Low in fiber
Low in protein
Low protein quality and high variability
Minerals
Low Ca
Med P
• Examples
– Corn
» 80% TDN
» 8-9% CP
» Med P, low Ca
» Recent technologies – high lysine corn, waxy corn,
high-oil corn
» Alternative feeding forms
– Oats
» 65-70% TDN
» 12% CP
» Very palatable, more expensive to feed
– Dried Beet Pulp
» 65-70% TDN
» 8-10% CP
» Byproduct of sugar beet processing
» ~18% CF
– Molasses
» 55-75% TDN
» 3-7% CP (mostly NPN)
» Byproduct from same industry as above
» Usually fed in what form?
» What are the advantages to feeding?
– Animal Fat
» Byproduct of rendering
» Treated w/ antioxidant to prevent rancidity
» Why do we feed it?
» 5% max in ruminant diets, 10% in nonruminants
– Dried Bakery Product
» What might this include?
» Similar to corn in energy, higher in fat, and salt?
– Proteinaceous Concentrates
• Quality
– Kinds, amounts, compositions of amino acids
– Essential Amino Acids
» Must be supplemented
» PVT TIM HALL
» Phenylalanine, Valine, Threonine, Tryptophan,
Isoleucine, Methionine, Histidine, Arginine, Leucine,
Lysine
– NPN may be used as a protein source (only in ruminants)
• Examples
– Urea
» 281% CP
» Use only in very small amounts
» Very effective for feeding rumen bacteria
– Soybean Meal
» Most commonly used plant protein supplement
» 44% or 48% CP available (depends on how much its
diluted w/ soyhulls)
» 71-80% TDN
» Very low in fiber
» Very broad amino acid profile
» What other forms are used?
• Animal/Marine protein supplements
– Derived from meat/poultry packing/rendering, or from the
marine industry, or surplus milk
– Used only to improve the CP of basal feeds and improve
amino acid profile
– Balances protein sources (plant vs. animal)
– Blood Meal
» 80+% CP
» Highly unpalatable
» High rumen undegradable protein for ruminants
– Fish Meal
» 35-70% CP
» Excellent protein quality and good source of B vits
– Whey protein
» 11% CP, 61% lactose
» Used in milk replacers or pig starter diets
» Highly palatable, excellent source of protein
– Animal Waste
» Nutrient content varies
» Used primarily in ruminant diets
» Usually high in NPN
» Has proven to be fairly effective, in certain diets
• Feed Grain Byproducts
– Corn byproducts
• Corn Gluten Meal
– Dried residue remaining after removal of most of the
starch, germ, and bran
– 46-60% CP
• Corn Gluten Feed
– Dried residue remaining after removal of most of the
starch, germ, gluten, but contains bran
– 20-25% CP
• Distiller’s Dried Grains
– Byproduct of the alcohol brewing industry
– 25-27% CP, 9-11% CF
• Distiller’s Wet Grains
– Byproduct of ethanol production
– Use usually restricted to geographical area close to the
distiller
– Will ferment if not used quickly
– Wheat byproducts
• Wheat middlings
– Fine particles of bran, germ, shorts, tailings
– 16-18% CP
– More commonly fed in swine diets, unpalatability makes
its use limited in ruminants
– Soybean Hulls
• 12% CP, 78% TDN
• Very good for replacing other high fiber feeds,
without losing too much fiber
• Very palatable
• Small Grains (wheat, oats, etc.)
– Generally same seeding rate as for grain, may increase if
going to cut for silage
– Effective in the pasture
– Harvesting for silage should occur around boot stage
– 10-22% CP, 62-72% TDN
– If harvested early, can mimic corn silage
– Be cautious of low Mg levels, may see grass tetany
• Corn Silage
–
–
–
–
–
–
Most popular silage
Extremely palatable
Moderate to high energy, low in protein
May not be most efficient in a finishing diet
Many varieties available
High grain content is desirable
• Corn Stover (Stalklage)
–
–
–
–
Harvested at or just after grain harvest
Ensiled
Should be fairly fine-chopped to ensure packing
Good for wintering cattle, somewhat high in energy
Feedstuffs, their description and nutrients
content
(see also Table of Nutrients Content in Folder Table of
Nutrient Content)
Corn Gluten Meal (CGM)
• Is produced from wet milling of corn for starch
and syrup.
• yellow or yellowish
• Two corn gluten meals are produced, a 40 percent
and 60 percent CP supplement, with the 60
percent being the most common.
• Are good sources of UIP. Energy content of corn
gluten meal is only slightly less than corn grain.
