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Origins and Early Spread of Agriculture
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Agriculture and Population Growth
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Early Agricultural Society


Emergence of villages and towns
Discoveries at Çatal Hüyük – a prominent village
located in Turkey, occupied 7250-5400 B.C.E.
 Pots,
baskets, textiles, leather, stone, metal tools, wood
carvings, carpets, beads, and jewelry

Development of crafts – pottery, metallurgy, and
textile production
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Reserved.
Neolithic Revolution - domestication of plants and
animals begins
Villages form, population increases
Need for food surplus and irrigation arises
Job specialization becomes more complex
Political organization begins in order to organize labor for large
irrigation projects
Social classes form and social structures
become more complex
The Origins of Urban Life
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Craft specialization
Social stratification
Governance
Cultural workers
Development of the city – a gradual process
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All Rights Reserved.
•The earliest complex societies, or civilizations (located in Egypt
and Mesopotamia) began to develop about 5000 years ago,
around 3100 B.C.E. This is often referred to as the “Urban
Revolution.”
•Writing also began about 5000 years ago in some societies, due
to the need to keep economic and administrative records.
•People began to acquire more possessions
•New technologies were developed (irrigation, etc.)
•Women lost status as a result of the development of agriculture
in most societies.
Q: Why do you think this occurred?
Civilization - Official Definition: An organized social
structure.
Main Features of early civilizations, according to some
historians:
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cities
central government
religion
job specialization (such as scribes, artisans, priests, etc.)
social classes
arts and architecture
public works
a form of writing
Another characteristic of many early civilizations was
polytheism. Also, the use of slave labor was common.
“The truest test of civilization is, not the census, nor
the size of the cities, nor the crops, but the kind of
man that the country turns out.”
-Ralph Waldo Emerson
“The true civilization is where every man gives to every
other every right that he claims for himself.”
-Robert Green Ingersoll
“You can’t say civilization isn’t advancing: in every war
they kill you in a new way.”
-Will Rodgers
The following slides highlight the
development of influential early
civilizations – those first
civilizations that had a significant
impact or contributed to the
development of societies beyond
their own.
Many of these civilizations are
often called “foundation
civilizations.”
The Four Early River Valley
Civilizations
Mesopotamia
“Between the Rivers”
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Tigris and Euphrates
Modern-day Iraq
Cultural continuum of “fertile
crescent”
Sumerians the dominant
people
Creation of cities  citystates
Use of community for
projects (defensive walls,
temples, etc.)
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*
Sumer:
The First
Civilization
Sumerian City-States
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Cities appear 4000 B.C.E.
Dominate region from 3200 to
2350 B.C.E.
Ziggurat = home of local deity
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City of Uruk (Euphrates River)
Irrigation systems
Defense from nomadic peoples
Absolute monarchies
Cuneiform created for recordkeeping
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How was Sumer different than
Neolithic villages?
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Cities = political and military centers; expansion into
surrounding areas
Marketplaces drew people from other areas 
Sumerian economic centers 
Cities also served as religious centers where priests
maintained religions
Scribes also developed systems of writing & formal
education
Political Decline of Sumer
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Semitic peoples from northern Mesopotamia overshadow
Sumer (Akkadians & Babylonians)
❑
Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.)
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Hammurabi of Babylon (1792-1750 B.C.E.)
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Destroyed Sumerian city-states one by one, created empire based
in Akkad
Empire unable to maintain chronic rebellions
Improved taxation, legislation
Used local governors to maintain control of city-states
Babylonian empire later destroyed by Hittites from
Anatolia, ca. 1595 B.C.E.
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*
The Babylonians were
a Mesopotamian
civilization descended
from the Sumerians.
The most famous
Babylonian king was
Hammurabi (c. 1728 –
1686 B.C.E.) He
created the first public,
written law code and
expanded Babylonian
territory in Mesopotamia.
Hammurabi’s Code is extremely significant because it
was the first comprehensive written law code of the
ancient, or foundations period.
