Download Introduction to Old Persian Morphology

Introduction to Old Persian Morphology:
By: Mehrnoush Ahmadi
Historical and cultural contexts:
1. Members of that branch of the Indo-European language family called Indo-Iranian or
Aryan.
2. The Iranian languages began to take shape when the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans left
the common homeland in the steppes of Central Asia in the first half of the second
millennium BC.
3. Old Persian cuneiform was used only by the Achaemenid Kings for two centuries and
only for their own language – that is, the rather artificial literary language of their royal
inscriptions.
Morphological type:
Typical of ancient Indo-European, Old Persian is an inflectional language with synthetic
morphological patterns. Owing to lack of evidence, both the nominal and pronominal and, still
more, the verbal paradigms are known only partially in most distances. Therefore it is not
possible to give a fully formed account of the formation, function, and actual use of nominal,
pronominal, and verbal forms. The same is true, by and large, with reg ard to nominal and
verbal stem formation.
1. Nominal Morphology
The grammatical categories marked on the Old Persian noun;
I) Case (seven)
II) Gender (three), (masculine, feminine, and neuter)
III) Number (three), (singular, dual, and plural)
Cases:
The seven attested nominal cases are the followings: (i) nominative (for subject), (ii)
vocative (for direct address), (iii) accusative (for direct object and direction), (iv) genitive
(used as possessive, subjective, objective, and partitive genitive), (v) locative (for
indication of place or goal), (vi) instrumental (for indication of means, cause, and
(Extension), and (vii) ablative (only combined with prepositions).
Noun and adjectives word formation
Nouns and adjectives can be
i) “underived” (from a historical perspective these are also sometimes derived, but there
is no word in Old Iranian or Indo-Iranian from which they can be said to be derived),
e.g., Ka:ra- “people, army,” puça-“son.”
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ii) “Derived” by means of an ending
-adraug-/drauj- (to lie) + -a- → drauga- (the Lie)
-ana- draug-/drauj- (to lie) → draujana- (full of lies)
-aina- kasaka- (glass) + -aina- → kasakaina- (made of glass)
-iya- Aθura- (Assyria) + -iya- → Aθuriyan- (Assyrian)
-ka- Vazar- + -ka- → vazarka-man- tau- (to be able) + -man- → Tauman- (strength)
A special class of “derived” nouns are those that are identical with the word they are
derived from, e.g., Parsa- “Persian” < Parsa- “Persia.”
Iii) Compounds, e.g.,
A+N
tigra-(pointed) + xauda-(hat) → tigraxauda (with pointed hat)
N+V
asa-(horse) + -bara-(carried) → asabara (on horseback)
Prefix+Noun huv-(good)+ asa-(horse) → huvasa (having good horses)
huv+asabara → good horseman
Verb+Noun daraya- (to hold)+ vahu (sth. Good) → darayavahu
Adjectival compounds
Adjectival compounds, consisting of adjective + noun indicating possession are frequent
in Old Persian, For instance; tigra-xauda- “he who has a pointed hat” and Ariyaciça“whose stock is Aryan.”
Such compounds are called bahuvri:his, a Sanskrit word literally meaning “he who has
much (bahu) rice (vi:hi).”
Adjectives with the prefix hu- + noun, e.g., huv-asa- and humartiya-“he who has good
horses, men” can also be bahuvri:his. The compounds hamarana-kara- and asa-baraare of a different kind. Here a kind of case relationship must be assumed between the
two elements, such as, “he who does battle (accusative)” and “he who is carried or rides
on a horse (instrumental).”
Ablaut
Plays an important role in Derivation; vriddhi is commonly used to derive nouns and
adjectives from other nouns and adjectives.
