Download Omarini, Ricardo H., Massimo Gasparon, Angelo

1
An overview of the mesozoic-cenozoic magmatism and tectonics in Eastern Paraguay and
central Andes (western gondwana): implications for the composition of mantle sources.
1
by
2*
3
Ricardo H. Omarini , Massimo Gasparon Angelo De Min ,
3
Piero Comin-Chiaramonti
1
Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Salta, Argentina
School of Earth Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld 4072, Australia
3
Department ofMathematics and Geosciences, Università di Trieste, Via Weiss 8. I-34127 Trieste, Italy
*
corresponding author: [email protected]
2
PREFACE
The paper is dedicated to Ricardo Héctor Omarini, full professor at the Salta University and president of the
“Centro de Estudios Geologicos Andinos”. He planned this publication in January 2015 together with Piero
Comin-Chiaramonti. Unfortunately, Ricardo passed away on June 28, 2015, but always remains in our
hearts.
ABSTRACT
The amalgamation of the Western Gondwana (including the Greater Gondwana supercraton) occurred at 600
Ma during the Brazilian – Pan African orogeny. A plate junction related to this event is marked by the
Transbrazilian lineament which separates the South American continent into two sectors: the Eastern
Paraguay-Brazilian and Central Andean domains. An overview of the geodynamic data from these two
sectors indicates that the two domains were subjected to distinct evolutions from the Proterozoic to the
present. The Andean domain is characterized by long-lived subduction processes linked to the convergence
and consequent collision of microplates since the Middle Proterozoic (western Amazonian Craton) with a
peak at about 600-580 Ma. Since this period, the Paraguay-Brazilian domain remainedrelatively stable but
was affected by extension episodes that reactivated ancient(Early and Middle Proterozoic) suture zones.
These different geodynamic evolutions seem to reflect broadly distinct mantle compositions. In the
subduction zones of the Andean domain the mantle was deeply modified by metasomatic processes
following the subduction of oceanic plates. Consequently,the Andean type magma sources show a clear
HIMU imprint inherited from the MORB, whereas the Paraguay-Brazilian sector shows a prevalent EMI and
subordinate EMII character. The petrological data mainly from Mesozoic and Cenozoic magmatic events in
the two sectors are reviewed to investigate the current mantle plume and mantle dome models for the
uprising of the asthenospheric (or sub-lithospheric) material.
Key Words:Magmatism, South America, Eastern Paraguay, Mantle Plumes, End-member source.
1. Introduction
This paper presents a revision of petrological, geological, geochemical and geophysical studies of
continental magmatism in the central sector of Eastern Paraguay and the central Andes (South American
Platform) during the Mesozoic-Cenozoic time, to elucidate the parental mantle sources (Cristiani et al., 2005
and Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2009). The area considered in this paper is characterized by potassic, sodic
and alkaline-peralkaline continental magmatic rocks associated to the continental tholeiitic basalts of two
LIPs (large igneous provinces), namely the Central Atlantic Magmatic and the Parana Etendeka provinces
exposed over different geographic domains from eastern to western sides of the Transbrazilian lineament
(TBL of Cordani et al., 2013 and references therein; see also Figure 1).
The largest volume of tholeiitic and alkaline rocks are located on the eastern sector of the TBL, parallel to
the continental margin of the South American (Atlantic) domain. Magmatic activity in the western sector of
the TBL is minor in volume and developed within or close to a series of rift basins parallel to the western
border of the South America Continent (proto-Andean domain). Notably, the magmatism, developed within
the late Proterozoic to Early Paleozoic basement, contains also marine and continental sediments of
Jurassic/Cretaceous ages. The opening of the Atlantic Ocean, in the context of the breakup of the Gondwana
2
continent, has controlled the magmatic activity in these sectors. In terms of chemical and petrological
relationships, these areas have been rarely considered together with the exception of a study on lavas
carrying mantle xenoliths (Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2009).
The eastern TBL sector has been extensively studied by Piccirillo and Melfi (1988), Hawkesworth et
al.(1992, 2000), Comin-Chiaramonti and Barros-Gomes (1996, 2005), Gibson et al. (2006), Velasquez et al.
(2006), Comin-Chiaramonti et al. (2007 a) and Foulger and Jurdy (2007). The main reviews of the western
sector of the TBL (Central Andean domain) are those of Viramonte et al.(1999), Tawackoli et al. (1999),
Jaillard et al. (2000), Sempere et al. (2002), Lucassen et al. (2002, 2005), Schultz et al. (2004),Cristiani et al.
(2005), Hauser et al. (2010), Omarini et al. (2013) and Rocha Junior et al. (2013).
The aim of this review is to propose and illustrate a new interpretation of the Mesozoic-Cenozoic
magmatism in the Brazilian Platform and Central Andes domains, and to explore their geochemical and
petrological differences in terms of mantle sources.
2. Geodynamic background
The tectonic development of the South American platform (20-28°S) (Western Gondwana) includes five
major events (Figures 1 and 2):
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Gondwana amalgamation between 850 and 480 Ma (Trompette, 1994; Unrug, 1996; Grunow,
1999; Cordani et al., 2000, 2003,2013; Almeida et al., 2000; Fuck et al., 2008; 2014);
development of the extensive Central Atlantic tholeiitic magmatic province (at about200 Ma;
Marzoli et al., 1999);
development of the large igneous provinces in connection with the Serra Geral flood tholeiites at
135-133 Ma (Bellieni et al., 1986, a-b; Rocha-Campos et al., 1988; Renne et al., 1992);
emplacement of potassic magmatism and sodic mafic-ultramafic magmatism in southeast and
central Paraguay at 138-59 Ma (Comin-Chiaramonti, 1986, 2001, 2005a-b, 2007a-b; Velasquez et
al., 2002, 2006);
development of rift-related alkaline-peralkaline magmatism and tholeiitic basaltic sills in the
central Andes at 184-60 Ma (Viramonte et al., 1999; Sempere et al., 2002; Schultz et al., 2004;
Hauser et al., 2010; Cristiani et al., 2005; Lucassen et al, 2005; Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2009;
Omarini et al., 2013).
The geodynamic evolution of Western Gondwana during the late Precambrian-early Paleozoic times
reflects the paleogeographic reorganization centered on the San Francisco craton that involved the
consumption of inter-oceanic ensialic basins during the Brazilian and Panafrican orogeny (Plumb and
James, 1986; Trompette, 1994; Unrug, 1996; Brito Neves et al., 1999; Cordani et al., 2000; Figure 1b).
The Brazilian cycle, in its original definition (Almeida, 1945, 1968), describes the tectonic activity on the
flanks of the Archean and Early Proterozoic proto-South American shields (i.e.,Amazonia, Arequipa,
Antofalla, Pampia, Río de la Plata, Luis Alves, Río Apa and San Francisco) between 890 and 480 Ma
(Cordani et al., 2000 and references therein). In northwestern Argentina, the time-equivalent Pampean
cycle (Aceñolaza and Toselli, 1976) defines the late Precambrian reorganization as a consequence of the
accretion of the Arequipa-Antofalla microplates (Omarini et al., 1999). The accretion history in the
central Andes region during this time (Figure 1 c) is equivalent to the closure of the sutures recognized
between 580 and 530 Ma in many Laurentian and proto-Gondwanan terranes (Condie, 1989; Keppie and
Dostal, 1998; Omarini et al., 1999).
3
MS
Gondwana
SH
MS
CO
TLB
SF
AM
PA
A
RA
AR
KA
PAM
AN
RPL
40
20
o
S
B
C
o
Luanda15 E
o
W
10 oS
Ipora’
Pa
ra
Rio de Janeiro
naí
b
a
oF
b
Ca
o
São Paulo
50
Plutonic rocks
Volcanic rocks
ra
Se r
BL)
ment (T
n linea
sa
ros
ta G
Pon
Candelaria
h
u
Piq
Valle-mi
o
S
15
ge
La
en
de
elt
ka
aB
ar
m
Da Ta
20 oS
fel
be
WR
rg
R
RG
s
Horingbaai
O
ti c
Asunción
n
c ea
Valle Chico
Palmar
Largo
Camarca
Tupiza
Tres
Cruces
Sey
o
W
Las
Conchas
70
El Rey
SOUTH
AMERICA
Metan
Alto
Las Salinas
Buenos Aires
25 oS
Dicker
Willem
Los Condores
S
o
35
30
o
S
o
25
Pacific Ocean
S
o
S
20
Montevideo
Salta
Blue
Hills
lan
Piratiní
Camiri
Cerro
Torotoro Tarabuco
Sapo
Entre Rios
La Paz
Et
Kh
um
ib
At
Eastern
Paraguay
t
en
am
ine
L
í
ir
M
rch
sA
de
me
a
oç
Virilundo
am
en
t
Br
Trans
o
W
Velasco
Arc
Florianopolis
azilia
Volcanic rocks
do
r
Ma
Li
ne
Plutonic rocks
Ur
ug
ua
y
EASTERN TBL
60
rio
W
WESTERN TBL
AFRICA
Alt
o
Fig. 1 (A) Location of the studied area within the Gondwana continent. Abbreviations: MS = Mozambique suture. (B) West
Gondwana (adapted from De Wit et al., 1999) showing the major Precambrian shields (in grey) surrounded by the Brazilian/Pan
African mobile belts (in green). For details,see Unrug(1996); Grunow (1999); Cordani et al.(2000, 2003); Almeida et al.(2000); Fuck
et al. (2008).Craton abbreviations: AR = Arequipa; AN = Antofalla; PAM = Pampia; PA = Paraguay; RA = Rio Apa; AM =
Amazonia; SF = San Francisco; LA = Luis Alves; KA = Kalahari; CO = Congo; WA = WestAfrica; SH = Sahara. TBL =
Transbrazilian lineament. Thick red line: Late Precambrian - Lower Cambrian boundary between the Arequipa-Antofalla cratons and
the Amazonian-Rio Apa-Pampia cratons. (C) Distribution of the Mesozoic rift-related magmatism incentral South American and
Western African plates during the opening of the Atlantic Ocean (modified after Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 1999; Sempere et al.,
2002; Cristiani et al., 2005). RGR = Rio Grande Rise; WR = Walvis Ridge. See Figure 2 for details, temporal occurrences
andpetrologic characteristic of the continental magmatic rocks.