Hammurabi contributed to the rise and greatness of
Babylon, the world's first metropolis. Many relics of
Hammurabi's reign (1795-1750 B.C.E.) have been
preserved, including the law code.
The code is the earliest known example of a ruler
proclaiming publicly to his people an entire body of
laws, arranged in orderly groups, so that all literate
men could read and know what was required of them.
The code was carved upon a black stone monument,
eight feet high, and clearly intended to be reared in
public view.
Detail of the top of the
stele, depicting Hammurabi
and Shamash.
Selections from
Hammurabi’s
Code
What can we learn about Babylonian
society from this source?
Question: What kind of historical source is this?
6. If a man has stolen goods from a temple, or house, he
shall be put to death; and he that has received the stolen
property from him shall be put to death.
8. If a patrician has stolen ox, sheep, ass, pig, or goat,
whether from a temple, or a house, he shall pay
thirtyfold. If he be a plebeian, he shall return tenfold.
If the thief can not pay, he shall be put to death.
22.If a man has committed highway robbery and has been
caught, that man shall be put to death.
23.If the highwayman has not been caught, the man that has
been robbed shall state on oath what he has lost and the
city or district governor in whose territory or district
the robbery took place shall restore to him what he has
lost.
195. If a son has struck his father, his hands shall be cut off.
196. If a man has knocked out the eye of a patrician, his eye
shall be knocked out.
197. If he has broken the limb of a patrician, his limb shall be
broken.
198. If he has knocked out the eye of a plebeian or has broken
the limb of a plebeian’s servant, he shall pay one mina of
silver.
199. If he has knocked out the eye of a patrician’s servant, or
broken the limb of a patrician’s servant, he shall pay half his
value.
200. If a patrician has knocked out the tooth of a man that is
his equal, his tooth shall be knocked out.
201.If he has knocked out the tooth of a plebeian, he shall pay
one-third of a mina of silver.
229. If a builder has built a house for a man, and has
not made his work sound, and the house he built has
fallen, and caused the death of its owner, that
builder shall be put to death.
230. If it is the owner’s son that is killed, the
builder’s son shall be put to death.
231. If it is the slave of the owner that is killed, the
builder shall give slave for slave to the owner of
the house.
232. If he has caused the loss of goods, he shall
render back whatever he has destroyed.
Moreover, because he did not make sound the house
he built, and it fell, at his own cost he shall rebuild
the house that fell.
Mesopotamian Empires, 1800-600 B.C.E.
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Technological Development in Mesopotamia
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Bronze (copper with tin), ca. 4000 B.C.E.
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Iron, ca. 1000 B.C.E. (from Hittites)
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Military, agricultural applications
Cheaper and more durable than bronze
Wheel, boats, ca. 3500 B.C.E.
Shipbuilding increases trade networks
Horse drawn chariots (Assyrians ~ 19th century
BCE)  stronger military
Donkey caravans ~ 1000s BCE
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*
Other contributions
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Used astronomy to create calendars to help with
charting the rhythms of seasons & determine when
to plant and harvest crops
Epic of Gilgamesh
 Basic
plot: king of Uruk & BFF have heroic, BFF offends
gods and dies, Gilgamesh bummed and tries to cheat
death but eventually realizes death is inevitable.
Patriarchal Society
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Men as landowners, relationship to status
Patriarchy: “rule of the father”
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Double standard of sexual morality
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Women drowned for adultery
Relaxed sexual mores for men
Yet some possibilities of social mobility for women
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Right to sell wives, children
Court advisers, temple priestesses, economic activity
Introduction of the veil at least ca. 1500 B.C.E.
