Download Rome, Italy and the Western Empire

DIGITZING THE IMAGE OF AUGUSTUS:
Rome, Italy & the Western Empire
New South Wales Premier’s Westfield’s History Teachers’ Scholarship
2009
Dennis Lendon
Head Teacher History, Colo High School
Temples, arches, roads, theatres and sculptured heads may not enthuse many people, but when you
connect their origins across the space of Europe and the time of millennia to one person, all roads
lead to Rome.
That’s where this study tour took me.
From the Louvre to the Vatican museum and several in between, the busts of Octavian – Augustus
emitted many feelings, but the most common one was a feeling of semper eadem – always the
same, timelessness. Although there were obvious stylistic changes, he was always easily
distinguished from those around him.
Very few whole sculptures of Augustus survive. Two are very striking: the Prima Porta housed in the
Vatican, and the pontifex maximus in the National Museum of Rome. These two allow for a
multitude of emotions and deconstructions by the audience.
After photographs were taken of the former I stepped back and watched the patrons. Interestingly it
was the males who marvelled at it more than the females. To me, it gave off confidence, trust,
safety, stability; yet, despite it being dressed in military cuirass1, it did not exude virility. It was this
statue that was copied and displayed in Orange and Rimini.
The latter was a different matter – it attracted more female admirers. Like the Prima Porta, its
message was of calm control and priestly sanctity on a more human scale.
Some representations are idealisations of the real Augustus. What do we mean by the ‘real’
Augustus when everyone had their own set of expectations and interpretations of this man? By real
do we mean the body politique, the common citizens or the personage known to his familia and
amici? It is probably less problematic to keep to the princeps and therefore the image politique.
When taking the photographs it was easy to enhance and create an image of Augustus as either the
parter patrae – strong, resilient, all knowing or divine-like – austere, dominating and omnipotent;
depending on the angle the photograph. Perhaps, although the photograph doesn’t lie, the
photographer might?
Like Napoleon Bonaparte’s passing out report from the Ecole Militaire (a school for the sons of
impoveraged officers) stated “he could go far if the circumstances were right”, so to was the case
with Octavian – son of a waning family, adopted by Caesar, having political acumen, he surrounded
himself with men of talent and enterprise.
The constructions of Napoleon Bonaparte that adorn the public spaces of Paris: victory arches, civic
infrastructure projects, additions or restorations of gardens, palaces, and so on and, later, circa
1840, the Dome Church at the Place des Invalides – housing his tomb, bear close resemblances to
those strategically positioned by Augustus in Rome and throughout the empire. Examples from
Augustus that seemed to have influenced Napoleon; the first emperor of the French Empire include,
in the Fora Romanum and Augustum, the Campus Martius and the Palatine Hill, in Rimini the arch
that celebrated his civic beneficence in repairing the Via Flaminia , Orange a victory arch celebrating
1
Roman upper body armour
his victories in Gaul, his religious construction of the Maison Carre preceninct in Nimes and his
water supply infrastructure at Arles just to name a few small, but significant examples in the western
half of the empire.
It begs the question, did Napoleon know his histories of Rome’s first imperator or is it just the
formula that every successful leader must adopt to gain varying degrees of success and lasting,
historical immortality?
When examining the reliefs around the circular crypt of Napoleon’s tomb, it is as if the creators were
moved to direct unabashed imitation of Augustus’ Res Gestae. The themes are almost exact – the
difference being that the latter’s accomplishments, were set down in prose before he died and the
former’s were set down in friezes after he had died. The impact of both statesmen on their
respective societies is undeniable. The comparison between time and space, however, is strongly
unified by a common purpose, namely, an equation for establishing, maintaining and memorialising
the self promotion of a leader’s legacies to their “country”.
The princeps being responsible for establishing concorde by eliminating civil strife and factionalism,
encouraging every citizen; great and small, rich and poor, to engage in and carry out their civic
responsibilities, educating the youth through the glorious literature past and present; restoring
traditional values – especially of family; and then importance of women; restoring commerce and
economic prosperity to the commonwealth; establishing equality and right of appeal before a
simple, easy to comprehend and administer, standardized legal code throughout the empire;
balancing the relationship between Church and State; and, finally, advancement by merit and ability
rather than as a birth rite. All of these, Napoleon Bonaparte 1 seems to have imitated – albeit in
baroque rather than neo-hellenistic style. However, the message is the same: One man set the ship
of State back on a stable and better foundation when he left than what it was in when he arrived on
the political career.
What is also obvious in this Augusto mania exhibited by past rulers of the French Empires from the
Bourbons to Bonapartes is that these artistic creations in both paint and stone indicate that power
was allocated and monitored by the princeps. The differences are barely discernable in the idealism
and iconography of art but in reality the French experience required its players to be much less
subtle about the fact that they moved rapidly with a counter-revolutionary procession back to
monarchy than that of the Augustan paradigm.