The origin of Gondwana is a Paleozoic event involving the amalgamation of the western and eastern
proto-Gondwana continents. The timing of initial Gondwana configuration is related to the closure of the
Mozambique ocean (550-480 Ma, Figure 1A) up to the Pangea fragmentation (Unrug, 1996; Grunow, 1999;
Trouw and de Wit, 1999; Hoffman, 1999). The continental margin of Gondwana was affected in the
Paleozoic by the accretion of some continental terranes. The last terranes, named Chilenia by Ramos (1984),
4
were accreted to the proto-margin of the Andes during the late Devonian-early Carboniferous. This
collisional event is connected with the emplacement of the plutonic bodies (397-264 Ma) over the Pampia
and Antofalla cratons (Damm et al., 1990; Sims et al., 1998). During the Triassic-lower Jurassic, the southern
Gondwana marginwas affected by magmatism (230-180 Ma) with huge volcanic eruptions and pluton
emplacement (Kay et al., 1989; de Wit, 1999; Turner, 1999). The magmatic activity that predates the western
Gondwana fragmentation took place during the late Permian- middle Triassic times in the Brazilian platform
and western South America. Evidence of the early rifting in the central Andes, from Peru to Bolivia, includes
alkaline rocks associated to marine and continental sediments deposited in subsiding basins (Hegarty et al.,
1996; Jaillard et al., 2000; Sempere et al., 2002; Schultz et al., 2004). The main axis of the rift system
approximately coincides with the ancient suture zone between the Arequipa-Antofalla craton and the
Amazonia craton (Figures 1B and 1C; Jaillard et al., 2000; Sempere et al., 2002). In the Brazilian platform
the main cratonic fragments, originally belonging to the Pangea, are surrounded by the Neoproterozoic
Brazilian-Panafrican mobile belt (Figure 1B). These peripheral areas have been orogenically active, and
crustal reworking has generated large volumes of magmatic rocks during the Precambrian and Phanerozoic,
with their distribution controlled by active suture zones (Cordani et al., 2000, 2003 a-b; Kröner and Cordani,
2003). The most important example of a long-lived active mega-suture is the Transbrazilian lineament (TBL)
that crosses the entire region from South America to west Africa (Figure 1B; Soares et al., 1998; Cordani et
al., 2013; Curto et al., 2014). In this context, the magmatism was driven by the extensional regime caused by
the relative movements (compressive-transpressive) of the ancient blocks. A notable example of this
mechanism is the Alto Paraguay Triassic alkaline magmatism at the border of the Rio Apa block. This area
was affected by rifting at about 241 Ma, probably induced by counter-clockwise and clockwise movements
(north and south, respectively) hinged at about 20° latitude south and taking place during the CaboLaventana orogeny (Prezzi and Alonso, 2002; Velázquez et al., 2006).
The genesis of the Brazilian magma type (bmt) is linked to the geodynamic processes that promoted the
opening of the south Atlantic and the rift systems to east of the TBL (Figure1C). According to Chang et al.
(1988) and Nürberg and Müller (1991), the sea-floor spreading in the south Atlantic at the bmt latitudes
started at ~125-127 Ma (chron m4). Nürberg and Müller (1991) proposed that the opening of the south
Atlantic is younger (~113 Ma) to the north of the Walvis-Rio Grande ridges (Latitude >28°; Figure 1C). The
alkaline and alkaline-carbonatitic complexes in the bmt are commonly considered to be associated with this
opening. They are therefore sub- coeval with the main flood tholeiites of the Paraná basin emplaced in the
early stages of the rifting and before the continental separation. On the other hand, the Late Cretaceous
analogues were emplaced during advanced stages of Africa-South America continental separation.
Rift propagation is not random, but tends to follow the trend of the orogenic fabric of the plates,
suggesting reactivation of ancient lithospheric sutures (e.g., Tommasi and Vauchez, 2001; Macbride, 2010;
Parker jr., 2013). In southern Brazil, the alkaline and alkaline-carbonatitic magmatism is concentrated in
regions showing positive gravimetric anomalies (Ernesto et al., 2002; Molina and Ussami, 2004; Ernesto,
2005), probably related to dense deep materials, as evidenced also by gravity observations (GOCE, Gravity
field and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer of Mariani et al., 2013). Probably the different westward
angular velocities of the ancient lithospheric continental blocks, as well as the different rotational trends at
19-20° latitude south, may favour the decompression and melting of metasomatized (wet spots) portions of
the lithospheric mantle at different times and thus with variable isotopic signatures (Turner et al., 1994;
Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 1999). Consistent with this hypothesis, it has been proposed that the combined
presence of even small amount of water and carbon dioxide in the upper mantle can lower the melting
temperature of the primitive source(s) even by some hundreds of degrees (Thybo, 2006). This scenario could
explain the presence of late Cretaceous to Cenozoic sodic magmatism in the bmt, even at the Eastern
Paraguay longitudes, where there is evidence of active rifting (Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 1992 a-b-c; 1999).
Relationships among low velocity anomalies of p-waves and the distribution of late Cretaceous alkaline
provinces in SE Brazil were observed by Assumpção et al. (2004) and interpreted as related to a weak
lithosphere, evidenced by high temperatures associated with the ponding of the Trindade plume head beneath
the lithosphere. Vandecar et al. (1995) and Schimmel et al. (2003) identified a "cylindric" low-velocity
volume in the upper mantle and mantle transition zone (mtz) beneath the northeastern Paraná basin (Iporá
late Cretaceous magmatic province - San Francisco craton), and this was interpreted as a thermal anomaly
corresponding to the "fossil" Tristan da Cunha plume (tdc) that had moved with the lithospheric plate. In
contrast, Liu et al. (2003) suggested that the thermal anomaly does not extend into the mtz or, alternatively,
that the observed anomaly is not primarily thermal, but dominantly compositional in origin (e.g., “veined
mantle”).
5
Western Transbrazilian lineament
Eastern Transbrazilian lineament
Fig. 2. Time-space diagram for the study area, showing the correlation of ages and magmatic events between the western and eastern
sector of the Transbrazilian lineament (see Figure 1 for more details).
Considering thatthe lithosphere has a typical time constant of about 60 Ma for dissipating heat and
consequently attenuating topography (Gallagher and Brown, 1997, 1999), it is quite unlikely that heat from a
plume that reached the base of the lithosphere more than 130 Ma ago could still persist (Ernesto, 2005, p.
698). Moreover, neither a geoid anomaly nor a surface expression of the tdc thermal anomaly have been
recognized in this region (Molina and Ussami, 1999; Ernesto et al., 2002). Schimmel et al. (2003) argued
that low velocities of seismic waves at lithospheric depths in South America characterize all the areas with
late Cretaceous post-rift alkaline intrusions. If this is correct, the late Cretaceous alkaline intrusions may
extend to the Apoyaya complex (NW Bolivia; Schultz et al., 2004) through the regions of Goiás and Mato
Grosso in Brazil (Sousa et al., 2005) and southeastern Bolivia (Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2005b). This
magmatic activity could be linked to an extensive lineament corresponding to the "125°Azimut" (Bardet,
1977; DeMin et al., 2013).
3. Mantle plumes or mantle domes?
According to the plate tectonic theory, actively upwelling mantle plumes are responsible for the genesis
of the oceanic islands and intra-continental magmatism (McKenzie and Bickle, 1998; Foulger et al., 2005;
De Paolo and Manga, 2003; Xu et al., 2014). The concept of mantle plumes, however, remains controversial,
to the point that some researchers even deny their existence (Burov and Gerya, 2014). This concept is
supported by recent advances in various disciplines (e.g., seismic tomography, convection simulations in the
mantle, experimental and computational mineral physics, petrology and techniques to infer temperatures in
the mantle). The new results from these methodologies, however, are in disagreement with previous concepts
(Nolet et al., 2007; Anderson, 2007; Burov and Gerya, 2014). To date, the existing model of mantle plumes
cannot explain the majority of continental flood basalts and the recurrent intraplate alkaline magmatism
(Marzoli et al., 1999). In particular, it remains difficult to reconcile the geological data with mantle plume
models for the sodic magmatism of Eastern Paraguay, Asunción (58.4 Ma) and Misiones (118.3 Ma). A
strong argument against a mantle plume origin of these magmatic events is their possible connection with a
SSE drift of the Paraguay block. This drift would correspond to a change in the movement of South America
at about 80 Ma (Velázquez et al., 2006). According to Ernesto et al. (2000, 2002) and Ernesto (2005), the
thermal source that gave rise to the Eastern Paraguay magmatism is in the upper mantle, with no evidence for
material transfer from the core-mantle boundary or the lower mantle to the lithosphere. Besides the
indications from the geoid anomalies (Ernesto et al., 2002), the existence of long-lived thermal anomalies or
compositional differences in the mantle have already been demonstrated by velocity distribution models
based on seismic tomography techniques, using both P- and S-waves (Zhang and Tanimoto, 1993; Li and
6
Romanovicz, 1996; Van der Hilst et al., 1997; Liu et al., 2003).
Based on paleomagnetic and gravimetric studies, Ernesto et al. (2002; 2005) provide the following
evidences for thermal or compositional mantle heterogeneity independent on the existence of a mantle
plume:
1) Paleogeographic reconstructions of the Paraná-Tristan da Cunha (TC) system, assuming that the
TC hotspot is a fixed point in the mantle, indicate that the TC plume was located ~800-1000 km south of the
Paraná Magmatic Province (PMP). Therefore, plume mobility would be required in order to maintain the
PMP-TC relationship.
2) Assuming that the TC hotspot was located in the northern portion of the PMP (~20° from its
current position), the plume would have migrated southward from 134-130 Ma (the main magmatic phase in
the area) to 80 Ma at a rate of about 40 mm/yr. From 80 Ma to the present, the plume remained virtually
fixed, leaving a track compatible with the African plate movement. Notably, the southward migration of the
plume is opposed to the northward migration of the main Paraná magmatic phases (Ernesto et al., 2002).
3) Regional thermal anomalies in the deep mantle, mapped by geoid and seismic tomography data,
offer an alternative non-plume-related heat source for the generation of intracontinental magmatic provinces.
Following the interpretation of Ernesto et al. (2002), the "hotspot tracks" of Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande
Rise, as well as the Victoria-Trindade chain, may thus reflect the accommodation of stresses in the
lithosphere during rifting (Ferrari and Riccomini, 1999), rather than continuous activity induced by mantle
plumes beneath the moving lithospheric plates.
Depth (km)
Adiabatic
decompression
melting
Asthenosphere
Depth (km)
Hydrous
peridotite
solidus
Asthenospheric mantle
Fig. 3. (a) Diagram showing the depth vs.temperature for xenoliths of the Brazilian Platform and Andean Domain, modified after
Comin-Chiaramonti et al. (2009). Sky blue: Asunción low potassic suite; pale brown: Asunción high potassic suite; green:
carbonatized peridotites; orange: xenoliths from the Andean domain; (1) and (2): mantle-crust boundary according to Lucassen et
al. (2005) and Gibson et al. (2006), respectively; dashed line (g): inferred geotherm (Petrini et al., 1994).(b) Sketch illustrating
magma sources inferred from petrological and geochemical data – see text for explanation (database available in CominChiaramonti and Gomes, 2005; Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2007b, 2009).
Figure 3 shows a model reconstructed using analytical and thermo-barometric data for mantle xenoliths
hosted in mafic-ultramafic lavas outcropping in the Andes and the Brazilian platform (Lucassen et al., 2005;
Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2009). The maximum pressure of 1.7-2.0 Gpa for the stable garnet-free peridotite
xenolithswith a range of temperatures between 1030°C to 1127°C corresponds to approximately 50-60
kilometers of depth. From these data it can be inferred that the primitive melt (source (I) in Figure3b) was
generated at shallow depth above the asthenosphere - lithosphere boundary (~2.3 GPa, ~80 km depth and
~1300°C) in the spinel lherzolite field, according to the geothermal curves proposed by Pollark and
Chapman (1977; see also Lucassen et al., 2005, Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2009). In agreement with these
data, the thermal lithospheric anomaly associated with the upwelling of asthenospheric mantle (Figure 3) is
an efficient mechanism to produce OIB basaltic melts via partial melting of a primitive source. The fluids
resulting from this process, accumulated at the base of the lower crust (source (II) in Figure 3b), were
homogeneous or only slightly modified during the passage through the lithosphere. A notable characteristic
of this magma, consistent with this source, is the high contents of relatively sodic plagioclase (modal and
normative) and clinopyroxene associated to mantle xenolith suites (spinel facies;Comin-Chiaramonti et al.,
7
2009).