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Overall: more control of women at this point
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Development of Writing
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Sumerians experiment with
pictographs
2900 B.C.E. Sumerians create writing
system
Cuneiform: “wedge-shaped”
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Preservation of documents on clay
Declines from 400 B.C.E. with spread of
Greek alphabetic script
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Ancient Egypt: The Gift of the Nile
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Gradual, predictable
flooding, alluvial soil
“Gift of the Nile”
Developed
Hieroglyphics
Built pyramids
Traded with
Mesopotamia, Nubia,
early Greek civilization
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Egypt: Economy & Technology
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Use of dikes to protect fields from flooding & for irrigation
High interaction with Nubians
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Heavy trade between kingdoms/economic interaction
Use of horses, horse-drawn carriages during New Kingdom (by
Hyskos—horse-riding nomads)
Iron metallurgy—rose independently (natural iron ores)
Bronze metallurgy (rich people)
Eventually, Egypt was able to expand trade to Mediterranean
and even to Mesopotamia
System of writing: Hieroglyphs
Ancient Egypt: Society
Pharaoh = central leader (absolute ruler)
Use of professional military & bureaucracy, tax
collectors to help kingdom function
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Patriarchal society
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“commoners” could achieve high positions in society
through government service
Vs. Mesopotamia: women had more power—could serve
as priestesses in cults
Scribe = best job
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Ancient Egypt: Organized Religion
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Polytheistic society
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Many gods for many purposes
Cults associated with Egypt (Amon-Re, Osiris)
Early pharaohs associated with offspring of sun god (rulers =
divine!)
Deities had important role in society—community effort to
appease
Elites mummified: belief that death was a transition to new
existence
❑
Slaves sacrificed in order to “serve” pharaoh after death/into next
life
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The Early Hebrews
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According to Hebrew scripture, Abraham
migrated to northern Mesopotamia ca. 1850 B.C.E.
Parallels between early biblical texts, code of Hammurabi
participation in Mesopotamia
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Scriptures state Hebrews under Moses go to Palestine, ca. 1300
B.C.E.
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Idea of lex talionis: “law of retaliation”; flood stories that destroyed societies
On-going conflict with indigenous populations
Expansion btw Syria & Sinai Peninsula under King David (1000970 B.C.E.) and Solomon (970-930 B.C.E.)
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Capital city @ Jerusalem; relations w/ Mexopotamia, Egypt
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Moses and Monotheism
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Hebrews shared polytheistic beliefs of other
Mesopotamian civilizations
Moses introduced monotheism, belief in single
god
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Denied existence of competing parallel deities
Personal god: reward and punishment for conformity
with revealed law
The Torah (“doctrine or teaching”)
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Foreign Conquests of Israel/Israelites
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Assyrian conquest, 722 B.C.E.
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Conquered the northern kingdom
Deported many inhabitants to other regions
Many exiles assimilated and lost their identity as Israelites
Had to pay tribute
Babylonian conquest, 586 B.C.E.
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Destroyed Jerusalem
Forced many into exile
Israelites maintained their religious identity and many
returned to Judea  known as Jews
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The Phoenicians
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City-states along Mediterranean coast after 3000
B.C.E.
Extensive maritime trade
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Dominated Mediterranean trade, 1200-800 B.C.E.
Development of alphabet symbols
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Simpler alternative to cuneiform
Spread of literacy
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Israel and Phoenicia, 1500-600 B.C.E.
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Early Migrations – Indo-European and
Bantu peoples
Indo-European Migrations
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Common roots of many languages of Europe,
southwest Asia, India (English, Greek, Sanskrit)
Implies influence of a single Indo-European
people
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Probable original homeland: modern-day Ukraine and
Russia, 4500-2500 B.C.E.
Domestication of horses, use of Sumerian
weaponry allowed them to spread widely
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Indo-European Migrations 3000-1000 B.C.E.
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Implications of Indo-European Migration
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Hittites migrate to central Anatolia, ca. 1900
B.C.E., who have a close relationship with
Mesopotamia and later dominate Babylonia
Influence on trade
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Horses, chariots with spoked wheels (spread widely!)
Iron metallurgy
Migrations to western China, Greece, Italy also
significant (spread of languages)
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Bantu Migrations, 3000-1000 B.C.E.