• It is an especially good source of the amino acid
cysteine, but must be balanced with other
proteins for lysine
• Limit amounts to 5 pounds per cow per day
because of palatability problems.
(feeding the dairy herds feedstuffs,
feeding recomm, limits use of feedstuffs)
Corn Gluten Meal (CGM)
Appearance: Yellow powder
Protein 63%-70% (wet basis) Fat
4.5 % Crude fiber < 2 % Ash < 2
% Phosphorus 0.5 % Total
digestible nutrients 85 %
Moisture < 10% Digestible
protein 98 % Methionine 1.6%
Xanthophyll 225 mg. Lb.
Calcium 4.5 % Acid detergent
fiber 6.2 % Net energy 84.1
mcal/100 lbs Metabolize energy
1,756 calories/lb. Neutral
detergent fiber 12.6 %
Corn Gluten Feed (CGF)
Soybean Meal
• Soybean meal is the product
remaining after extracting most of the
oil from whole soybeans. The oil may
be removed by solvent extraction or
by an expeller process in which the
beans are heated and squeezed. The
nutrient composition of the oil
extracted soybean meal 48 is shown in
the table below.
• Soybean meal is high in protein and
energy and is one of the most
commonly used protein supplements
in North America. It is a palatable
feedstuff and may be used as the
major protein supplement in rations
for dairy cattle.
Brewer’s Grain
•
•
•
also called Brewer's grain or Draff, Beer
meal)
a byproduct of beer brewing consisting of
the residue of malt and grain which remains
in the mash-kettle after the mashing and
lautering process.
consists primarily of grain husks, pericarp,
and fragments of endosperm. By mass,
brewer’s grains consist of about half
carbohydrates, and the rest being mostly
proteins and lignin. Carbohydrates include
traces of starch, cellulose, β-Glucans, and
arabinoxylans. Brewer’s grain is considered
to be a good source of un-degradable protein
and water-soluble vitamins in animal feed. It
can be fed as wet brewer's grains or dried
brewer's grains. It is quite palatable and is
readily consumed by animals.
Dried Destiled Grain with Solubles (DDGS
Dried Destiled Grain with Solubles (DDGS
Dried Destiled Grain with Solubles (DDGS
Dried Destiled Grain with Solubles (DDGS
Wheat Gluten
Wheat Gluten is also called vital wheat protein,is a good
modifying agent of dough,is a high-protein polymer separated
from the wheat,made up of all kinds of of aminophenol,is rich in
vegetable protein nutritional resources.Because of their unique
viscoelastic,extension,coagulation and film,emulsion
liposuction,is widely used in the food industry as the basis raw
materials,and,it is used in the production of high-quality and
diverse food.At the same time,it is also widely used in animal
feed,packaging, clothing and other industries.
Appearance
Taste and smell
Moisture
Protein(%)
Ash
Fat
Water absorption
Fineness
Total plate count
Coliforms
Pathogenic bacterium
Pale yellow powder
Neutral,No special smell
Max.8%
Min.75%
Max.1%
Max.0.2%
Min.170%
Min.99%
Max.1000 cfu pre gram
Max.30MPN per 100grams
Negative
Fish Meal
•
•
it is refined by high quality sea fish through
braising, cooking, grinding, drying and
crushing
SPECIFICATIONS
Protein: 65% min.
Moisture: 10% max.
Fat: 10% max.
Ash: 15% max.
Sand: 2% max.
Salt: 2% max.