Paleomagnetic constraints are necessary for paleogeographic reconstructions that can provide a more
realistic position of the presumed Tristan plume in relation to the Paraná flood basalts and surrounding
alkaline rocks. There are sufficient good-quality paleomagnetic data (Renne et al., 1992, 1993, 1996; Ernesto
et al., 1996, 2000, 2002, 2005) to delineate the Mesozoic apparent polar wandering in South America, and
many of these data derive from igneous rocks of the Paraná Magmatic Province. All these data indicate that
South America was describing a clockwise rotation, and a slight north-south movement from the Late
Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous. In contrast, Gibson et al. (2006) followed the interpretation of O'Connor
and Duncan (1990), which is completely based on the assumption that the hotspot formed a fixed frame, and
proposed a displacement towards the northwest in the 139-133 Ma interval. Therefore there is no
independent evidence for the motion of South America at this time, and plate movements have been
reconstructed to match the Rio Grande Rise-Walvis Ridge hotspot tracks, the geodynamic meaning of which
has been questioned by some authors (e.g., Ernesto et al., 2002 and references therein). On the other hand,
the plate velocity necessary to place the Tristan da Cunha plume in the two consecutive positions (139 and
133 Ma, respectively) outlined in the model of Gibson et al. (2006) exceeds by almost three times the 3.5 cm
per year velocity estimated by O’Connor and Duncan (1990).
Overall, existing research indicates that the pre-existing lithospheric structure plays a major role in local
tectonics. For example, Tommasi and Vauchez (2001) suggest that preservation within the lithospheric
mantle of a lattice preferred orientation of olivine crystals may induce a large-scale mechanically anisotropy
of the lithospheric mantle. Consequenlly, the olivine crystals formed during the major tectonic episodes that
shaped the plates (e.g., Transamazonic, Uruaçano, Brasiliano cycles with the preservation of a structural
memory at the lithospheric scale), leads to a directional strain softening, explaining the “perennial” nature of
plate boundaries and their systematic reactivation.
Both the Late Archean-Proterozoic and Mesozoic tholeiites from the South American Platform (SAP) are
characterized by high- and low-Ti (TiO2 > 2 and < 2 wt%, respectively) and by high and low contents of
incompatible elements, respectively (Piccirillo and Melfi, 1988; Iacumin et al., 2003). According to these
authors, the Precambrian and Mesozoic SAP tholeiites reflect heterogeneous mantle sources, including EMI
(e.g., fluids, small volumes of melts) and EMII (e.g., ancient subduction-related metasomatism) components,
and the existence of heterogeneity in the mantle source of SAP since at least the Late Archean. Notably, all
the tholeiites have similar compositional features irrespective of their age, and their distribution in the
vicinity of craton/mobile belt boundaries suggests that the upper mantle “edge drive convection” plays an
important role in their genesis.
The spinel-peridotite mantle xenoliths entrained in the Mesozoic and Tertiary melanephelinitesankaratrites from the Brazilian Platform (e.g.,Misiones andAsunción in Paraguay) and in the Central Andes,
(e.g., El Sapo- Las Conchas valley) (Figure1c) support the geophysical and geochemical results: in spite of
distinct tectonic settings, generally compressive in the Central Andes (but extensional in a back-arc
environment), and extensional in Eastern Paraguay (rifting environment in an intercratonic area), lavas and
host xenoliths are similar in terms of geochemical and isotopic characteristics (De Marchi et al., 1988;
Petrini et al., 1994; Princivalle et al., 2000; Lucassen et al., 2002; 2005; Antonini et al., 2005; CominChiaramonti et al., 2007a, b, 2009).
Further evidence against the classic mantle plume hypothesis is provided by the low thermal gradient
beneath the Brazilian Platform and Andean Domain (Figure 3a). The bulk chemistry of the alkaline magmas
in both regions indicates a temperature rangingfrom 980 ºC to 1150 ºC (for geothermometric results,
seeTable 3 and Figure 11 of Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2009). These values are significantly lower than the
temperature of approximately 1450 ºC suggested by McKenzie and Bickle (1988) and Davies (1999) for a
mantle plume.Thus, it is plausible that the thermal perturbation of the continental crust be the consequence of
the upwelling of shallow asthenospheric mantle material located along the major active extensionaltranstensive shear zones. In this context, the adiabatic decompressional melting of the sub-lithospheric
mantle at a depth of about 60-70 km can be an efficient mechanism to produce basaltic melts and associated
alkaline rocks (Aldamaz et al., 2005; Comin Chiaramonti et al., 2009; Omarini et al., 2014).This is consistent
with a “passive” model of “upper” mantle geodynamics where the unstable buoyancy of “supercontinents”
(e.g., Anderson, 1994; 2007) played an essential role inapproaching isostatic stabilization through the Pangea
break-up.
In summary, and as an alternative to the more widely-accepted mantle plume model, the genesis and
temporal evolution of the Brazilian magmatic events discussed above may be attributed to the existence of
thermal anomalies resulting from mantle “incubation” under the continental domains of the lithosphere.
8
4. Magma source(s)
Previous studies on the geology, petrology, geochemistry, and isotope geochemistry of MesozoicCenozoic magmatic rocks of the Eastern and Western Transbrazilian lineament have indicated a marked
compositional diversity due to complex evolution processes and different geological settings (De Min et al.,
2003; Schultz et al., 2004; Cristiani et al., 2005; Deckart et al., 2005; Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2007;
Hauser et al., 2009).
DMM
Nd/ 144 Nd
143
types I,II
types IV
to
0.513
ma
trix
130 Ma
Na
PAN
carbonatites
0.512
Th
v eins
K
0.704
HIMU
0.706
0.708
Sr/ 86 Sr
87
Fig. 4.87Sr/86Sri vs. 143Nd/144Ndi diagram showing the minerals and whole rock data from Paraguay and Andes relative to MORB,
DMM, HIMU, and EMI. Open circles: clinopyroxenes in low potassic Asunción suite; full circles: clinopyroxenes in high potassic
Asunción suite. Open and full diamonds: clinopyroxenes and orthopyroxenes, respectively, in xenoliths hosted in alkaline lavas from
Central Andes. Coloured fields are the same as in Figure3a. Data sources: Comin-Chiaramonti et al., (1991; 200a,b); Antonini et al.,
(2005); Lucassen et al., (2002, 2005, 2007). MORB, DMM, HIMU, and EMI components after Hart (1988) and Hart and Zindler
(1989).Filled star is the average composition of 41 basanitic lavas from Central Andes (Lucassen et al., 2002, 2007); open star is the
average compositions of 67 basanitic lavas from Paraguay (Petrini et al., 1994; Marques et al., 1999a-b; Antonini et al. 2005; CominChiaramonti et al., 2007a, b). Paraguay array is from Comin-Chiaramonti et al. (1997). Database available in Comin-Chiaramonti
and Gomes(2005) and Comin-Chiaramonti et al. (2007b, 2009 and references therein). Inset: Calculated SCUM (sub continental
upper mantle) isotopic composition at 1.8 Ga ago, projected to 130 Ma. Parental melts with various Rb/Sr and Sm/Nd ratios are
assumed for K, Na (potassic and sodic rocks from Paraguay, respectively; Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 1997) and Th (PAN tholeiitic
basalts; Piccirillo and Melfi, 1988). It should be noted that the compositions of metasomatized rocks formed from a single
metasomatizing melt vary with the evolution of the melt. Consequently, the veins will define a trend of shallow slope, and the mixing
curves between the vein and the matrix will define an array towards the matrix. Model DMM: Rb = 0, Sr = 0.133, Sm =0.314, Nd =
87
86
87
86
143
144
147
143
0.628; present day Bulk Earth: Sr/ Sr = 0.70475, Rb/ Sr = 0.0816,
Nd/ Nd = 0.512638,
Sm/ Nd = 0.1967;
(Rb/Sr)diopside: (Rb/Sr)melt ≈ 0.125, (Sm/Nd)diopside: (Sm/Nd)melt ≈ 1.5; K: Rb/Sr = 0.0957, Sm/Nd = 0.1344; Na: Rb/Sr = 0.0732,
Sm/Nd = 0.2295; Th: Rb/Sr = 0.0733, Sm/Nd = 0.2082.
In particular, the studies carried out on mantle lherzolites and mantle-derived peridotites (Schultz et al.,
2004; Lucassen et al., 2005, 2007; Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 1991, 1997, 2001, 2010; Antonini et al., 2005)
have highlighted the heterogeneityof the lithospheric mantle in both regions. The differences among the
well-known HIMU, EMI and EMII mantle end-members (Zindler and Hart, 1986; Hannan and Graham,
1996; Hoffmann, 1997; Jackson and Dasgupta, 2008; Niu et al., 2012) are linked to differences in their
radioactive parent/daughter ratios (Rb/Sr, Sm/Nd, Lu/Hf, U/Pb and Th/Pb) with respect to their “pristine
OIB” source. According to Hofmann and Hart (1978) and Niu et al. (2012), the fractionation of
parent/daughter ratios is unlikely in the deep mantle, due to extremely slow diffusion rates of the processes.
In areas affected by subduction, however, mantle diffusion is more efficient due to the dehydration of the
subducting slab and metasomatism of the asthenospheric wedge. In this context, many authors have
emphasized that recycled subducted terrigenous sediments or ancient continental crust may be responsible
for the enriched OIB signatures for the mantle-derived magmas (Kogiso et al., 1997; Hofmann, 1997;
Willbold and Stracke, 2006; Jackson et al., 2007). Other authors have identified mantle metasomatism as
responsible for the enriched signature of OIB in terms of their incompatible trace element and isotopes
9
86
( Sr/ Sr)initial
86
( Sr/ Sr)initial
“fingerprints” (Niu and O’Hara, 2003; Donnelly et al., 2004; Niu 2009; Niu et al., 2012).
Figure 4 shows the Sr and Nd isotopic correlations for whole rocks and minerals in xenoliths from
Eastern Paraguay and the central Andes magmatic rocks. Sri (initial isotopic ratio) ranges from 0.70418 to
0.70329 in the basanitic lavas from the central Andes, with a variation of Ndi (initial isotopic ratios) between
0.51267 and 0.51274. The average (41 samples) gives a value of 0.70339 for 87Sr/86Sri and 0.51274 for
143
Nd/144Ndi respectively, with the strongest HIMU signature. On the contrary, basanitic lavas from Paraguay
show highly variable Sr and Nd isotopic ratios ranging from 0.70367 to 0.70711 (87Sr/86Sri) and from
0.512680 to 0.511856 (143Nd/144Ndi). The average 87Sr/86Sriand 143Nd/144Ndiratios of these lavas are 0.70515
and 0.51227, respectively, showing a strong EMI signature (Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2001; Antonini et al.,
2005; Lucassen et al., 2005). The minerals (clino-orthopyroxenes) from xenoliths hosted in low and high
potassic lavas from Paraguay (Figure 4) also show a wide range of 87Sr/86Sri (0.70326-070404) and
143
Nd/144Ndi (0.51248-0.51322) values. In the central Andes the range in 87Sr/86Sri and 143Nd/144Ndi values
(0.70264-0.70498 and 0.51258-0.51310, respectively) for clinopyroxenes from the basanite lavas was
interpreted as due to heterogeneity in their mantle source linked to the presence of volatiles (Lucassen et al.,
2005).