Compare:
Vriddhi(long form of the vowel) + suffix -a-:
Margu- “Margiana”
Ma:rgava- “person from Margiana”
vriddhi + suffix -i-:
baga- “god” + *ya:da- “worshiping”
Ba:gaya:di- month name
*yauhman- (yaug “yoke, combine”?)
ya:umani- (ya:umaini)*coordinated,
controlled”
vriddhi + suffix -iya- (< -i + a-):
*xshayatha- “the wielding of power”
xsha:yathiya- “king”
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When the original first term already has a long a:, the vriddhi is not visible:
2. Pronominal morphology
(i)
personal pronouns (including the so-called anaphoric pronoun);
(ii)
several demonstrative pronouns;
(iii)
relative pronouns;
(iv)
interrogative-indefinite
2.1. Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns are characterized (i) by an absence of grammatical gender; (ii) by a
remarkable heteroclisis between the nominative and oblique cases; and (iii) by the
existence of frequently used enclitic forms.
A) Accent forms
First
Nominative
Accusative
Genitive
Ablative
adam
mam
mana:
-ma
Accented forms
Second
First Plural
tuvam
vuvam
___
___
vayam
__
ama:xam
___
b) Enclitic forms
Accusative
Genitive
-ma:
-mai
Enclitic forms
___
___
-tai
___
Enclitic forms:
Old Persian exhibits enclitic forms built from the stems –sha-/ -shi- and –di-: acc, sg. –shim
“him” gen. –shai “his”, acc. pl. –shish “them”, gen. “their”; acc. sg. –dim “him” and acc. pl. –dish
“them.”
2.2.
i)
ii)
Demonstrative pronouns
Near-Deixis
Far-Deixis
2.2.1. Near-Deixis
The near-deictic pronoun ima- refers to what is near to the speaker in time and space,
Sing.
Plur.
Masc.
iyam
imaiy
Fem.
iyam
imaa
Neut.
ima
imaa
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Examples:
Iyam asa naiba (This horse is good)
Imaiy martiyaa shiyaataa (these men are happy)
2.2.2. Far-Deixis
It is opposed to in heaven.
Sing.
Nom.
Acc.
Plur.
Nom.-acc.
2.3.
i)
ii)
The nom. and acc.
Masc.
Fem.
Neut.
hauv
avam
hauv
Ava:m
Ava, avashciy
avaiy
Ava:
Ava:
Relative and interrogative pronouns
Relative pronoun: Its stems haya- (nom. sg. Masc./fem.) and taya- (elsewhere)
“who, which” emerged from the fusion of the Proto-Aryan correlating
demonstrative and relative pronouns sa:-/ta:- +ya- “the one, who“.
Interrogative pronoun: It not attested in Old Persian texts and can be recovered
only from the indefinite pronouns kash-ci (nom. sg. Masc.) “somebody”, cish-ci
(neut.) “something”, which are derived by means of the generalizing particle –ci,
as in ya-ci (nom.-acc. sg. Neut.) “whatever”.
2.4.
Pronominal Adjectives
Old Persian attests only aniya- “other” (e.g., nom. –acc. sg. Neut. Aniya, abl. Sg. Masc.
aniyana); haruva- “all” (e.g., loc. Sg. Fem. Haruvahya:ya:) hama- “the same” (in gen. sg.
Fem. Hamahya:ya:).
3. Verbal morphology
Old Persian verbal forms are marked for tense (originally aspect), voice, mood, and the
usual three persons and three numbers.
3.1. Voice
There are two “voices”: active and middle. There is a passive formation in -iya-.
Note that the word “active” is used in two different ways: “active” form or “active” meaning.
“Active” form means that the verb takes “active” endings, rather than “middle” endings. A verb
can have “middle” forms but still have “active” meaning, that is, take a direct object (transitive).
Passive morphology is more innovative, which the following attested: (i) forms built from the
passive stem in –ya- (e.g., imperfect a-thanh-ya “it has been said”), common to Indo-Iranian for
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the present stem; (ii) middle forms like a-naya-ta “he was led”; and (iii) phrases consisting of a
verbal adjective in –ta- plus the copula (which usually is omitted, however in the third person).
3.2.
Mood
The five moods attested in Old Persian are indicative, subjunctive, optative, imperative and as
an Indo-European relic, injunctive.