It is possible that both men; who provided the link between republican and monarchic governments,
professed similar sentiments with sincere intent which Augustus expresses in his Res Gestae2 34.1;
he states that that whilst in public office he had no more power than his fellow magistrates, what
made his position different from his fellow citizens was his auctoritas – his moral influence attained
by virtue of his actions performed in the name of civic duty that made him princeps senatus and
princeps civitatus. Fortunately or unfortunately – depending on one’s political perspective, hindsight
gives us the last chapter, the end of one political society and the beginning of another.
2
achievements
The art, sculpture and architecture embued with an eerie Augustomania found throughout Paris is a
strong indicator of the success of the image that the Augustan publicity machine constructed post 31
BC.
The Museums at Trier, Orange and Nimes were an unimagined bonus. They housed many artefacts
that brought home the impact of Augustus on Romanisation of Lower Germania and Transalpine
Gaul.
In the former; among the many items too numerous to list here, was an inscription not usually cited
that illustrates how Augustus publically demonstrated who was to succeed him. This was similar to
that which was positioned across the Maison d’ Carre in Nimes. In these temple inscriptions these
adopted grandchildren were put up as leaders of the youth.
In the Italian town of Rimini (south of Venice) there stands a substantial commemorative arch that
terminates the Via Flaminia – one of the many military roads restored by Augustus as a role model to
encourage other wealthy citizens to use their fortunes to contribute to the up-keep of public
infrastructure. It was thrilling to look down from the arch whilst in Rimini, then; once in Rome past
the Vatican on the opposite side of the Tiber to look north knowing that the two gazes collided
under that arch.
Additionally at this town I experienced an eerie revelation. The main street of the town had four
Julian points of irony: the Augustan arch; a statue of Caesar commemorating his crossing of the
Rubicon; a dilapidated arch of Marius who fought the Social War in the 90s BC: and the Tiberian
Bridge. It could almost have been called the Via Familia Iulia. In fact it was called the Corso
d’Augusto.
The strength, power and longevity of the individual elements contained within Augustus’
propaganda machine were striking. Considering he died in AD 14, the omnipotent characteristics
allowed Augustus to establish and maintain his position in the State. This iconography was later
adopted by all European monarchies in order to substantiate and legitimize their status and position
within the nation-states.
He; Augustus, used art, architecture, literature, honorific titles & traditional Roman values to:
 re-imagine the res publica3 in an ideal form by re-setting standards
 construct the self and re-strain the evils of the past
 remove the toxicity of the past
 develop a pedagogy of supervised competition and paternalism
 re-conceptualise and plunder the past in terms of the present needs as the
situations arose
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public things
 re-introduce values through visual coercion (although the elements of his products where not
essentially different, just omnipotent)
 shape and impose a specific kind of conformity on all who wished to be included in the new old
Rome, and
 encourage imitation and, consequently, exclude non conformists.
The Palatine Hill is the site that contains three vital structures – The so-called House of Livia
(Augustus’ second wife), House of Augustus and the Temple of the Palatine Apollo.
It is considered that the first two were separate dwellings, however, when we examined the two
with the Commune di Roma archaeological guide, it became obvious that they were one and the
same “house”. Archaeological reports at the British School Of Rome mention that lead pipes
inscribed with the word “IULII” on them. This is the family name of the Julii (Caesar’s family) NOT
Livia’s as she was of another patrician gens.
Both parts are amazing to see. Augustus’ section has the most spectacularly restored frescoes –
especially in the upstairs “study”. The downstairs examples are very similar to those found in the
Campanian region of Italy.
“Livia’s” house is the Italic style with peristyle garden and dining rooms. These rooms have frescoes
less decorative than in the former house, yet they reflect the garlanded sculptures of the Ara Pacis4.
CARDANINI & BRUNO suggest that:
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there existed a domus publica5 AND a domus privata6
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the so-called separate houses of Livia and Augustus may not have been that
separate
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both houses were indeed “modest” compared to the contemporary dwellings in
Rome and elsewhere in the empire, and
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it’s not so much the house of The Family, but the precinct in which they were
part of and all the associated messages that is important.
K. MILNOR suggests that:
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the Palatine Complex was an articulation of their social & political roles, and
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Rome and the Empire was Augustus’ household (echoed by Beth Severy).
4
Altar of Peace
5
public residence for official business
6
Private residence for intimate, family life and the entertaining of friends
Tracking down the Egyptian obelisks brought back after the battle of Actium against Antonius and
Cleopatra proved an exciting adventure and allowed time to explore the back blocks of Rome. It was
ironic to see that the Catholic Church has used these obelisks in the same way Augustus had done.