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Bantu: “people”
Intermittent migration throughout sub-Saharan regions
❑ Cause: Population pressures due to agricultural surplus
Use of canoes in traveling networks of major rivers, iron
tools/weapons to expand agricultural zone
Over 500 variations of original Bantu language
❑ 90 million speakers
By 1000 B.C.E., occupied most of Africa south of the
equator
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Bantu Migrations, 2000 B.C.E.-1000 C.E.
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Implications of Bantu Migrations
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Spread of language family
Some groups conquered and/or absorbed
Spread of agricultural techniques and other
technologies such as pottery, iron-working
Spread of Bantu culture and religious practices
-Prayers to intercessors, e.g. ancestor spirits
Still, great variations among populations remained
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Harappan Society and Its Neighbors,
ca. 2000 B.C.E.
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Harappan Politics
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Large cities, but no evidence of royal/imperial
authority
Taxes in grain, cities = center of authority
Cities designed in grid system—developed!
Walled cities, VERY developed sewage and
drainage systems
 Mohenjo-Daro:

Great Bath
Big questions: undeciphered script, so no written
records
Harappan Society and Culture
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Evidence of social stratification
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Dwelling size, decoration
Harappan civilization: influence on later Indian
culture
Statues, figurines, and illustrations reflect a
tradition of art and metallurgy
Venerated goddesses of fertility -> fertility cults
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Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization
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Reasons for disappearance unclear
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Excessive deforestation (erosion), loss of topsoil
Earthquakes?
Flooding?
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Evidence of unburied dead
No evidence of criminal or military violence
Disappearance by 1500 B.C.E.
Harappan traditions survived – agricultural
practices, religious beliefs, and urban traditions
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*
The Early Aryans
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Migrated into South Asian subcontinent as part of IndoEuropean migrations.
Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle
❑ Cattle not sacred until many centuries later
Religious and literary works: the Vedas (hymns, songs, prayers)
❑ Sanskrit: sacred tongue
❑ Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi, Urdu,
Bengali
❑ Four Vedas (wisdom), most important Rig Veda
■ 1028 hymns to Aryan gods
As they settled into India: caste system developed
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Prehistoric China: Yangshao Society
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5000-3000 B.C.E.
Middle region of the Yellow River valley
Banpo village
Painted pottery
Bronze tools
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The Earliest Dynasties
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Xia
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Shang
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ca. 2200 B.C.E.
Organized through
village network
Hereditary monarchy
Flood control
1766-1122 B.C.E.
Zhou
❑
1122-256 B.C.E.
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Shang: Political
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Kings ruled, used agricultural surplus used to pay
off anyone who would help keep rule
 Advisors,
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ministers, military forces
Network of walled towns with local rulers
Capital = social, economic, political center—moved
6x
Large, developed cities
Shang: Economic Advances
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Controlled access to copper & tin ores
Bronze metallurgy
Horse-drawn chariots
Small-scale trade with W & S neighbors (Malay
Peninsula, Burma, Maldives)—physical geo
problems
 Shang
pottery found in Mohenjo-Daro…
Shang: Religious
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Polytheism, but no supreme deity (king was NOT
THE God)
Ancestral veneration: belief that ancestors would
support/protect family even after their death
Idea that humans, animals (dogs) would serve the
deceased in the afterlife
Lots of swag buried with elites!
Shang: Social
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Kings had many wives (polygamy), had favorites
who were also buried with lots of awesome swag
(Fu Hao)
Human sacrifice: people could also serve as slaves,
etc. in afterlife with kings
Kings/elite buried in tombs; most robbed
Patriarchal society, but women occasionally
important
 Men
increasingly “superior” during later Shang & Zhou
dynasties
Shang: Art & Technology
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Pictograph writing
Walls protecting city made of pounded earth—
super sturdy!
