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An Introduction To
English Lexicology
What will we learn in this course?

The relations between language, linguistics
and lexicology
1)
What is language/linguistics/lexicology?
What are the aims and significance of the English
lexicology course?
What is the connection of lexicology with other
branches of linguistics?
Two approaches to the study of English lexicology
2)
3)
4)
What will we learn in this course?

The sources of the English vocabulary
1)
The position and character of the English language in
the Indo-European Family (印欧语系)
The division of the history of the English language
and the characteristics of the English language for
each period
Classifications of English words—native and
borrowed words
The influence of foreign elements upon the English
vocabulary
2)
3)
4)
What will we learn in this course?

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Word meaning and semantic relations
The relationship between meaning and the
object
Meaning and motivation (理据)
What is a word and how words are classified?
Word meaning and context
Synonyms, antonyms, polysemy, homonymy
(同音、同形异义) and hyponymy (上下义)
What will we learn in this course?
The changing English vocabulary
1) The definition, sources and formation of
neologisms
2) The definition, sources and formation of
archaisms
3) Four tendencies in semantic changes
4) Semantic changes from the literal use of words
to their figurative use

What will we learn in this course?

1)
2)
3)
4)
Word-formation in English
Morphological structure of words
Two types of Morpheme (词素)—free form
and bound form
Three types of words—simple words,
compound words and complex words
The main/minor processes of word-formation
What will we learn in this course?

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
English idioms
What are idioms?
What are the features of idioms?
English idioms in different styles (文体)
The difference between idiomatic and free
phrases
Classifications of English idioms
What will we learn in this course?

British and American English
Differences between British English and
American English:
1) differences in individual sounds
2) differences in stress
3) differences in spelling
4) differences in vocabulary
5) differences in grammar
Chapter 1
Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1.1.1 Introductory Remarks
Question: What’s the relationship between language,
linguistics and lexicology?
Chapter 1
Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
Answer:
Briefly speaking, lexicology deals with
words. Words are the foundation and core of language.
Without words, there would be no language; Without
language, there would be no linguistics. Therefore,
lexicology, language and linguistics are very closely
interrelated with one another.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1.1.2 A Definition of Language
Question 1 :
What is the difference between natural language
and artificial language?
Question 2 :
What is Language/How language is defined?
Chapter 1
Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
Answer 1 :
By language, we mean human language, namely,
natural language. Artificial language refers to
language that mathematicians, logicians and
computer scientists use in their work.
Chapter 1
Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
Answer 2 :

A definition from different angles (Zhao Shikai)
1. Language is a social action and a carrier
of information.
2. Language is a system of structure. It contains
phonetics and phonology (音位学）vocabulary
and meaning, morphology (形态学）and syntax
(句法学）.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
3. Language is a social phenomenon because it is
an instrument of human communication in a
society.
4. Language is a physiological phenomenon
because it is connected with the organs of speech
(发音器官）, the nervous system and muscular
activities (肌肉活动）.
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5. Language is a psychological phenomenon
because it is closely related to man’s
psychological activities.
6. Language is also a physical phenomenon
owing to the propagation (transmission) of
speech sounds.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
On the basis of the above mentioned points
language may be defined as follows:
Language is a system of symbols (符号）based
on physiology, psychology and physics. It is a
specific social action and a carrier of information
used for human communication in a society.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1-1-3 Language, Society and Thought
From the historical development of language
we see that any language reflects the culture of a
society in a particular period. Therefore language
is a mirror reflecting the culture of a society. We
cannot find many Modern English in Old English
or Middle English. For example:
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
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
cybercafé (1994, n)
a café or coffee shop providing computers for
access to the Internet
docudrama (1961, n)
a drama made for television, motion picture, or
theater dealing freely with historical events, esp
of a recent and controversial nature
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
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
moonwalk (1984, n/v)
1) an instance of walking on the moon;
2) to dance by gliding backwards while appearing
to make forward walking motions
prolife (1972, adj)
antiabortion
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
These examples prove that language changes
with the development of a society. Therefore,


Language is a product of society.
Language is inseparable from human society.
“Language is the cement of society, allowing
people to live, work, and play together, to tell the
truth but also to tell a lie, or lies.” (Wardhaugh)
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology

