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Primatology
Rothschild, J Primatol 2015, 4:1
http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2167-6801.1000e130
Editorial
Open Access
Emerging infectious diseases and Primate Zoonoses
Bruce Rothschild1,2*
1Northeast
2Carnegie
Ohio Medical University, Rootstown, OH 44272, USA
Museum, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
*Corresponding
author: Bruce Rothschild, Professor of Medicine, Carnegie Museum, 4400 Forbes Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15273, USA, Tel: 785-615-1523; E-mail:
[email protected]
Rec date: April 16, 2015, Acc date: April 18, 2015, Pub date: May 08, 2015
Copyright: © 2015 Rothschild B. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Editorial
Most discussions of zoonoses relate to human acquisition of disease
[1-5]. This is exemplified by attribution of the origin of AIDS to
various primates [6-8]. Other viruses of concern for transmission from
primates to humans include retroviruses [e.g., lentivirus and simian
immunodeficiency virus], herpesviruses [e.g., Herpes simplex,
Varicella, cytomegalic virus, Herpes simiae, measles, pox viruses [e.g.,
monkeypox , varicella], rabies, poliovirus, hepatitis A, B and E,
lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, Marburg, Ebola, parainfluenza,
mumps, respiratory syncytial virus, coxsackie virus, rhinovirus, Simian
Pathogen
virus 40 and West Nile virus (Table 1). Ebola outbreaks have been
recognized in gorilla and chimpanzee [9]; Marburg virus, in rhesus
[Macaca mulatta], cynomolgus monkeys [Macaca fascicularis], African
green monkeys [Cercopithecus aethiops] and baboons [Papio] [9];
respiratory syncytial virus, in chimpanzees [10]; influenza, in
chimpanzee, bonobo and gorilla [10]; measles, in gorilla [10];
Herpesvirus type 1 and yellow fever, in New World monkeys [10]; and
Molloscum contagium, in chimpanzees [10]. Twenty-five percent of
macaques are infected with Herpes B.
Citation
Bacteria
Camplyobacter
24
Escherichia
Salmonella
24
Shigella
24
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Virus
Herpes simplex 1
Influenza A
Measles
Metapneumovirus
Rotovirus
Parasites
Cryptosporidium
Encephalitozoon
Giardia
Isospora
Stronglyoides
Trichuris
Table 1: Human to animal disease transmission in the wild
The epidemic of tuberculosis in zoologic park primates traced to
directed expectoration by visitors emphasizes that zoonotic diseases
J Primatol
ISSN:2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal
represent a two-way street. “Pathogen pollution,” the process of
human introduction of a foreign disease into a new locality [11,12], is
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Citation:
Rothschild B (2015) Emerging infectious diseases and Primate Zoonoses . J Primatol 4: e130. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000e130
Page 2 of 4
becoming more recognized as an animal health issue [13-17].
Ecotourism and increased contacts with humans are responsible for
transmission to primates not only of tuberculosis, but also polio,
influenza, measles, yellow fever, malaria, filiariasis and dracunculiasis
(Table 2) [18-20]. Most likely sources of these infections are park
personnel and researchers [10]. Tourists are difficult to verify, as
sources, because diseases incubating in short term visitors often
Pathogen
become apparent only after they leave. This compromises recognition
of that source of infection. A major concern relates to unvaccinated
tourists. How much do we actually know about disease load and
presence in primates? The great apes are perhaps the best studied [14],
but sampling has been quite uneven. It has been more intensive in
Africa, less in Asia and South America [14,16].
Citation
Bacteria
Bacillus anthracis
[25,26]
Bartonella quintana
[10]
Campylobacter jejunii
[24]
Escherichia coli
[10]
Helobacter
[10]
Pasturella multocida
[10]
Salmonella
[24]
Shigella
[24]
Streptococcus pneumonae
[10]
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
[27]
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
[10]
Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare
[26,28]
Mycobacterium bovis
[29]
Actinomycetes
[10]
Fungi
[10]
Candida albicans
[10]
Coccidiomycosis
[10]
Cryptococcus
[10
Cryptosporidium parvum
[24]
Dermatophilus congolensis
[10]
Nocardia
[10]
Trichophyton mentagrophytes
[10]
Rickettsia
[22]
Anaplasmosis
[22]
Babesosis
[22,30]
Colorado tick fever
[22]
Erhlichiosis
[22]
Q fever
[22]
Rocky Mountain spotted fever
[22]
Tick borne encephalitis
[22]
Tularemia
[22]
J Primatol
ISSN:2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal
Volume 4 • Issue 1 • 1000e130
Citation:
Rothschild B (2015) Emerging infectious diseases and Primate Zoonoses . J Primatol 4: e130. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000e130
Page 3 of 4
Typhus
[22]
Virus
Adenoviruses
Herpes B
[31,32]
Influenza
[21,33]
Measles
[21,34]
Metapneumovirus
Polio
[21,10]
Varicella
[35]
Yellow fever
[21,10]
Prion
[36]
Parasites
Amoebiasis
Cryptosporidium
Dracunculiasis
[10,21]
Encephalitozoon intestinalis
[24]
Filiariasis
[21,10]
Giardia
[24]
Hymenolepsis nana
[10]
Leishmaniasis
Plasmodian
[21,10]
Nematodes
Schistosoma mansoni
[10]
Strongyloides
[10]
Taenia
[37]
Trypanosoma cruzi
[38]
Scabes
[21,10]
Table 2: Human-derived primate zoonoses
Responsible organisms derive from all infectious disease categories:
Bacterial, fungal, rickettsial, viral, parasitic and even prions [10,21,22]
(Table 2). Escherichia coli outbreaks have been observed in
chimpanzees; Campylobacter and Salmonella in gorillas; Streptococcus
pneumonae and Pasturella multocida in chimpanzees]; Schistosoma
mansoni in olive baboons and scabies in gorillas [10].
Zoonoses have direct adverse effects on primates beyond the actual
disease burden of morbidity and mortality. Reproductive productivity
is also impacted. So, what to do? Some basic precautions appear
reasonable. Increased separations of human and non-human primates,
assurance of the health and vaccination status of all humans who do
interact are important. Quarantine, testing for hepatitis B core and
surface antigens, Mantoux test for tuberculosis and fecal culture,
examination of stools for ova and parasites might be considered.
J Primatol
ISSN:2167-6801 JPMT, an open access journal
Minimizing pathogen transmission at ecotourism sites [23] includes
assuring adequate sanitation [e.g., burying human waste sufficiently
deep as not to contaminate the environment or be easily accessible to
“curious” foraging]. We need to treat our generic cousins with the
same respect we should be according our conspecifics. Visit, but know
when to leave.
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Rothschild B (2015) Emerging infectious diseases and Primate Zoonoses . J Primatol 4: e130. doi:10.4172/2167-6801.1000e130
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