Bronze statues
Ivory artifacts
Oracle Bone Inscriptions
Oracle Bones and Early Chinese Writing
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Used for communicating with spirit world,
determining future
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Question written on animal bones, turtle shells
Then heated over fire; cracks examined for omens
Early archaeological evidence of Chinese writing
Evolution of Chinese script
❑
Pictograph to ideograph
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Oracle Bone from Shang Dynasty
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Nomadic Peoples of Central Asia
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Steppe nomads
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Poor lands for cultivation, extensive herding activities
Horses domesticated ca. 4000 B.C.E., bronze
metallurgy in 2900 B.C.E.
Extensive trade with sedentary cultures in China
Tensions: frequent raiding
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Early Mesoamerican Societies,
1200 B.C.E.-1100 C.E.
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Origins of Mesoamerican Societies
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Migration across Bering land bridge?
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Probably 13,000 B.C.E., perhaps earlier
By sea from Asia?
By 9500 B.C.E. reached southernmost part of
South America
Hunter/gatherer societies
❑
Evolve into agricultural societies
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Olmec – The Foundation Civilization of
Central America
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1200-100 B.C.E.
The “rubber people”
Ceremonial centers
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San Lorenzo, La Venta,
Tres Zapotes
Olmec heads
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Up to 10 ft. tall, 20 tons
Transported by
dragging, rolling on logs
1000 workers per head
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Olmec Society
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Probably authoritarian in nature
Ruling elite/priests = heads of societies
Large class of conscripted laborers to construct
ceremonial sites
Also tombs for rulers, temples, pyramids, drainage
systems
Human sacrifices
Calendar, colossal human heads (wide noses, big lips)
Traded jade objects, basalt
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Mysterious Decline of Olmecs
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Ceremonial centers destroyed
No evidence of warfare
Revolution?
Civil war?
Natural disaster?
Resource depletion?
Deliberate destruction??
All of the above?
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*
Maya – Classical Mesoamerica
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Huge cities discovered in nineteenth century
300 B.C.E.-900 C.E.
Terrace farming
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Cacao beans
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Maize
Cotton
Chocolate
Also served as currency
Major ceremonial center at Tikal
Writing system of pictograms
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City of Teotihuacan
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Located in the Highlands of
central Mexico
Lakes in area of high elevation
Obsidian tools, orange pottery
Village of Teotihuacan, 500
B.C.E., expands to become a
large agricultural city
❑ Important ceremonial center
Extensive trade network,
influenced surrounding areas
Begins to decline ca. 650 C.E.,
sacked in middle of eighth
century, burned city
*
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Andean Societies
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Migration into South
America ca. 12,000
B.C.E.
Climate improves ca.
8000 B.C.E.
Largely independent from
Mesoamerica
Highly individualized due
to geography
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*
Chavín Cult
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New religion in central Andes, 900-300 B.C.E.
Little known about particulars of religion
Probably designed to promote fertility & abundant
harvests
Intricate stone carvings
Cult may have arisen when maize became an
important crop
During this era Andean society became
increasingly complex
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*
The Mochica (Moche) State
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Valley of the Moche River
Dominated northern Peru, 300-700 C.E.
Painting survives
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Some represent individual heads
Others represent gods/deities & demons
Others show people doing work, etc—evidence of
complex society with specialization of labor
One of many states in region, none able to
consolidate into empire
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*
Early Societies of Oceania, 1500 B.C.E.700 C.E.
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Oceania
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Prehistoric land bridges, lower seas permit
migration
Outrigger canoes for open-sea travel
Early hunter-gatherer societies in Australia until
European colonization
Early agriculture in New Guinea
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*
Lapita Peoples
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Earliest Austronesian migrants to sail out into the
Pacific
Found throughout Pacific islands
Agriculture, animal herding (pigs & chickens)
Political organization based on chiefdoms
Trade over open ocean (~2,800 miles) declines
500 B.C.E.
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❑
Items traded: shell jewelry, stone tools
Greater independence of settlements results
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*
The Four Early River Valley
Civilizations