In order to test the potential mantle end member source beneath the central Andes and Eastern
Paraguay,the average isotopic ratios for basanites have been plotted in the (87Sr/86Sr)initial vs (206Pb/204Pb)initial
and (87Sr/86Sr)initial vs K2O diagrams proposed by Willbold and Strake (2006) and Jackson and Dasgupta
(2008), respectively (Figures 5a and 5b). Notably, Figure 5 shows that the average composition of basanitic
rocks from Eastern Paraguay displays a strong EMI signature, while a HIMU affinity predominates in the
central Andes.
87
87
EMII
EMI
EMORB
MORB
206
204
( Pb/ Pb)initial
HIMU
K2O (wt%)
Fig. 5. Mantle affinity of the average composition of basanitic lavas from the Central Andes (open star) and Paraguay (filled
star) in the (a):87Sr/86Sr vs. 206Pb/204Pb diagram (modified after Willbold and Stracke, 2006) and (b):K2O (wt %) vs. 87Sr/86Sr
diagram (modified after Jackson and Dasgupta, 2008).References as in Figure 4.
5. Concluding Remarks
OIB-type basalts are predominant in the Brazilian platform and, to a lesser extent, in the Andean domain
(see Figure 2). As an alternative to the mantle plume model, we envisage that these rocks are linked to the
uplift of an asthenospheric dome with consequent partial melting caused by adiabatic decompression (see
Figure 3b). The OIB compositions may be locally modified during uplift through the lithosphere or the crust.
These magmas can also be stored in the continental crust and become differentiated through crystal
fractionation, giving rise to the intrusive stocks commonly observed in the two domains.
The geochemical and isotopic features of the magmatic products in the two domains considered in this study
involve participation of two main sources: HIMU for the central Andes domain and EMI for the Paraguay
domain. The two potential mantle end members share the same original OIB signature. This implies that the
differences in major and trace element compositions and isotopic ratios between the partial melts of the two
“pristine” fertile peridotitic sources are mainly due to different processes of mantle modification in the two
different geological domains.
A. Central Andean Domain
A petrological problem in the western sector of TBL (Andean domain of Figure 1c) is to determine when
10
and how the asthenosphere and/or the sub-continental lithospheric mantle acquired the 208Pb/204Pb HIMU
signature that characterizes the Mesozoic magmatic rocks. Considering the long-lived subduction process
that affected the proto-western Gondwana margin during the late Precambrian-lower Paleozoic times, it is
conceivable that the mantle was deeply modified by this subduction process during that period. The
geodynamic evolution of the Andean domain may thus be summarized as follows:
1: 580-517 Ma. At this time, the continental margin of proto-Gondwana, composed of the PampeanAmazonian cratons, was affected by the subduction of the paleo-Pacific plate that was responsible for the
build-up of the Andean-type magmatic arc. The following collision of the Arequipa-Antofalla and the
Pampean-Amazonian cratons gave rise to the Pampean orogeny (Omarini et al., 1999; Ramos, 2008;
Escayola et al., 2011).
2: 515-490 Ma. This period was characterized by stretching of the continental lithosphere, collapse
of the Puncoviscana orogenic belt and generation of rift basins with E-MORB magma genesis. Stratiform
lead-zinc deposits have been found in sedimentary formations within these basins (Sureda and Martin, 1990;
Sureda and Omarini, 1999; Hauser et al., 2010b).
3: 490-440 Ma. The continental margin of Gondwana became accreted to the Antofalla-Arequipa
craton, and was affected by a subduction process with the build-up of a magmatic arc, and by the subsequent
collision with the Precordillera-Mejillonia craton (Famatinian orogeny; Ramos, 1988; Sureda and Omarini,
1999; Ducea et al., 2014).
4: 440-300 Ma . A new active continental margin (Figure 6; see also Figure1), formed by the
Antofalla-Arequipa and Precordillera-Mequillonea cratons, developed following the subduction of the paleoPacific plate and by the subsequent collision with the Chilenia craton (Achalian orogenesis according to
Ramos et al., 1986; Thomas et al., 2004; Finney, 2007).
5: 300-170 Ma. Two main stages are proposed by Charrier et al.(2007). The first stage is represented
by a rift phase, developed in Palaeozoic units, and resultingin a transgression-regression sedimentary cycle,
initially associated with local volcanism of Permian age and followed by thermal subsidence deposits. The
second stage resulted in continental and marine deposits, followed by a thermal subsidence phase lasting
until the early Jurassic with a predominantly marine facies.
6: 170 Ma to present (Andean cycle). The formation of the Andean cordillera began 170 Ma ago
with the successive subduction of the Nazca plates and the eastward migration of the magmatic arc (Ramos
and Aleman, 2000; Kramer et al., 2005; Oliveros et al., 2008). During this period, stretching of the
continental lithosphere and rifting beyond the arc promoted the emplacement of alkaline magmatism.
The long-lived subduction of oceanic plates under the Western Gondwana margin may have been
responsible for the thorough modification of the upper mantle through metasomatic processes, resulting in
the HIMU signature of the Mesozoic volcanic rocks in the central Andean domain. According to Niu et al.
(2012), the continuous subduction process overtime may have led to an enrichment in incompatible elements
and U/Pb ratios in the asthenosphere and sub-continetal lithosphere relative to the primitive mantle. Evidence
of mantle metasomatism in the Andean domain are found in Mesozoic mantle xenoliths (Figure 6) hosted in
basanitic lavas and in the alkaline lamprophyric dykes (Lucassen et al., 2005; Comin-Chiaramonti et al.,
2010; Hauser et al., 2010a).
B. Eastern Paraguay Domain
In the last 580 Ma the eastern sector ofTBL has been virtually stable. Only at the beginning of the
opening of the Atlantic ocean at 134 Ma the important transversal lineaments of Uruguay, Piquiri, Ponta
Grossa etc. (Figure 1c) were formed due to the clockwise rotation of South America with respect to the
African continent. These lineaments mainly controlled the magmatic activity in this domain, which is
characterized by widespread Mesozoic-Cenozoic tholeiitic to alkaline volcanism (Figure 2). Major and trace
elements heterogeneity, as well as isotopic systematics, reflect the compositional diversity of the parental
mantle sources. In terms of the OIB sources, the main end-members are EMI, EMII, and minor HIMU
associated to various domains, modified during the Transamazonian (2.2 – 1.9 Ga) and Brazilian (0.80 – 0.48
Ga) events. Evolution of the different mantle sources led to the formation of a wide variety of silicate rocks,
including melts enriched in H-C-O-F (Bell, 1998 and references therein).
11
Lat. S (deg.)
AC
lB
ac o
-
Ch
100
0
H
IL
C
28
400
PA
70
LP
600
300 500
A
32
65
200
300
PR
400
500
600
700
1
4
5
3
E
24
AB
RG
2
800
Paraná Basin
900
1000
NA
TI
N
E
60
B
100
AY
GU
RA
PA
Pa
nt
200
0
A
a na
20
BOLIVIA
6
AAB
BRAZIL
as i
n
Ayopaya
Depth (km)
16
70
65
60
55
d Vp/Vp (%)
-1.5
55
50
-0.9 -0.6 -0.3 0.0 0.3 0.6 0.9
50
45
Long. W (deg.)
1.5
45
Fig, 6. A: Map of the studied regions showing contours (red lines) of the depth (km) of the subducting Nazca slab based on seismic
data (see Gudmundsson and Sambridge, 1998; Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2007b, 2009). Heavy lines (black) outline the Cretaceous
rift systems which roughly marks the limit between the Brazilian shield and the Paleozoic (Pacific) mobile belt. The hatched area
roughly marks the extension of intense early Paleozoic reworking of Proterozoic material; pink fields) delineate inferred positions of
major cratonic fragments below the Phanerozoic cover (Laux et al., 2005): AAB - Arequipa-Antofalla; AC - Amazon Craton; AB Apa Block; PR - Paranapanema; LP - Rio de la Plata; PA - Pampia. Localities characterized by sodic alkaline magmatism, mantle
bearing xenoliths: 1 - Asunción (59 Ma); 2 - Misiones (118 Ma); 3 - Belén (130 Ma); 4 - Las Conchas and Cadillal (100 Ma); 5 Finca del Rodeo (96 Ma); 6 - Betanzos (82 Ma). B: Seismic tomography image of Liu et al. (2003) across a profile approximately at
24° Lat. S. Note that the low-velocity feature in the mantle to the East has been interpreted as a fossil mantle plume by Van Decar et
al. (1995).
The conditions for magma genesis in the Eastern Paraguay domain are summarized below:
1. Tectonic lineaments controlled the emplacement of the alkaline and alkaline-carbonatitic magmas,
both in the American and the African continents (Figure 1). The carbonatites mainly occur in the inner parts
of circular/oval shaped alkaline-carbonatitic complexes, usually associated with evolved silicate rocks
(Comin-Chiaramonti and Gomes, 1996 and references therein; Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2015). Notably,
liquid immiscibility processes played an important role in the genesis of the Brazilian (BMT) alkalinecarbonatitic complexes (Comin-Chiaramonti and Gomes, 2005).
2. Field relationships, geochemistry and new high-quality 40Ar/39Ar ages show that several distinct
magmatic events took place in Eastern Paraguay since the Triassic in a region strongly characterized by
extensional tectonics. The oldest magmatic activity, characterized by evolved rocks of sodic affinity,
occurred during the Triassic along the Paraguay River, at the boundary between the Chaco-Pantanal and
Paraná basins (Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2015).
During the Early Cretaceous, potassic alkaline rock-types outcropin the Rio Apa-Amambay region
and Central Provinces, pre- and post-dating (139 and 127 Ma, respectively) the eruptionof the Paraná Basin
flood tholeiites (both high- and low-Ti variants with ages from 134 to 130 Ma, according to Piccirillo and
Melfi, 1988). Only sodic magmatism occurred in Eastern Paraguay from the Lower Cretaceous to the
Paleocene, and this was concentrated in the Asunción and Misiones Provinces, roughly along the Paraguay
River.
3. The potassic rocks show a compositional continuum from moderately to strongly potassic, with
two well distinct suites: alkali basalt to trachyte and basanite to phonolite. Both suites started from different
parental magmas, evolving through fractional crystallization, and are associated with carbonatitic bodies or
carbonate rich rock-types.
The sodic rocks from Asunción and Misiones Provinces include mainly ankaratrites,
melanephelinites and phonolites. Notably, the ultramafic rocks contain very abundant mantle xenoliths
(spinel facies), in turn represented by two suites, high and low in potassium, showing imprinting of a
variously metasomatized lithospheric mantle (Demarchi et al., 1988).
4. Initial Sr-Nd isotopic ratios define an array from a depleted end-member for the sodic rocks and
associated mantle xenoliths, to an enriched end-member for the potassic rocks and associated carbonatites,
with the tholeiites having intermediate compositions (Figure 4). The carbonatites and primary carbonates in
the host rock-types show the same isotopic ratios of the associated alkaline silicate rocks.