As society is constantly in a state of development,
so is language. Society depends upon language
for its existence. As society develops, new objects
are created that require the invention of new
words and expressions.
We can use some words concerning means of
transport before the invention of the locomotive
and the motor car to illustrate this phenomenon.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1. berlin ( German origin)
a four-wheeled covered
carriage with the seat
behind
2. buggy
a light carriage, pulled by
one horse for one or two
passengers
3. caravan ( French origin)
a four-wheeled covered
carriage used as mobile
home, by people on
holiday
4. Coach ( Hungarian origin)
a four-wheeled carriage,
pulled by four or more
horses carry passengers
and mail before railways
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
5. gig
a small light two-wheeled carriage, pulled by one horse
6. troika (Russian origin)
a four-wheeled carriage, pulled by three horses
With the appearance of the automobile, horsedrawn carriages fell into disuse in most parts of
the wirld. Other vehicles were introduced:
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
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

bus
car
Limousine
a large luxurious often
chauffeur-driven sedan
that usually has a glass
partition separating the
driver’s seat from the
passenger compartment



Moped
a lightweight lowpowered motorbike that
can be pedaled
Motorcycle
a 2-wheeled automotive
vehicle for one or two
people
SUV: sport-utility vehicle
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trailer
a vehicle designed to serve wherever parked as a
temporary dwelling or place of business
van
a multipurpose enclosed motor vehicle having a
boxlike shape, rear or side doors, and side panels
often with windows
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Since the appearance of the airplane, there has appeared a
list of names for this form of transport. For example:
air bus
a short-range or medium-range subsonic jet passenger
airplane
airplane
helicopter
jetliner: a jet-propelled airplane
spacecraft or spaceship
a vehicle manned or unmanned for travelling in space
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
Question:
What is the purpose for the three groups of
examples concerning vehicles during different
periods given above?
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology

Moreover, man’s thought is indispensable to
language just as language is inseparable from
society. Language is used to express man’s
thought. The process of thinking is closely
connected with language. That is to say, without
thinking there would be no human language.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
There are two main forms of language itself: the
spoken word (speech), and the written symbols.
 Language is first and foremost a spoken thing.
The written language is but a symbol of spoken
words.
Question:
How do you understand language is first and
foremost a spoken thing?

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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
Language serves society as a means of intercourse
between people. It is common to all people of
society, irrespective of the classes which they
belong to. Therefore there is no class character to
language itself, but the way in which a person
uses a language has an obvious class character.
Question:
How do you understand the above statement?

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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1-2-1 A Definition of Linguistics
Generally speaking, linguistics is the scientific
study of language. To be more exact, linguistics is
“the study of human speech including the units,
nature, structure, and modification of language.”
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1-2-2 The Scope of Linguistics
According to traditional classification, linguistics
consists of three branches:
1) phonetics
2) grammar
3) lexicology
In the past few decades, especially in the 1960’s, the
field of linguistics has expanded, and today includes:
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1) phonology (音位学）
2) syntax （句法学）
3) semantics （语义学）
4) phonetics
5) philology （语文学）
6) lexicology
7) stylistics
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
8) general linguistics （普通语言学）
9) descriptive linguistics （描写语言学）
10) contrastive linguistics （对比语言学）
11) comparative linguistics （比较语言学）
12) sociolinguistics （社会语言学）
13) psycholinguistics （心理语言学）
14) applied linguistics （应用语言学）
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
15) computational linguistics （计算语言学）
16) corpus linguistics （语料库语言学）
17) meta-linguistics （元语言学）（dealing with
the relation between language and other cultural
factors in a society)
18) and others
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1-3-1 What is Lexicology?
Comprehensively speaking, lexicology is the branch of
linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a
given language.
Lexicology deals with words, their origin, development,
history, structure, meaning and application.
In short, it is the study of the signification and
application of words.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1-3-2 Aims and Significance of the Course of
English Lexicology
 Vocabulary is one of the three elements of
language:
speech sounds, grammar and vocabulary.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology


The aim of the course in English lexicology is to
give a systematic description of the English
vocabulary.
Concretely speaking, English lexicology offers
students an insight into the origin and
development of the English vocabulary.
1) It deals with meanings of Modern English
words and their changes in the course of historical
development.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
2) It discusses the problems of word-structure and
word-formation in English, including the
formation of new words which have appeared
since the 1960s.
3) It also studies the use of English words, phrases
and idioms.
Chapter 1
Language, Linguistics and Lexicology