Fish Meal (FM)
• If made from good quality whole
fish, properly processed, it is the
highest quality protein source
commonly available
• rich source also of energy and
minerals
• highly digestible, highly palatable,
also serves as an attractant
• usually contains about 65% protein,
that is around 80% digestible
• high in LYS, MET (deficient in
plant sources)
Fish Meal (FM)
• Fish meal also contains 1-2.5% n-6 fatty acids,
essential to many fish and all shrimp
• if made from byproducts, its quality is not as
good as trawler-caught
• only problem observed: high ash content can
sometimes result in mineral imbalance
• used sparingly because of high cost
• can be partially replaced by soybean meal and
other animal meals
Fish Meal (FM)
• When using FM, one must remember that it cannot be
stored forever
• can rancidify due to high lipid content
• further, not all FM is created equal
• some types (menhaden) appear to be superior to others
(sardine meal)
• FM must be very well ground and sieved to help
remove indigestible parts
• big producer countries are USA, Peru, Mexico,
Ecuador
Soybean Meal (SBM)
• Soybean meal has one of the
best essential amino acid
profiles of all protein-rich plant
feedstuffs
• Table 5.3 (Lovell)
• SBM does not appear to be
deficient in any EAA for catfish
• can be deficient wrt eel,
because their MET/CYS
requirement is twice that of
catfish
• some fish find SBM
unpalatable, for this reason
maximum levels are suggested
Soybean Meal (SBM)
• Soybean meal is commonly
used to spare fish meal,
however, only to a point
• true for chinook, but not for
catfish
• shrimp will consume high SBM
feeds, but diet must be
supplemented with fish meal at
some point
• another problem involves losses
in energy, minerals and lipids in
diets where SBM replaces FM
or other animal byproduct
proteins
soy protein
Soybean Meal (SBM)
• Another variety of soybean meal is known as “dehulled”
• de-hulled soybean meal contains 25% less ME,
85% less available P and 90% less n-3 FA’s than
anchovy meal
• soybeans also contain trypsin-inhibitors
• trypsin inhibitor reduces digestibility of soy
protein by the enzyme trypsin
• solution: most soybeans are roasted prior to
milling (destroys inhibitor)
Full-fat Soybeans
• Full fat soybean meal is different from regular
SBM in that it has a full fat complement
• fat has not been solvent extracted
• 18% fat vs 0.5%
• often used as an energy source or for general
balancing of the formula
• mainly used in salmonid (cold water) fish diets
• REM: too high fat = reduced nutrient intake
Grains and By-products
• Grains are primarily used as COH sources
• when whole, they contribute about 62%72% of dietary starch
• starches are fairly well digested (60-70%),
• heating via extrusion improves digestibility
by 10=15%
• can also be used as binding agents
Grains and By-products
• Corn is commonly used in the U.S., but
is high in xanthophyll (a pigment),
giving tissue a yellow color
• corn gluten meal is high in protein
(60%) and contains high levels of MET
(excellent for formulation)
• rice bran often used in developing
countries due to local rice production
• rice bran is a reasonable COH source,
but is high in fiber and fat
• wheat gluten is a good protein source,
but too expensive, often used as a binder
Animal By-products
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Meat and bone meal is a byproduct of
the slaughter house
contains 50-55% crude protein
protein quality is low, so only
marginally useful and varies dependent
upon meat source
can be a good source of energy, P,
TM’s
another problem: high ash content
digestibility improved by flash- or
spray-drying
poultry by-product meal (PBM) is often
used by mills also producing chicken
feed
feather meal high in protein, but
indigestible
MM
MBM
Crustacean Meals
•
•
•
•
•
•
Shrimp waste meal is a reasonably
good feed ingredient, if heads are
included
otherwise, the shell is primarily chitin
and of limited digestibility
the ammonia in chitin accounts for
about 10-15% of the nitrogen in
whole meal
also a reasonable source of n-3 fatty
acids, cholestrerol and astaxanthin
(carotenoid)
highly palatable and often serves as
an attractant in feeds at 1-2%
others: krill meal, Artemia meal
krill meal
Fats and Oils
• Used as energy sources, provide
essential fatty acids, attractant,
coating of pellet to reduce abrasion
• both animal and plant fats can be
used, animal fats cheaper, better
attractants
• marine lipids often added as oils if
FM level is low (otherwise no
source of marine FA’s)
• sources: menhaden, shark, cod
liver
• must be careful in storage of oil,
feeds with oils due to
rancidification
menhaden oil
Fibrous Feedstuffs
• Most monogastric animals (e.g.,
fish) do not digest fibrous
feedstuffs well
• it is unlikely that adding fiber to
diets already with more than 35% will have any beneficial
effect
• high fiber content reduces
binding capacity of feeds,
inhibits intake (due to reduced
palatability), increases rate of
passage and waste production
• sources: brans
rice kernel
Binding Agents
• Binding agents are really needed for
pelletized feeds, but not necessarily for
extruded feeds
• in extruded feeds, all ingredients are
gelatinized by high temperature and bind
together well as a result of the process
• show Table 5.4 (Lovell, page 118)
Binding Agents
• most organic binders are good for about 30