They have incorporated their own laudatory, papal inscriptions under his and they have repositioned them to advance the prestige of the Church as Augustus did to enhance his own position.
Merkelbach; when hypothesising why he chose the ones he did suggests that those erected outside
the Mausoleum and as the spina (turning points) in Circus Maximus offers these suggestions.
[1] RE-CONQUEST – XIXTH DYNASTY Seti and I Ramses II (tradition)
[2] CULTURE – XXVITH DYNASTY Psammeticus II- first relations and
cultural influences between Greece and Egypt (learned patricians)
[3] THE GREAT CONQUEROR – Nectanebo I & II – worshipped Amon
at Siwa just as Alexander had done.
In Rome, the Ara Pacis certainly earns its name. In its entirety, is exudes peace and security. Just
they way Augustus had intended. He and his circle were master manipulators. This structure, more
than any of the others around Rome really sum up his position in the Empire and especially in Rome.
E.U.R. was another great find. Its full title is the Museum of Roman Civilisation. It has far too much to
see in one session. However, because the exhibits are all copies, there are not as many over vigilant
guards. Additionally, they have many scale models of many of the Roman structures so that one can
see them in all of their former glory.
With the exception of actual sites visited (the Palatine Hill, Napoleon’s Tomb, Chateau Versailles,
Augustus’ Mausoleum, Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli, the theatres of Nimes, Orange and the in-situ
triumphal arches at Orange, Nimes and Rimini) most of the venues containing images of Augustus
and his associates were housed in museums and stately buildings arranged like museums.
Having taught History Extension since its introduction to the NSW HSC in 2000, it has become
difficult not to pose provocative questions which always contain elements of relativity of
perspective.
Given the predominating theme of this study; the image of Augustus in Rome, Italy and the western
areas of the empire (Gaul and Lower Germania), I began thinking about the roles, nature and values
expressed in museums.
Here are some thoughts.
A museum is an intentionally constructed environment, contrived to carry out any or all of the
following purposes.
 To display objects of a specific culture across a time and space continuum in order to show
that society’s progress in technology (civilian and / or martial), the arts and everyday life
perhaps across different social groups.
 To showcase; almost in a celebratory manner, local archaeological finds that indicate the
longevity of the territory’s human occupation. This was found to be the case of Trier, Nimes,
Orange, Arles and Rimini. All of which seemed ironic given that these towns were all
occupied and culturally impacted upon by the external agency of Rome – especially that of
the Caesars. They were in fact conquered, occupied and participated in the Romanisation
process. These sites and museums publicised their subjugation by Rome. Until postmodernism took hold in the historical and social sciences, this acculturation was viewed as
an evolutionary step towards “civilisation”. It was obvious that Augustus played an
important part in the process. Consequently the image of Augustus was spread far and wide
both in his time and for centuries after his death.
 To preserve objects considered as having ecumenical and timeless value as opposed to a
narrower purely nationalist importance. Although the later cannot be ignored. This was
evident in both the Museum of Roman Civilisation (EUR) and the Chateau Versailles.
 Excluding the various holocaust monuments and museums, not one of the sites or museums
I visited presented history, material progress or the images of Augustus in a negative light.
Like the writing of history, museums projected a positivist view. Perhaps leaving the
relativity of experiences of different groups to the creative and reflective minds of the
patrons?
 Another question asked was the degree of success of the site or museum or to put it in a
different light – the degree of customer satisfaction with their experiences at the venue. This
raises the issue of the nature of the museum which can be best responded to suggesting
further questions with which to reflect upon:
What was the environment like?
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Objects in display cabinets or in open display?
Arranged chronologically or thematically?
Was there any attempt made to recreate the time and space of the object/s?
Was the signage multi-lingual? Too detailed? Conjectural or descriptive?
To what extent could the patron interact with the objects?
Was there any use of static or dynamic technology to bring the past to life?
Were the objects original or replicas?
Were diagrams used as contextual aids?
In terms of “whole sites”: what percentage was reconstructive? How much access
was accorded to the visitor? How much mental creativity was required to visualise
what it was like? This can often enhance the experience as on wonders “what would
it have been like to be here during the Augustan times?”
This was certainly the case at all sites visited. Perhaps those teachers and students who have studied
or have apprehensively thought about developing the museum case study for History Extension may
find the above observations useful catalysts.
The size or engineering prowess of the Romans and the impact and foresight of Augustus to stamp
his legacy and notoriety on the Western provinces was truly staggering and absolutely awe-inspiring.
He achieved his goals well and truly.
It was an unforgettable personal experience and easily transferable to dissemination situations. It
was enlivening to see firsthand the places and the material remains that contributed to the imagemaking of Octavian/Augustus; as the rebuilder and reviver of Rome and Italy, the initiator and
project manager who provided the impetus; albeit with self promotion as at least one motive, for
infrastructure programmes that laid the foundations for the consolidation of the Roman Empire on
the one hand, and the political, social and economic efficiency of a later Europe on the other.