The large variations in incompatible elements and REE of the carbonatites appear to be in many cases
12
mainly related to hydrothermal processes. This interpretation is also supported by the O-C isotope
systematics and by the calcite-dolomite isotopic equilibrium temperatures that indicate complex trends from
magmatic to hydrothermal environments at variable CO2/H2O ratios. On the other hand, some O-C isotopic
ratios fall into the primary carbonatite field strictly linked to orthomagmatic phases, possibly representing the
primary isotopic signature of the mantle (seeComin-Chiaramonti et al., 2005b,c).
Crustal contamination does not appear significant in the generation of all the investigated rock-types,
especially with respect to the high contents of radiogenic U, Sr and Nd in the carbonatitic rocks.
5. The different magma types and the calculated parent liquid derived from different degrees of
partial melting indicate that the Early Cretaceous alkaline magmatism in the Paraná-Angola-Etendeka area is
related to heterogeneous mantle sources ranging in composition from DM-HIMU to time-integrated
enriched-mantle components (Comin-Chiaramonti and Gomes, 2005).
The enriched isotopic signature of the Early Cretaceous alkaline magmatism decreases from the West
(Paraguay) to the East (SE-continental margin of Brazil, Angola and Namibia). A similar decreasing isotopic
shift as a function of the age of magmatism, from Early - Late Cretaceous to Paleogene, is also observed in
Paraguay and Brazil. These results suggest a connection between magmatic activities in Paraná and AngolaNamibia, with large- and small-scale heterogeneities in the mantle sources (Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2005c
and references therein).
6. In the eastern sector of the TBL, the close association of potassic and sodic suites requires that
their parental magmas derived from a sub-continental heterogeneous and enriched mantle sources,
isotopically similar to a MORB source.
7. The TDM(Nd)model ages of clinopyroxenes and host rocks record earlier events of fluid-infiltrations
(Comin-Chiaramonti et al., 2001). These appear defined by an average age of 0.47± 0.18 Ga, with more than
60% model ages spanning the Brazilian cycle (0.80 – 0.48 Ga). The compositional variations in some
xenoliths and host lavas could reflect small-scale sampling of the lithospheric mantle, and different
interactions between fluids and overlying peridotites.
8. TDM(Nd) model ages show that the magmatic series follow roughly two main "enrichment" events
of the sub-continental upper mantle estimated at 2.0-1.4 Ga in a cratonic block and 1.0-0.5 Ga in mobile
blocks from Eastern Paraguay and Brazil (Cordani et al., 2000, 2001, 2003 a-b, 2005). This would have
preserved isotopic heterogeneities over a long period of time, suggesting a non-convective lithospheric
mantle beneath different cratons or intercratonic regions.
9. The over-simplified model of mantle plumes is not a satisfactory explanation for the genesis of
most continental flood basalts and the recurrent intraplate alkaline magmatism, especially based on
fluidodynamic considerations. Therefore, following Ernesto et al. (2002), an alternative mechanism and
thermal sources may exist in the mantle, and these processes may not require direct mass transfer from the
core-mantle boundary or from the lower mantle to the lithosphere. Besides the indications from geoid
anomalies, as previously mentioned, the existence of long-living thermal anomalies or compositional
differences in the mantle have already been demonstrated by velocity distribution models based on seismic
tomography using both p- and s-waves (Zhang and Tanimoto, 1988; Li and Romanovicz, 1996; Van der Hilst
et al., 1997; Liu et al., 2003).
Data sources
Geochemical and isotopic data for rocks and minerals from the Mesozoic-Cenozoic magmatism of
Paraguay and the central Andes domains discussed in this article can be found in Piccirillo and Melfi(1988),
Comin-Chiaramonti and Gomes(1996, 2005), Lucassen et al. (2002, 2005), Schultz et al.(2004), Cristiani et
al.(2009), Hauser et al. (2010a) and Comin-Chiaramonti et al. (2015).
Acknowledgements
This study was the result of a scientific cooperation agreement between the University of Trieste in Italy
and the University of Salta in Argentina. The paper resulted from the scientific project “Mesozoic-Cenozoic
magmatism in the NW-Argentina” supported by MIUR (Italy) and CIUNSA (Consejo de Investigaciones de
la Universidad Nacional de Salta). The authors wish to gratefully thank V.A.V. Girardi, R.Mazzuoli and S.
Speziale for their critical revision of the manuscript.
References
Aceñolaza, F.G., Toselli, A., 1976. Consideraciones estratigráficas y tectónicas sobre el Paleozoico inferior del noroeste
argentino. Memorias del II Congreso Latinoamerticano de Geología , CaracasT.II, 775-764
13
Aldamaz, E., Gourgaud, A., Haymakci, N., 2005. Constraints on the composition and thermal structure of the upper
mantle beneath NW Turkey: Evidence from mantle xenoliths and alkali primary melts. Journal of Geodynamics
39, 277-316.
Almeida, F.F.M., 1945. Geologia do suoeste Matogrossense, Brasil. Div.Geol. Min. Bol.., 116, 9-115.Almeida, F.F.M.,
1968. Evoluçao tectonica do centro oeste Brasileiro no Proterozoico Superior. Anais da Academia Brasileira de
Ciências, 40:285-294.
Almeida, F.F.M, Brito Neves, B.B. Carneiro, C.D.R, 2000. The origin and evolution of the south American Platform.
Earth Science Reviews, 50, 77-111.
Anderson, D.L., 1994. Superplumes or supercontinents? Geology, 22, 39-42.
Anderson, D.L., 2007. New theory of the Earth. Cambridge University Press, p. 384.
Antonini, P., Gasparon, M., Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., 2005. Post-Palaeozoic magmatism in Eastern
Paraguay: Sr-Nd-Pb isotope compositions. In: Comin-Chiaramonti, P, Gomes, C.B.. (Eds.), Mesozoic to Cenozoic
alkaline magmatism in the Brazilian platform. Edusp/Fapesp, São Paulo, pp. 57-70.
Assumpção, M., Yamabe, T.H., Barbosa, J.R., Hamza, V., Lopes, A.E.F., Balancin, L., Bianchi, M.B., 2010. Seismic
activity triggered by water wells in the Paraná Basin, Water Resources Research, 46, 1-19.
Bell,K., 1998. Radiogenic isotope constraints on relationships between carbonatites and associated
silicaterocks-a brief review. Journal of Petrology, 39, 99-102.
Burov, E., Gerya T., 2014. Asymmetric three-dimensional topography over mantle plumes. Nature, 513,85-89.
Chang, H.K., Kowsmann, R.O., de Figuereido, A.M.F., 1988. New concept on the development of east Brazilian
margin basins. Episodes, 11, 194-202.
Charrier, R., Pinto, L., Rodriguez, M.P.,2007. Tectonic stratigraphic evolution of the Andean Orogen in Chile. In: :
Moreno, T.,Gibbons, W. (Eds.), The Geology of Chile. The Geological Society of London, pp. 21-114.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Censi, P., Cundari, A., Gomes, C.B., 1992c. A silico-beforsitic flow from the Sapucai
Complex, Central-Eastern Paraguai). Geochimica Brasiliensis, 6, 87-91.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Civetta, L., Petrini, R., Piccirillo, E.M., Bellieni, G., Censi, P., Bitschene, P., DeMarchi, G., De
Min, A., Gomes, C.B., Castillo, A.M.C., Velázquez, J.C., 1991. Cenozoic nephelinitic magmatism in Eastern
Paraguay: petrology, Sr-Nd isotopes and genetic relationships with associated spinel-peridotite xenoliths. European
Journal of Mineralogy, 3, 507-525.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Cundari, A., Gomes, C.B., Piccirillo, E.M., Censi, P., De Min, A., Bellieni,G.,Velázquez, V.F.,
Orué, D., 1992a. Potassic dyke swarm in the Sapucai graben, Eastern Paraguay: petrographical, mineralogical and
geochemical outlines. Lithos, 28, 283-310.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Cundari, A., Piccirillo, E.M., Gomes, C.B., Castorina, F., Censi, P., De Min, A., Marzoli, A.,
Speziale, S., Velázquez, V.F., 1997. Potassic and sodic igneous rocks from Eastern Paraguay: their origin from the
lithospheric mantle and genetic relationships with the associated Paraná flood tholeiites. Journal of Petrology, 38,
495-528.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Cundari, A., DeGraff. J.M., Gomes, C.B., Piccirillo, E.M., 1999. Early Cretaceous-Cenozoic
magmatism in Eastern Paraguay (western Paraná basin): geological, geophysical,and geochemical relationships.
Journal of Geodynamics, 28, 375-391.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., Petrini, R., De Min, A., Velázquez, V.F., Orué, D., 1992b. A new area of alkaline
rocks in Eastern Paraguay. Revista Brasileira de Geociências, 22, 500-506.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Demarchi, G., Girardi, V.A.V., Princivalle, F., Sinigoi, S., 1986. Evidence of mantle
metasomatism and heterogeneity from peridotite inclusions of northeastern Brazil and Paraguay. Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, 77, 203-217.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B. (Eds.), 1996. Alkaline Magmatism in Central-Eastern Paraguay. Relationships
with coeval magmatism in Brazil. Edusp/Fapesp, São Paulo, p. 464.
Comin-Chiaramonti P., Gomes C.B. (Eds.), 2005. Mesozoic to Cenozoic alkaline magmatism in the Brazilian Platform.
Edusp/Fapesp, São Paulo, p. 752.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., Castorina, F., Censi, P., Antonini, P., Furtado, S., Ruberti, E., Scheibe, L.F.,
2002. Anitápolis and Lages alkaline-carbonatite complexes, Santa Catarina State, Brazil: geochemistry and
geodynamic implications. Revista Brasileira de Geociências, 32, 639-653.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., Censi, P., Gasparon, M., Velazquez, V.F., 2005a. Alkaline complexes from the
Alto Paraguay Province at the border of Brazil, Mato Grosso do Sul State) and Paraguay. In: Comin-Chiaramonti,
P., Gomes C.B. (Eds), Mesozoic to Cenozoic Alkaline Magmatism in the Brazilian Platform. Edusp/Fapesp, São
Paulo, pp. 71-148.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., Censi, P., Speziale, S., 2005b. Carbonatites from southeastern Brazil: a model for
the carbon and oxygen isotopic variations. In: Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes C.B. (Eds), Mesozoic to Cenozoic
Alkaline Magmatism in the Brazilian Platform. Edusp/Fapesp, São Paulo, pp.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., Marques, L.S., Censi, P., Ruberti, E., Antonini, P. P., 2005c. Carbonatites from
Southern Brazil: Geochemistry, O-C, Sr-Nd, Pb isotopes and relationships with the magmatism from the ParanáAngola-Nanibia Province. In: Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B. (Eds.), Mesozoic to Cenozoic Alkaline
Magmatism in the Brazilian Platform. Edusp/Fapesp, São Paulo, pp. 657-688.