The indicative is used to express factual statements-present indicative (formed with the
primary endings) for those in present time and imperfect indicative (the augment a - and
secondary endings being added to the present stem) for those in past time. The subjunctive
expresses the eventual or potential realization of actions in the present stem enlarged by –a(e.g., ah-a-ti “it my be”). The optative is used for wishes and prayers and is formed with a stem
in –iya- (in the athematic singular) or –i:- (otherwise). The optative takes secondary endings
(e.g., 2nd sg. Mid. Yadaisha “you may worship”. The imperative is the mood of command and
prayer and makes use of distinctive imperative endings which are added to the present or aoris t
stem.
The injunctive (with secondary endings) is found in Old Persian only in Prohibitive constructions
introduced by the particle ma: “not”.
3.3.
Tense
It has three “tenses”: present, past, and perfect. The past tense is mostly expressed
by the imperfect (English he was, he did, he went). The perfect is formed by the
perfect participle in -ta plus the verb “to be” (similar to German Ich bin gewesen and
French je suis allé).
3.4.
i)
Verbal Stem
Distinction between the thematic and the athematic stems marked by the
presence or absence of the thematic vowel –a- preceding the personal
endings.
Example: athematic as-ti “he is”, but thematic bav-a-ti “he becomes”
ii)
The present and aorist stems (and likewise the only perfect stem attested) are
formed either from the verbal root to which one of a set of suffixes is
attached, or from the unsuffixed root itself (root presents and root aorists).
Example: present stems in –aya- like ta:vaya- “to be able”, ma:naya:- “to wait,
expect”
Ancestral formations of Proto-Indo-European origin are the stems in –sa- (=Avestan –sa-), trsa“to be afraid” (=Avestan tarsa-), xshna:sa- “to know”.
4. Clitics
i) Two common examples; the copulative and disjunctive conjunctions (-ca: “and”, -va:
“or”); and (iii) various emphatic particles
Example: Example: pasa:va-mai
Aura mazda:
upasta:m abara
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Afterwards-me
Auramazda:
aid
he braught
Example: A B-ca: Vashna: Auramazda:ha: manaca: D˝rayavahauπ xsha:yathiyahaya: “by the
greatness of Auramazda: and me, King Darius”
A B-va:martiya haya draujana ahatiy hayava: zu:rakara ahatiy avaiy ma: daushta: biya: “A man
who is a liar or does crooked deeds—those you shall not befriend!”
5. Coordination and subordination
Like;
i)
ii)
iii)
Connector (a coordinating conjunction like uta: “and” or a temporal adverb like
pasa:va “afterwards, then”, or without such (asyndeton).
Most conjunctions used in Old Persian are derived from the (original) stem of the
relative pronoun (as is the case in the cognate languages, too): for example,
yatha: (often correlated with avatha: “thus”) “when, after, so that” (introducing
temporal, modal and consecutive clauses); yadi “if” (normally with a subjunctive
verb), “when” (with an indicative; introducing temporal and conditional clauses).
While both of these are inherited, ya:ta: “until, when, as long as” is a new
formation, as is taya “that, so that”
There are also main clause containing verbs like “to order” , “to be able”, “to
dare” (e.g., adam nishta:yam ima:m dipim nipaishtanai” I ordered to engrave this
inscription”); another likewise typical use of an infinitive construction is that
expressing purpose after verbs like “to go”, “to send” (e.g., paraita patish Darlim
hamaranam cartanai” went forth against Da:drshi to fight a battle”).