The strength, power and longevity of the individual elements contained within the Augustus’
propaganda machine were striking. Considering he died in AD 14, the characteristics made
omnipotent for Augustus to establish and maintain his position in the State.
It was clear that he was not only imitated in “ancient” times but his leadership qualities were
passionately displayed by such leaders / rulers as the Medici of Florence, the Micengo of Venice,
Louis XIV and Napoleon Bonaparte of France. Each one of these men seemed to have adopted
Augustus’ programme of image creation and self promotion to the letter.
The strength of his image has also been kept alive in the preservation of the artefacts in museums
dotted throughout France, Germany and Italy, the naming of streets, palazzos and municipal insignia
in every one of the cities visited. It is as if they are proud of their shared kinship with Caius Caesar
Octavianus – Augustus.
Ironically, half the globe away, in a place that Augustus probably did not know existed, there is yet
another example of the influence and power of this Roman. As you look at the entrance to the Art
gallery of NSW you will see on the right a rectangular relief sculptured frieze. Who should be the
centre of attention but Augustus himself. His publicists succeeded. Augustus, Macaenas, Agrippa,
Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Plutarch, Vitruvius, the multitude of artisans all played their part exquisitely.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following is a list of books that were consulted both before and after the study tour (2009 – 10),
either in whole or part.
Andersen, W.; The Ara Pacis of Augustus & Mussolini; Editions Fabriart, Geneva; 2003
Badie, A. et.al. The Ancient Theatre of Orange; Culturespaces; 2006
Beard, M.; The Roman Triumph; Belknap-Harvard; 2007
Berger, J.; Ways of Seeing; Penguin, London; 1972
Carandini, C. Bruno, D.; La casa di Augusto dai Lupercale al Natale; Laterza & Figli;
2008
Cooley, M.G.L. (ed); The Age of Augustus; Lactor Number 17; Cambridge University Press; 2003
De Agostini; Archeo, 25.1 January 2009
Eck, W.; The Age of Augustus; Blackwell; 1998
Everitt, A.; The First Emperor: Caesar Augustus and the Triumph of Rome; John Murray, London;
2007
Favro, D.; The Urban Image of Augustus; Cambridge University Press; 2008
Fischer, E. The Necessity of Art; Verso, 2010
Fowler, H.; The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace and Oblivion in Roman Political Culture; Chapel Hill, 2006
Frazer, A.; The Roman Villa: Villa Urbana; University of Pennsylvania Museum; 1998
Galinsky, K.; Augustan Culture; Princeton University Press; 1996
Galinsky, K.; The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus; Cambridge University Press; 2005
Gallico, S.; Ostia Antica: A Guide to the Excavations; ATS Italia Editrice, Roma; 2000
Golvin, J-C., Lontcho, F.; Rome Antique Retrouvee; Editions Errance; no publication date available on
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press, 1999
Hales, S.; The Roman House and Social Identity; Cambridge University Press; 2003
Holland, R.; Augustus: The Godfather of Europe; Sutton, 2006
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Levick, B.; Augustus: Image and Substance; Longman; 2010
McEwen, I.K.; Vitruvius: Writing the Body of Architecture; M.I.T. Press; 2003
McKay, A.G.; Houses, Villas and palaces in the Roman World; Johns Hopkins University Press; 1998
Meneghini, R., Valenzani, R.S.; I Fori Imperiali (1991-2007); Viviani Editore; 2007
Millar, F. & Segal, E.; Caesar Augustus: Seven Aspects; Oxford University Press;1984
Milnor, K.; Gender, Domesticity and the Age of Augustus: Inventing Private Life; Oxford University
Press; 2005
Parker, J.H.; The Twelve Egyptian Obelisks in Rome: Their history explained by translations of the
inscriptions upon them; Kessinger Publications; 1879
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Wisconsin Press; 2006
Richer, M. & Schomberg, R.; The Life of Maecenas: With Critical Notes; Kessler Publishing; 1748
Rossini, O.; Ara Pacis; Electa, Museo Comune di Roma; 2006
Severy, B.; Augustus and the Family at the Birth of the Roman Empire; Routledge; 2003
Shotter, D.; Augustus Caesar; Routledge; 2005
Southern, P.; Augustus; Routledge; 1998
Stamper, J.W.; The Architecture of the Roman Temples from Republic to the Middle Empire;
Cambridge University Press; 2005
Ward-Perkins, J.B.; Roman Imperial Architecture; Yale University press; 1981
Zanker, P.; The Power of Image in the Age of Augustus; Michigan University Press; 1990