14
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., De Min, A., Ernesto, M., Gasparon, M.,b 2015. Magmatism along the high
Paraguay River at the border of Brazil and Paraguay: A review and new constraints on emplacement ages. Journal
of South American Earth Sciences, 58, 72-81.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., De Min, A., Ernesto, M., Marzoli, A., Riccomini, C. 2007a. Eastern Paraguay: an
overview of the post-Paleozoic magmatism and geodynamic implications. Rend. Fis.Acc. Lincei, 9, 139-192.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., Marzoli, A., Milan, A., Riccomini, C., Velázquez, V.F., Mantovani, M.M.S.,
Renne, P., Tassinari, C.C.G., Vasconcelos, P.M., 2007b. Origin of Post-Paleozoic magmatism in Eastern Paraguay.
In: Foulger, R.G., Jurdy, D.M. (Eds), The origin of melting anomalies. The Geological Society of America, Special
Paper 430, pp. 603-633.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., Petrini, R., DeMin, A., Velázquez, V.F., Oruè, D., 1993. Alkaline magmatism in
the south-western Paraguay. Revista Brasileira de Geosciências 22, 500-506.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Lucassen, F., Girardi, V.A.V., De Min, A., Gomes, C.B., 2009. Lavas and their mantle
xenoliths from intracratonic Eastern Paraguay (South America Platform) and Andean Domain, NW-Argentina: a
comparative review. Mineralogy and Petrology, 98, 143-165.
Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Princivalle, F., Girardi, V.A.A., Gomes, C.B., Laurora, A., Zanetti, F., 2001. Mantle xenoliths
from Ñemby, Eastern Paraguay: O-Sr-Nd isotopes, trace elements and crystal chemistry of hosted clinopyroxenes.
Periodico di Mineralogia, 70, 205-230.
Condie, K.C., 1989. The plate tectonic and crustal evolution. Pergamon Press 3th Edition, p. 473.
Cordani U.G., Cubas, N., Nutman A.P., Sato K., Gonzales M.E., Presser J.L.B., 2001. Geochronological constraints for
the evolution of the metamorphic complexes near the Tebicuary River, southern Precambrian region of Paraguay.
III SSAGI, Pucón, Chile, CD ROM, 113-116.
Cordani, U.G., D'Agrella-Filho, M.S., Brito-Neves, B. B. 2003a. From Rodinia to Gondwana: a review of the available
evidence from South America. Gondwana Research, 6, 275-283.
Cordani, U.G., D'Agrella-Filho, M.S., Brito-Neves, B.B., Trindade, R.I.F., 2003b. Tearing up Rodinia: the
Neoproterozoic paleogeography of South American cratonic fragments. Terra Nova, 15, 350-359.
Cordani, U.G., Pimentel Martins., M., Granade de Araújo, C.E., Fuck, R.A., 2013. The significance of the
Transbrasiliano-Kandi tectonic corridor for the amalgamation of West Gondwana. Brazilian Jornal of Geology,
São Paolo, 43, 583-597.
Cordani, U.G., Sato, K., Teixeira, W., Tassinari, C.C.G., Basei, M.A.S., 2000. Crustal evolution of the South American
platform. In: Cordani, U.G., Milani, E.J., Thomaz Filho, A.A., Campos, D.A. (Eds), Tectonic Evolution of
South America. 31st International Geological Congress (Rio de Janeiro), 19-40.
Cordani, U.G., Tassinari, C.C.G., Reis Rolim, D.R., 2005. The basement of the Rio Apa Craton in Mato Grosso do Sul
(Brazil) and northern Paraguay: a geochronological correlation with the tectonic provinces of the southwestern
Amazonian Craton. Proceeding of the 12 Gondwana Conference , Abstracts, Mendoza, Argentina, p. 113.
Craig, E., Manning, C.E., Shock, E.L., Dimitri, A., Sverjensky, D.A., 2013. The Chemistry of Carbon in Aqueous
Fluids at Crustal and Upper-Mantle Conditions: Experimental and TheoreticalConstraints. Reviews in Mineralogy
and Geochemistry,75, 109-148.
Cristiani, C., Matteini, M., Mazzuoli, R., Omarini R., Villa, I.M., 2005. Petrology of Late Jurassic - Early Cretaceous
Tusaquillas and Abra Laite-Aguilar plutonic complexes (Central Andes, 23°05'S - 66°05'W): a comparison with
rift-related magmatism of NW Argentina and E Bolivia. In: Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B. (Eds.), Mesozoic
to Cenozoic Alkaline Magmatism in the Brazilian Platform. Edusp/Fapesp, São Paulo, pp. 213-240.
Curto, J.B., Vidotti, R., Fuck, R.A., Blakely, R.J., Alvarenga, C.J.S., Dantas, E., 2014. The tectonic evolution of the
Transbrasiliano Lineament in northern Paraná Basin, Brazil, as inferred from aeromagnetic data. American
Geophysical Union, 119, 1544–1562.
Dalziel, I.W.D., 1997. Neoproterozoic –Paleozoic geography and tectonics:review, hypotesis and environmental
speculation. Geol.Soc.Am. Bull., 109,16-42.
Damm, K.W., Pichowiak, S., Harmon, R.S., Todt, W., Kelly, S., Omarini, R., Niemeyer, H., 1990. Pre-Mesozoic
evolution of the central Andes; the basement revisited. In Kay, S.M., Rapela, C.W. (Eds). The Plutonism from
Antarctica to Alaska. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. Special Paper 241: 101-127.
Davies, G.F., 2005 A cause for mantle plumes: Chinese Science Bulletin, 50, 1541-1554.
Deckart, K., Bertrand, H., Liégeois, J-P., 2005. Geochemistry and Sr, Nd, Pb isotopic composition of the Central
Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) in Guyana and Guinea, Lithos, 82, 289-314.
DeMarchi, G., Comin-Chiaramonti, P., De Vito, P., Sinigoi, S., Castillo Clerici, A.M.C., 1988. Lherzolite-dunite
xenoliths from Eastern Paraguay: petrological constraints to mantle metasomatism. In: Piccirillo, E.M., Melfi A.J.
(Eds), The Mesozoic Flood Volcanism from the Paraná Basin (Brazil). Petrogenetic and geophysical aspects. IagUsp, São Paulo, pp. 207-227.
De Min, A., Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., Girardi, V.A.V., Slejko, F., Ruberti, E., (2013). Ultramafic Kalkaline
and
carbonatitic
rocks
from
Planalto
da
Serra,
Mato
Grosso,
Brazil.
In:
http://search.babylon.com/?s=web&babsrc=home&rlz=0&q=Piero+CominChiaramonti&start=10, 1-23.
De Min, A., Piccirillo, E.M., Marzoli, A., Bellieni, G., Renne, P.R., Ernesto, M., Marques, L.S., 2003. The Central
Atlantic Magmatic Province (CAMP) in Brazil: petrology, geochemistry, 40Ar/39Ar ages, paleomagnetism and
geodynamic implications. In: Hames, W., McHone, J.G., Renne, P., Roppel, C. (Eds), The Central Atlantic
15
Magmatic Province: Insights from Fragments of Pangea. Geophysical Monograph Series, vol. 136, American
Geophysical Union (AGU), Washington. pp 91-128.
De Paolo, D.J., Manga, M., 2003. Deep Origin of Hotspots the Mantle Plume Model. Science, 300, 920-921.
De Wit, M.J., Thiart, C., Doucouré, M., Wilsher, W., 1999. Scent of a supercontinent: Gondwana’s ores as chemical
tracer tin,tungsten and the Neoproterozoic Laurentia-Gondwana connection. In: In De Wit, M.J. (Ed). Gondwana
10: event stratigraphy of Gondwana. V. 28,11-17.
Donnelly, K.E., Goldstein, S.L., Langmuir, C.H., Spiegelman, M., 2004. Origin of enriched ocean ridge basalts and
implications for mantle dynamics: Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 226. 347-366.
Ducea, M.N., Otamendi, J.E., Bergantz, G.W., Jianu, D., Petrerescu, L., 201. The origin and geological evolution of the
Ordovician Famatinian-Puna arc.The Geological Society of America, Memoir, 212. Doi: 10-1130/2015.1212(07).
Ernesto, M., 2005. Paleomagnetism of the post-Paleozoic alkaline magmatism in the Brazilian Platform: questioning the
mantle plume model. In: Comin-Chiaramonti, P:, Gomes, C.B. (Eds). Mesozoic to Cenozoic alkaline magmatism
in the Brazilian platform. Edusp/Fapesp, São Paulo, pp. 689-705.
Ernesto, M., Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., Castillo Clerici, A.M.., Velázquez, V.F., 1996. Palaeomagnetic data
from the Central Alkaline Province, Eastern Paraguay. In: Comin-Chiaramonti, P:, Gomes, C.B. (Eds). Mesozoic
to Cenozoic alkaline magmatism in the Brazilian platform. Edusp/Fapesp, São Paulo, pp.85-102.
Ernesto, M., Marques, L.S., Piccirillo, E.M., Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Bellieni, G., 2000. Paraná-Tristan da Cunha
system: plume mobility and petrogenetic implications. In: 31st International Geological Congress. Rio de Janeiro,
CD ROM.
Ernesto, M., Marques, L.S., Piccirillo, E.M., Molina, E., Ussami, N., Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Bellieni, G., 2002. Paraná
Magmatic Province - Tristan da Cunha plume system: fixed versus mobile plume, petrogenetic considerations and
alternative heat sources. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Researches, 130, 527-553.
Escayola, M.P., van Staal, C.R., Davies, W., 2011. The age and tectonic setting of Puncoviscana Formation in
northwestern Argentina: An accretionary complex related to Early Cambrian closure of the Puncovicana Ocean
and acretion of the Arequipa-Antofalla block. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 32, 438-459.
Ferrari, A.L., Riccomini, C., 1999. Campo de esforços plio-pleistocênicos na Ilha da Trindade (Oceano Atlântico Sul,
Brasil) e sua relação com a tectônica regional. Revista Brasileira de Geociências, 29, 195-202.
Finney, S.C., 2007. The parautochthonous Gondwana origin of Cuyania (greater Precordillera) terrane of Argentina: a
reevalution of evidence used to support an allochthonous Laurentian origin. Geologica Acta, 5, 127-158.
Foulger, G.R., Natland, J.H., Anderson, D.L., 2005. Genesis of the Iceland melt anomaly by plate tectonic processes. In:
Foulger, G.R., Natland, J.H., Presnall, D.C., Anderson, D.L. (Eds.), Plate, plumes, and paradigms. Geological
Society of America, Special Paper, pp. 595-625.
Foulger, G.R., Jurdy, D.M., 2007. (Eds): Plates, Plumes and Planetary Processes. GSA Special Paper 430, p.997
Frimmel, H.E., Fölling, P.G., 2004. Late Vendian closure of the Adamastor Ocean: timing of tectonic inversion and
syn-orogenic sedimentation in the Gariep Basin. Gondwana Research, 7, 685-699.
Fuck, R.A., Brito Neves, B.B, Schobbenhaus, C., 2008. Rodinia descendants in South America. Precambrian Research,
160, 108-126.
Fuck, R.A., Dantas, E.L., Pimentel, M.M., Botelho, F.N., Armstrong, R., Laux, J.H., Junges, S., Soares, J.E., Fernandes
Praxedes, I., 2014. Paleoproterozoic crust-formation and reworking eventsin the Tocantins Province, central
Brazil: A contribution for Atlantica supercontinent reconstruction. Precambrian Research, 244,53–74.