The significance of the course is to help the
learners to enlarge their vocabulary and improve
their ability to analyze and use English words.
For instance,
The study of new words, synonyms, figures of
speech, etc. will arouse the interest of the learners
on the one hand, and enhance their ability to
choose the correct and expressive words in
writing and speech on the other hand.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1-3-3 The Connection of Lexicology with Other
Branches of Linguistics
1. With phonetics
Phonetics is the study and systematic classification of the
sounds made in speech utterance（话语）, that is, the
study of speech sounds. It is closely related to lexicology.
Without sound there is no word because every word is
a unity of sound and meaning.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
2. With grammar
Vocabulary and grammar are organically related to
one another. In learning a language, attention to
grammar is as important as attention to vocabulary.
The vocabulary of a language assumes tremendous
importance when it comes under control of grammar,
which is concerned with the modification in form of
words and the combination of words into sentences.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
3. With stylistics
Stylistics is “the study of optional variations in
the sounds, forms, or vocabulary of a language as
characteristic of different uses of language,
different situations of use, or different literary
types.” Lexicology studies stylistic variants（文
体变体）on the basis of meanings of words and
changes: synonyms, antonyms, figures of speech,
etc.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
Stylistics is concerned with language variety
differing according to use rather than user. The
same user may use different varieties for different
purposes, different situations, in conversation
with different people, to produce different effects.
The same subject matter can be expressed in
different styles, for example:
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1. My beloved parent has joined the great
majority/has breathed his last. (literary)
2. My dear father has passed away. (euphemistic)
3. My father has died. (neutral)
4. My old man has kicked off/has gone west. (slang)
5. My dad has popped off. (colloquial)
The stylistic range is achieved by means of
different word choices.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology


Compare the following pairs of sentences and
judge whether each of the sentences belongs to
scientific or everyday English.
(1) The contents of the bank are discharged by a
pump.
(2) Discharge of the contents of the tank is
effected by a pump.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology

(1) If we know the forces on the gear we can
determine its size.
(2) Knowledge of the forces on the gear makes
possible the determination of its size.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
4. With historical linguistics
Historical linguistics studies words from the
viewpoint of diachrony（历时），whereas
lexicology studies words from viewpoint of both
synchrony（共时）and diachrony, but especially
of synchrony.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
1-3-4 Two Approaches to the Study of English
Lexicology
The term synchronic means describing a language
as it exists at one point of time.
A synchronic approach is an approach to the study
of a language at one period of time.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology
The term diachronic means concerned with
historical development of a language.
A diachronic approach is an approach to the study
of the change in a language that took place over a
period of time.
The following are examples that illustrate the
difference between the two approaches and their
interrelation.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology

Synchronically, words like January, February,
March, etc. are simply words, the names of the
first, second, third, etc. months of the year.
Diachronically, They are borrowed words from
Latin. Before the Christ the earliest Roman
calendar had 10 months. The first month we now
call the third month was name Martius, meaning
Mars in English. (For detail, see Section 1-3-4 in
the textbook)
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology


Synchronically, words like Sunday, Monday, etc. are
simple words. Diachronically, they existed as
compounds in Old English.
Synchronically, words like eventful, talkative, etc. are
considered to be derivatives. Diachronically, they
were hybrids（混合词）， namely, words made of
two parts, each from a different language. Event is a
Latin root, -ful is an old English suffix. Talk is an old
English root, -ative is a Latin suffix.
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology

Synchronically, the word fond means “like or
affectionate,” but diachronically, it meant
“foolish.” Similarly, the word comrade
originally meant “roommate,” but now it
means “fellow member of a political party.”
Also, the word pioneer means “a person who
is among the first to go into an area or
country to settle or work there,” but in old
times it meant “foot soldier.”
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Language, Linguistics and Lexicology