6. Relative constructions
The relative pronoun haya-/taya- functions as a definite article in expressions indicating various
attributive complements to nouns, with case attraction if appropriate; for example:
A. Gauma:ta haya magush (nominative)
Gauma:tam tayam maguam (accusative)
“Gaumata the magus”
B. Ka:ram tayam Ma:dam (accusative)
“The Median army”
C. Vitham taya:m ama:xam (genitive plural)
“Our *royal+ house”
D. Xshacam taya Ba:birau (locative)
“The kingship in Babylonia”
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Appendix:
Nouns
Old Persian stems:




a-stems (-a, -am, -ā)
i-stems (-iš, iy)
u- (and au-) stems (-uš, -uv)
consonantal stems (n, r, h)
-a
Singular
Dual
-am
Plural
Singular
Dual
-ā
Plural Singular Dual Plural
Nominative -a
-ā
-ā, -āha -am
-ā
-ā
-ā
-ā
-ā
Vocative
-ā
-ā
-ā
-am
-ā
-ā
-ā
-ā
-ā
Accusative
-am
-ā
-ā
-am
-ā
-ā
-ām
-ā
-ā
-ā
-aibiyā -aibiš
-āyā
-ābiyā -ābiš
Instrumental -ā
-aibiyā -aibiš
Dative
-ahyā, -ahya -aibiyā -aibiš
-ahyā, -ahya -aibiyā -aibiš
-āyā
-ābiyā -ābiš
Ablative
-ā
-ā
-āyā
-ābiyā -ābiš
Genitive
-ahyā, -ahya -āyā
-ānām -ahyā, -ahya -āyā
-ānām -āyā
-āyā
-ānām
Locative
-aiy
-aišuvā -aiy
-aišuvā -āyā
-āyā
-āšuvā
-aibiyā -aibiš
-āyā
-aibiyā -aibiš
-āyā
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-iš
-iy
-uš
-uv
Singula Dua Plura Singula Dua Plura Singula
Plura Singula
Plura
Dual
Dual
r
l
l
r
l
l
r
l
r
l
Nominative -iš
-īy
-iya
-iy
-in
-īn
-uš
-ūv
-uva -uv
-un
-ūn
Vocative
-īy
-iya
-iy
-in
-īn
-u
-ūv
-uva -uv
-un
-ūn
Accusative -im
-īy
-iš
-iy
-in
-īn
-um
-ūv
-ūn
-un
-ūn
Instrument
-auš
al
ībiy -ībiš -auš
ā
ībiy -ībiš -auv
ā
ūbiy -ūbiš -auv
ā
ūbiy -ūbiš
ā
Dative
-aiš
ībiy -ībiš -aiš
ā
ībiy -ībiš -auš
ā
ūbiy -ūbiš -auš
ā
ūbiy -ūbiš
ā
-auš
ībiy -ībiš -auš
ā
ībiy -ībiš -auv
ā
ūbiy -ūbiš -auv
ā
ūbiy -ūbiš
ā
Genitive
-aiš
-īyā
-aiš
īnām
-īyā
-auš
īnām
-ūvā ūnā
m
-ūvā ūnā
m
Locative
-auv
-īyā
Ablative
-i
-auv
išuvā
-īyā
-āvā
išuvā
Adjectives are declinable in similar way.
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-uv
-auš
-ūvā ušuv -āvā
ā
-ūvā ušuv
ā
Verbs
Voices
Active, Middle (them. pres. -aiy-, -ataiy-), Passive (-ya-).
Mostly the forms of first and third persons are attested. The only preserved Dual form is
ajīvatam 'both lived'.
Present, Active
Athematic Thematic
'be'
'bring'
1.pers. aʰmiy
barāmiy
3.pers. astiy
baratiy
1.pers. aʰmahiy
barāmahiy
3.pers. hatiy
baratiy
Sg.
Pl.
Imperfect, Active
Athematic
Thematic
'do, make' 'be, become'
Sg. 1.pers. akunavam abavam
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3.pers. akunauš
abava
1.pers. akumā
abavāmā
3.pers. akunava
abava
Pl.
Present participle
Active
-nt-
Middle
-amna-
Past participle
-ta-
Infinitive
-tanaiy
Lexicon:
Proto-Indo-Iranian
Bhra:trmartya
Ata
Old Persian
Bra:tar
martya
arta
Middle Persian
Bra:dar
mard
ard
Modern Persian
Bara:dar ‫برادر‬
Mard
‫مرد‬
Ord
‫ارد‬
meaning
brother
man
order
Reference:
Roger D. Woodard, 2008, the Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas, Cambridge
University Press.
Oktor Skjærvø, 2002, an Introduction to Old Persian.
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