Gallager, K., Brown, R., 1997. The onshore record of passive margin evolution. J.Geol.Soc.London, 154, 451-457.
Gallager, K., Brown, R., 1999. The Mesozoic denudation history of the Atlantic margins of southern Africa and
southeast Brazil and the relationship to offshore sedimentation. In: Cameron, N.R., Bate, R.H., Clure, V.S. (Eds).
The Oil and Gas Habitats of the South Atlantic. Geological Society of London Special Publ., pp. 41-53.
Gibson, S.A., Thompson, R.N., Day, J.A., 2006. Timescales and mechanism of plume-lithosphere interaction: 40Ar/39
Ar geochronology and geochemistry of alkaline igneous rocks from the Paraná-Etendeka large igneous province.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 251, 1-17.
Ghirardello, B.B., Stracke, A., Connolly, J.A.D., Nikolaeva, K.M., Taras, Gerya, T.V. 2014. Lead transport in intraoceanic subduction zones: 2D geochemical–thermo-mechanical modeling of isotopic signatures. Lithos 208: 265–
280.
Grunow, A.M., 1999. Gondwana events and palaeogeography: a palaeomagnetic review. n De Wit, M.J. (Ed).
Gondwana 10: event stratigraphy of Gondwana, pp. 53-71.
Gudmundsson, O., Sambridge, M., 1998. A regional upper mantle (RUM) seismic model. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 103, B, 7121-7136,
Hannan, B.B., Graham, D.W., 1996. The case for primary mantle-derived carbonatite magma. Journal of Petrology, 39,
1895-1903.
Hauser, N., Matteini, M., Omarini, R.H., Pimentel, M.M., 2010a. Constraints on metasomatized mantle under Central
South America: evidence from Jurassic alkaline lamprophyre dykes from the Eastern Cordillera, NW Argentina.
Miner Petrol. 100,153–184.
Hauser, N., Matteini, M., Omarini, R.H., Pimentel, M.M., 2010b. Combined U–Pb and Lu–Hf isotope data on turbidites
of the Paleozoic basement of NW Argentina and petrology of associated igneous rocks: Implications for the
16
tectonic evolution of western Gondwana between 560 and 460 Ma. Gondwana Research, 19, 100-127.
Hawkesworth, C. J., Gallagher, K., Kelley, S., Mantovani, M.S.M., Peate, D.W., Regelous, M., Rogers, N.W., 1992.
Paraná magmatism and the opening of the South Atlantic. In: Storey, B. Alabaster, A., Pankurst, R. (Eds.),
Magmatism and the causes of continental break-up. The Geological Society of London, Special Publication, 68,
pp. 221-240.
Hawkesworth, C.J., Gallagher, K., Kirstein, L., Mantovani, M.S.M., Peate, D.W., Turner, S.P., 2000. Tectonic controls
on magmatism associated with continental break-up: an example from the Paraná-Etendeka Province. Earth and
Planetary Science Letters, 179, 335-349.
Hegarty, K.A., Duddy, I.R., Green, P.F., 1996. The thermal history in around the Paraná Basin using apatite fission
track analysis. Implications for hydrocarbon occurrences and basin formation. In: Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes,
C.B. (Eds). Alkaline magmatism in central-eastern Paraguay. Relationships with coeval magmatism in Brazil.
Edusp/Fapesp, São Paulo, pp. 67-83.
Hofmann, A.W., Hart, S.R., 1978. An assessement of local and regional isotopic equilibrium in the mantle. Earth and
Planetary Sience Letters, 8, 44-62.
Hoffman, P.F., 1999. The break-up of Rodinia, birth of Gondwana, true polar wnader and the snowball Earth. In: De
Wit, M.J. (Ed). Gondwana 10: event stratigraphy of Gondwana, 28, 17-35.
Holbrook, W.S., Kelemen, P.B., 1993. Large igneous province on the US Atlantic margin and implications for
magmatism during continental break-up. Nature, 364, 433-436.
Iacumin, M., De Min, A., Piccirillo, E.M., Bellieni, G., 2003. Source mantle heterogeneity and its role in the genesis of
Late Archean-Proterozoic (2.7-1.0) and Mesozoic (200 and 130 Ma) tholeiitic magmatism in the South American
Platform. Earth-Science Review, 62. 365-397.
Jackson,M.G.,Dasgupta,R.,2008. Compositions of HIMU, EM1, and EM2 from global trends between radiogenic
isotopes and major elements in ocean island basalts. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 276,175-186.
Jaillard, E., Hérail, G., Monfret, T., Díaz-Martínez, E., Baby, P., Lavenu, A., Mumont, J.F., 2000. Tectonic volution of
the Andes of Ecuador,Peru, Bolivia and northernmost Chile. In: Cordani, U.G., Milani, E.J., Thomaz Filho, A:,
Campos, D.A. (Eds.) Tectonic Evolution of South America. 31st. International Geological Congress, Brazil, pp.
481-559.
Keppie, D.J., Dostal, J., 1998. Birth of the Avalon arc Nova Scotia, Canada: Geophysical evidence 700-630 Ma backarc rift volcanism off Gondwana. Geological Magazine. 135, 171-181.
King, S.D., Anderson, D.L., 1995. An alternative mechanism of flood basalt formation. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 39, 269-279.
Kogiso, T., Tatsumi, Y., Shimoda, G., Barsczus, H.G., 1997. High-µ (HIMU) ocean island basalts in southern
Polynesia: new evidence for whole-mantle scale recycling of subducted oceanic crust. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 102, 8085–8103.
Kogiso, T., Hirschmann, M.M., Frost, D.J., 2003. High-pressure partial melting of garnet pyroxenite: possible mafic
lithologies in the source of ocean island basalts. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 216, 603–617.
Kramer, W., Siebel, W., Romer, R., Haase, G., Zimmer, M., Ehrlichmann, R., 2005. Geochemical and isotopic
characteristics and evolution of the Jurassic colcanic arc between Arica (18º30’S) and Tocopilla (22ºs), North
Chilean Coastal Cordillera. Chemie der Erde, 65. 47-68. á
Kröner, A., Cordani, U.G., 2003. African, southern India and South American cratons were not part of the Rodinia
supercontinent: evidence for field relationships and geochronology. Tectonophysics. 375, 325-352.
Laux, J.H., Pimentel, M.M., Dantas, E.L., Armstrong, R., Junges, S.L., 2005. Two Neoproterozoic crustal accretion
events in the Brasilia belt, central Brazil. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 18, 183-198.
Li, X.D., Romanovicz, B., 1996. Global mantle shear velocity model developed using nonlinear asymptotic coupling
theory. Journal of Geophysical Research. 101, 22245-22272.
Liu, H.K., Gao, S.S., Silver, P.G., Zhang, Y., 2003. Mantle layering across central South America. Journal of
Geophysical Research. 108, 2510.
Lucassen, F., Escayola, M., Franz, G., Romer, R.L., Koch, K., 2002.Isotopic composition of late Mesozoic basic and
ultrabasic rocks from Andes, 23-32º S) – implications for the Andean mantle. Contributions to Mineralogy and
Petrology. 143, 336-349.
Lucassen, F., Franz. G., Viramonte, J., Romer, R.L., Dulski, P., Lang, A., 2005. The late Cretaceous lithospheric mantle
beneath the Central Andes: evidence from phase equilibrium and composition of mantle xenoliths. Lithos. 82: 379406.
Mariani, P., Braitemberg, C., Ussami N., 2013. Explaining the thick crust in Paraná basin, Brazil, with satellite GOCE
gravity observations. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 45, 209-223.
Marques, L.S., Ulbrich, M.N.C., Ruberti, E., Tassinari, C.C.G., 1999a. Petrology, geochemistry and Sr-Nd isotopes of
the Trindade and Martin Vaz volcanic rocks (Southern Atlantic Ocean). Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal
Research. 93, 191-216.
Marques, L.S., Dupré, B., Piccirillo, E.M., 1999b. Mantle source compositions of the Paraná magmatic province,
southern Brazil): evidence from trace element and Sr-Nd-Pb isotope geochemistry. Journal of Geodynamics. 28,
439-458.
17
Marzoli, A., Renne, P.R., Piccirillo, E.M., Ernesto, M., Bellieni, G., De Min. A., 1999. Extensive 200-million-year-old
continental flood basalts of the central Atlantic magmatic province. Science, 284, 616-618.
McKenzie, D., Bickle, M.J., 1988. The volume and composition of melt generated by extension of the lithosphere.
Journal of Petrology, 29, 625-679.
Molina, E.C., Ussami, N., 1999. The geoid in southern Braziland adjacent regions: new constraints on density
distribution and thermal state of lithosphere. Journal of Geodynamics. 28. 321-340.
Niu, Y.L., 2009. Some basic concepts and problems on the petrogenesis of intra-plate ocean island basalts. Chinese
Science Bulletin, 54, 4148-4160.
Niu, Y.L., O’Hara, M.J., 2003, Origin of ocean island basalts: A new perspective from petrology, geochemistry and
mineral physics considerations: Journal of Geophysical Research. 108, 2209-2228.
Niu, Y., Wilson, M., Humphreys, E.R., Michael, J., O’Hara, M.J., 2012. A trace element perspective on the source of
ocean island basalts (OIB) and fate of subducted ocean crust (SOC) and mantle lithosphere (SML). Episodes. 35,
310-327.
Nolet, G., Allen, R., Zhao, D., 2007. Mantle plume tomography. Chemical Geology. 241, 248–263.
Nürberg, D., Müller, R.D., 1991. The tectonic evolution of South Atlantic from Late Jurassic to present.
Tectonophysics, 191, 27-43.
O'Connor, J.M., Duncan, R.A. 1990. Evolution of the Walvis Ridge-Rio Grande Rise hot spot system: implications for
African and South American plate motions over plumes. Journal of Geophysical Research, 95, 17475-17502.
Oliveros, V., Féraud, G., Aguirre, L., Fornari, M., Morata, D., 2006. The early Andean magmatic province (EAMP):
40Ar/39Ar dating on Mesozoic volcanic and plutonic rocks from the Coastal Cordillera, Northern Chile. Journal of
Volcanology and Geothermal Research,157:, 311-330.
Omarini, R.H., Sureda, R.J., 1994. Evolución geodinámica y configuración paleogeográfica en los Andes Centrales del
Proterozoico superior al Paleozoico inferior: modelos, alternativas y problemas. 13 Congreso Geológico
Argentino, 3, 291-307.
Omarini, R.H, Sureda, R.J, Götze, J.H, Seilacher, A, Pflüger, F., 1999. Puncoviscana folded belt in northwestern
Argentina: Testimony of Late Proterozoic Rodinia fragmentation and pre-Gondwana collisional episodes.
International Journal of Earth Sciences, 88, 76-97.
Omarini, R.H., Gioncada, A., Vezzoli, L., Mazzuoli, R., Cristiani, C., Sureda, R.J., 2013. The Aguilar pluton (23º12’S –
65º40’W; NW Argentina): Petrological implications on the origin of the Late Jurassic intraplate magmatism in the
Central Andes. Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 47: 55-71.