min of submergence
• starch is often used at over 10%, however it
will hydrate and swell the pellet
• chemical binders (e.g., Basfin) have good
binding potential, form cross-linkages with
COH and PRO, but are toxic
Non-nutrient Diet Components
Basic Facts
• In addition to the essential nutrients, feeds may
contain organic and inorganic materials that have
various effects on animal:
• beneficial, detrimental or negligible
• they can affect growth, health or the processed
product
• may be naturally occurring, intentionally or
unintentionally added
• can be produced via microbial growth
Toxins and Antimetabolites
• The more important toxins affecting animal feeding
are those associated with molds
• these are called “mycotoxins”
• three important genera are Aspergillus, Penicillium
and Fusarium
• they exist and grow anywhere as long as there is
enough COH substrate, no less than 14% moisture,
adequate temperature, oxygen
• usually produced in feedstuffs prior to harvest, but
also result from poor storage
Aflatoxin
• Aflatoxin is the mycotoxin of greatest concern in
feeding of culture species
• both outright toxic and carcinogenic
• liver (hepatoma) and blood clotting problems
• rainbow trout are highly sensitive at 1 ug/kg
exposure
• traditionally, sources include corn, cottonseed and
peanuts
• aflatoxin contamination varies year to year
Ochratoxin
• These are compounds produced by Aspergillus and
Penicillium molds
• widely found in nature
• typically associated with kidney toxicity
• toxic level is 4.7 mg/kg in diet
• other mold toxins have been found in warm-blooded
animals, but not in fish
• most mold toxins also destroy nutrients in feeds
• example: Pseudomonas can separate glutamic acid
from folic acid, making it ineffective
Microbial Toxins in
Commercial Feeds
• Usually not known that the feed is contaminated
• commercially-processed feeds are less likely to have
these toxins
• screened against international transport and by feed
manufacturers by law
• must contain less than 20 ppb
• up to manufacturer to require testing
• not destroyed by steam pelleting or extrusion
• presence in feeds reduced by proprionic acid
Histamine, etc.
• This is a toxic compound found in fish meal, a
typical feed ingredient
• results from bacterial removal of COOH
(carboxylic acid) from the EAA histidine
• comes from improper storage of raw fish prior to
production of fish meal
• causes a reduction in growth rate
• usually comes from “dark” meat portion of fish
• other fish meal toxin is “gizzerosine”
Phytic Acid, Gossypol
• Phytic acid is an organic molecule related to inositol
• integral component of plant feedstuffs and holds 6070% of the phosphorus
• problem is, it’s poorly available to fish
• reduces availability of zinc
• “Gossypol” is a component of pigment lands in the
cotton plant
• limits availability of cottonseed meal used in feeds
(suppresses growth rate and causes liver damage)
Fish Oils, Fiber
• Marine fish oils contain 20-25% PUFA’s
• the “autoxidation” of PUFA’s results in formation of large
numbers of free radicals and peroxide compounds
• these are toxic due to reaction with other nutrients, limiting
availability
• also cause cellular/subcellular damage
• severity of effect reduced by Vit E
• fiber can also be mildly “toxic” as it increases rate of gut
passage
• high rate of passage causes reduced availability of nutrients
Diet Additives: Hormones
• Hormonal control used to produce mono sex
cultures of fish
• reduces reproduction/increases growth
• ex. Androgenic steroids (ethyltestosterone) fed to
tilapia fry = 90% males
• does not work the same on all fish
• 17-alpha-methyltestosterone improves growth and
survival in salmonids
• andorgenic better than estrogenic
• used as implants in cattle
Pellet Binders
• Steam pelleted feeds contain
binders
• these are used for improving
water stability (reduced leaching
and nutrient loss)
• two different types: organic
matrix (lignosulfonates or
polysaccharides)
• other type: chemical compounds
(sodium hexametaphosphate)
• no evidence of detrimental effect
on aquaculture species
Antibiotics
• Some feeds can be formulated with antibiotics
for treatment of Vibriosis, other bacterial
infections
• Three antibiotics approved in U.S. are
sulfadimethoxine, sulfamerazine and terrymycin
(oxytetracycline, OTC)
• OTC commerically available as “medicated” fish
(shrimp) feed, 1,500 mg/kg
• Must not feed medicated diets within 14-21 days
from slaughter/harvest (more regulations!)
Attractants
• Attractants are materials added to feeds to serve as
intake (feeding) stimulants
• They are cost effective since they cause shrimp/fish to
eat feeds that otherwise would not be attractive
(consumed)
• Facilitates inclusion of by-products
• Usual inclusion level is around 0.5-1.0 %, largely due to
cost
• Examples: krill meal, Artemia meal, fish oils, fish meal
• Sometimes used to reduce protein content of feed (but
most also feed more frequently)
Antioxidants
• Oxidation of lipids in feeds or feedstuffs can cause
reduction of the nutritional value of certain lipids
and vitamins
• It can also result in production of toxic free
radicals and peroxides (REM?)
• Potential for formation of these toxic compounds
reduced by synthetic compounds such as BHA
(butylated hydroxyanisole, BHT (butylated
hydroxytoluene)
• Also via natural compounds (Vit E)