Paone, A., 2013. A Review of Carbonatite Occurrences in Italy and Evaluation of Origins. Open Journal of Geology, 3,
66-82
Petrini, R., Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Vannucci, R., 1994. Evolution of the lithosphere beneath Eastern Paraguay:
geochemical evidence from mantle xenoliths in the Asunción-Ñemby nephelinites. Mineraloca et Petrographica
Acta, 37, 247-259.
Piccirillo, E.M., Melfi, A.J. (Eds.), 1988. The Mesozoic flood volcanism from the Paraná basin (Brazil). Petrogenetic
and geophysical aspects. USP, Brazil, p. 600 .
Pollark, H.N., Chapman, D.S., 1977. On the regional variations of heat flow, geotherms and lithospheric thikness.
Tectonophysics, 38, 279-296.
Prinvivalle, F., Tirone, M., Comin-Chiaramonti, P., 2000. Clinopyroxenes from metasomatized spinel-peridotite mantle
xenolithes from Ñemby (Paraguay): crystal chemistry and petrological implications. Mineralogy and Petrology, 70,
25-35.
Prezzi, C.B., Alonso, R.N., 2002. New paleomagnetic data from the northern Argentina Puna: Central Andes rotation
pattern reanalyzed. Journal of Geophysical Research, 107, 1-18.
Prytulak, J., Elliott, T., 2007. TiO2 enrichment in ocean island basalts: Earth Planetary Science Letters, 263, 388-403.
Ramos, V.A., Jordan, T.E., Allmendinger, R., Kay, S.M., Cortés, J., Palma, M., 1984. Chilenia: un terreno alóctono en
la evolución paleozoica de los Andes Centrales. IX Congreso Geológico, Bariloche, Argentina. Actas II, 84-106.
Ramos, V.A., Jordan, T.E., Allmendinger, R., Mpodozis, C., Kay, S.M., Cortés, J., Palma, M., 1986. Paleozoic terrains
of the central Argentine-Chilean Andes, Episodes, 5, 855-880.
Ramos, V.A., 2008. The basement of the central Andes: The Arequipa and related terranes, Annual Rewiev of Earth
and Planetary Sciences, 36, 289-324.
Ramos, V.A., Aleman, A., 2000. Tectonic evolution of the Andes. In: Cordani, U.G., Milani, E.J., Thomaz Filho, A.,
Campos, D.A. (Eds.) Tectonic Evolution of South America. 31st. International Geological Congress, Brazil, pp.
635-688.
Randall. D.R., 1998. A New Jurassic-Recent apparent polar wander path for South America and a review of central
Andean tectonic models. Tectonophysics, 299, 49-74.
Renne, P.R., Deckart, K., Ernesto, M., Féraud, G., Piccirillo, E.M., 1996. Age of the Ponta Grossa dyke swarm (Brazil),
and implications to Paraná flood volcanism. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 144, 199-211.
Renne, P.R., Ernesto, M., Pacca, I.G., Coe, R.S., Glen, J.M., Prévot, M., Perrin, M., 1992. The age of Paraná flood
volcanism, rifting of Gondwanaland, and Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary. Science, 258, 975-979.
Renne, P.R., Mertz, D.F., Teixeira, W., Ens, H., Richards, M., 1993. Geochronological constraints on magmatic and
tectonic evolution of the Paraná Province. EOS, American Geophysical Union Abstract, 74, 553.
18
Rocha-Campos, A.C., Cordani, U.G., Kawashita, K., Sonoki, H.M., Sonoki, I.K., 1988., Age of the Paraná flood
volcanism. In: Piccirillo, E.M., Melfi, A.J.(Eds.), The Mesozoic flood volcanism from the Paraná basin (Brazil).
Petrogenetic and geophysical aspects. IAG-USP, São Paulo pp.25-45.
Rocha-Junior, E., Marques, L.S., Babinsky, M., Nardy, A.J.R., Figueiredo, A.M.G., Machado, F.B., 2013. Sr-Nd-Pb
isotopic constraints on the nature of the mantle sources involved in the genesis of the high-Ti tholeiites from
northern Paraná Continental Flood Basalts (Brazil). Jour. of South Am. Earth Sciences, 46,9-25
Rosset, A., De Min, A., Marques, L.S., Macambira, M.J.B., Ernesto, M., Renne, P.R., Piccirillo, E.M., 2007. Genesis
and geodynamic significance of Mesoproterozoic and Early Cretaceous tholeiitic dyke swarms from the São
Francisco craton (Brazil). Jour. of South Am. Earth Sciences, 24, 69-92.
Sempere, T., Carlier, G., Soler, P., Fornari, M., Carlotto, V., Jacay, J., Arispe, O., Néraudeau, D., Cárdenas, J., Rosas,
S., Jimenéz, N., 2002. Late Permian-middle Jurassic lithospheric thinning in Peru and Bolivia, and its bearing on
Andean age tectonics. Tectonophysics, 345, 153-181.
Schimmel, M., Assumpção, M., VanDecar, J.C., 2003. Seismic velocity anomalies beneath SE Brazil from P and S
wave travel time inversion. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, 1029-2001.
Schultz, F., Lehmann, B., Tawackoli, S., Rössling, R., Belyatsky, B., Dulski, P., 2004. Carbonatite diversity in the
Central Andes: the Ayopaya alkaline province, Bolivia. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 148, 391-408.
Sims, J.P., Ireland, T.R., Camacho, A., Lyons, P., Pieters, P.E., Shirrow, R.G., Stuart-Smith, P.G., Miró R., 1998. U-Pb,
Th-Pb and Ar-Ar geochronology from the southern Sierras Pampeanas: Implication for the Paleozoic tectonic
evolution of the western Gondwana margin. In Pankhurst, R.J., Rapela, C.W. (Eds). The proto-Andean margin of
Gondwana. Geological Society of London special publication, 142,259-281.
Sousa, M.Z.A., Ruberti, E., Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B., 2005. Alkaline magmatism from Mato Grosso State,
Brazil: the Ponta do Morro complex. In: Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Gomes, C.B. (Eds.), Mesozoic to Cenozoic
alkaline magmatism in the Brazilian platform. Edusp/Fapesp, São Paulo, pp. 241-260.
Sovolovova, I.P., Girnis, A.V., Ryabchkov, I.D., Kononkova, N.N., 2008. Origin of carbonatite magma during the
evolution of ultrapotassic basite magma. Petrology, 16, 376-394.
Stefanick, M., Jurdy, D.M., 1984. The distribution of hot spots. Journal of Geophysical Research, 98, 9919- 9925.
Su, B.X., Zhang, H.F., Ying, J.F., Tang, Y.J., Hu, Y., Santosh, M., 2012. Metasomatized Lithospheric Mantle beneath
the Western Qinling, Central China: Insight into Carbonatite Melts in the Mantle. Journal of Geology, 120, 671681.
Sureda, R.J., Martín, J.L., 1990. El Aguilar Mine: an Ordovician sediment-hosted stratiform lead-zinc deposit in the
Central Andes. In: Fontbotè, L., Amstutz, G., Cardozo, E., Cedillo, E. (Eds.), Stratabound Ore Deposits in the
Andes. Springer-Verlag, pp. 161-174.
Sureda, J.R., Omarini, R.H., 1999. Geological evolution and pre-Gondwanic nomenclature in Northwestern Argentina
(1800-160 Ma). In: Colombo, F., Queralt, I., Petrinovic, I.A., (Eds) Geology of the Southern Central Andes:
Northwest Argentina, 34, 197-227.
Tawackoli, S., Rössiling, R., Lehmann, B., Schultz, F., Claure-Zapata, M., Balderrama, B., 1999. Mesozoic magmatism
in Bolivia and its significance for the evolution of the Bolivian Orocline. Extent Abstracts IV International
Symposium on Andean Geodynamics, Göttingen, Germany, pp. 733-740.
Thybo, H., 2006. The heterogeneous late mantle velocity zone. Tectonophysics, 416, 53-79.
Thomas, W.A., Astini, R.A., Mueller, P-A., George E. Gehrels, G.E., Wooden, J.L., 2004. Transfer of the Argentine
Precordillera terrane from Laurentia: Constraints from detrital-zircon geochronology. Geological Society of
America, 32, 965–968.
Tommasi, A., Vauchez, A., 2001. Continental rifting parallel to ancient collisional belts: an effect of the mecanical
anisotropy of the lithospheric mantle. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 185, 199-210.
Trouw, R.A.J., De Wit, M.J., 1999. Relation between the Gondwanide Orogen and contemporaneous itracratonic
deformation. In: De Wit, M.J. (Ed). Gondwana 10: event stratigraphy of Gondwana, 28, 203-215.
Trompette, R., 1994. Geology of western Gondwana (2000-500 Ma) Pan African-Brasiliano: aggregation of South
America and Africa. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, the Neatherlands, pp. 350
Turner, S., Regelous, M., Kelley, S., Hawkeswoth, C., Mantovani, M., 1994. Magmatism and continental break-up in
the South Atlantic: high precision 40Ar-39Ar geochronology. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 121, 333-348.
Turner, B.R., 1999. Tectonostratigraphycal development of Upper Karooo foreland basin: orogenic unloading versus
thermally induced Gondwana rifting. In: De Wit, M.J. (Ed). Gondwana 10: event stratigraphy of Gondwana, 28,
215-239.
Unrug, R., 1996. The Assembly of Gondwanaland. Episodes, 19, 11-20.
Unternehr, P., Curie, D., Olivet, J.L., Goslin, J., Beuzart, P., 1988. South Atlantic fits and intraplate boundaries in
Africa and South America. Tectonophysics, 155, 169-179.
Van Decar, J.C., James, D., Assumpção, M., 1995. Seismic evidence for a fossil mantle plume beneath South America
and implications for driving forces. Nature, 378, 25-31.
Van der Hilst, R.D., Widiyantoro, S., Engdahal, E.R., 1997. Evidence for deep mantle circulation from global
tomography. Nature, 386, 578-584.
Velázquez, V.F., Riccomini, C., Gomes, C.B., Brumatti, M., 2002. Magmatismo alcalino da Província Misiones,
Paraguai Oriental: aspectos geoquímicos e tectônicos. 41º Congresso Brasileiro de Geologia, João Pessoa, Anais,
19
p. 546.
Velázquez, V.F., Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Cundari, A., Gomes, C.B., Riccomini, C., 2006. Cretaceous Na-alkaline
magmatism from Misiones province (Paraguay): relationships with the Paleogene Na-alkaline analogue from
Asunción and geodynamic significance. Journal of Geology, 114, 593-614.
Viramonte, J.G., Kay, S.M., Becchio, R., Escayola, M., Novitski, I., 1999. Cretaceous rift related magmatism in centralwestern South America. Journal of South American Earth Science, 12, 109-121.
Willbold, M., Stracke, A., 2006. Trace element composition of mantle end-members: Implications for recycling of
oceanic and upper and lower continental crust. Geochemistry geophysics and geosystems, 7, 1-30.
Xu, Ch., Wang, L., Song, W., Wu, M., 2010. Carbonatites in China: A review for genesis and mineralization.
Geoscience Frontiers, 1, 105-114.
Zhang, Y-S., Tanimoto, T., 1993. High-resolution global upper mantle structure and plate tectonics. Journal of
Geophysical Research 98, 9793-9823.
Zindler, A., Hart, S.R., 1986. Chemical geodynamics. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 14, 493-571.