Nowadays language teachers as well as
English lexicology teachers play close
attention to the synchronic approach to the
study of the English vocabulary. They
describe what the English vocabulary is like,
rather than how it came to be that way.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-1-1 What is etymology（词源学）?
Etymology is a branch of linguistics concerned
with etymologies. In short, etymology is the study
of the origin and history of words and their
meanings.
Every word in English has its story, because
the etymology of a word is basically a description
of its history.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
2-1-2 The English People and English Language
The English people are of a mixed blood. The
early inhabitants of the island we now call
England were Britons(凯尔特人). From the
Britons the island got its name of Britain.
In 55.B.C. Britain was invaded by the Roman
conqueror Julius Caesar. The Roman occupation
lasted for about 4 hundred years.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
In 410 A.D. all the Roman troops returned to
the continent, thus ending the Roman occupation
of Britain.
At the beginning of the 5th century Britain was
invaded by three tribes from the Northern Europe:
the Angles, Saxons and Jutes(朱特人， 日耳曼
民族) These three tribes merged into one people.
And the three dialects they spoke naturally grew
into a single language, the English language.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
2-1-3 Position and Character of the English
Language in Indo-European Family
English is classified as a Teutonic(条顿)
language, that is, a Germanic language(日耳曼
语). To be more exact, English belongs to the
Low West Germanic branch of the Indo-European
family. That is to say, English belongs to the
group of language to which German, Dutch,
Danish, Swedish and Norwegian also belong.
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Sources of English Vocabulary

Character of English
It shares with West
Germanic languages
many common words
and similar
grammatical structures.

Character of English
More than half of the
English vocabulary is
derived from Latin and
French.
English has accepted
words from other
languages of the world.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
2-1-4 Divisions of The History of the English
Language
The history of the English language is divided into three
periods:
1.The Old English or Anglo-Saxon period(450-1150)
It is a period of full of inflections(屈折变化), since
during most of this period the case (格) endings of the
noun, the adjective, and the conjugation(动词变位) were
not weakened.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
2.The Middle English period(1150-1500)
During this period the inflections, which had
begun to break down towards the end of the Old
English period, became greatly reduced, and it is
known as the period of disappearing inflections.
3.The Modern English period(1500 to the present)
A large part of original inflectional system has
disappeared, and it is known as the period of lost
inflections.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
2-1-5 Some Characteristics of Old English
The English language of this period was formerly
often described as Anglo-Saxon, because it was
mostly Angles and Saxons who became the English
people, but now it is referred to as Old English.
Old English was rather different from Modern
English in pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
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The pronunciation of the Old English words differs
somewhat from that of the Modern English words.
(For detail, see Section 2-1-5)
The vocabulary of Old English consisted mainly of
Anglo-Saxon words.
Old English was a highly inflected language. It had
a complete system of declensions(名词、形容词、
代词的变格) with four cases and conjugations.
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Sources of English Vocabulary

There are two classes of languages in the world:
synthetic and analytic.
A synthetic language (综合语言) is one which
shows the relation of words in a sentence largely
by means of inflections.
Examples of inflection:
he him / child children
actor actress / have has had
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Sources of English Vocabulary
An analytic language (分析语言) is one which
indicates the relation of words in a sentence by
means of word order(词序), prepositions or
auxiliary verbs(助动词), rather than by inflections.
Question 1: Is Old English a synthetic language?
Question 2:
Modern English is an analytic language. Why?
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Sources of English Vocabulary
Answer 1: Old English is a synthetic language. Its
nouns and adjectives have four cases: nominative
case (主格), genitive case (possessive case),
dative case (与格) and accusative case (宾格). In
addition to four cases, every noun in Old English
is also marked for gender. There are three genders:
masculine (阳性), feminine (阴性) and neuter (中
性).
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Sources of English Vocabulary
Answer 2: Modern English is an analytic language.
In Modern English, a noun used as a subject and
object does not have different forms. There
remain today only two case forms: nominative
case and possessive case: man, man’s. Modern
English depends on word order to show the
relation of words in a sentence. Different word
order may result in different meaning.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
2-1-6 Some Characteristics of Middle English
The Conquest (1066) by the Norman French
indicated the end of the Old English period and
had a great effect on grammar and vocabulary.
In grammar English has changed from a highly
inflected language to an analytic language. In this
period many Old English words were lost, but
thousands of words were borrowed from French
and Latin appeared in the English vocabulary.
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Sources of English Vocabulary

French influence on the English vocabulary is
much more direct and observable.
Words borrowed from Old French:
beef (buef/boef)
pork (porc)
bacon (bacon)
beauty (beaute)
music (musique)
color or colour (colour)
paint (peintier)
administer (administrer)
govern (governer)
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Sources of English Vocabulary
The changes which affected the grammatical
structure of English in this period were obvious.
1.According to the strong declension the noun forms
were reduced from four forms to three forms
2.In the Middle English period grammatical gender
disappeared, grammatical gender was completely
replaced by the natural gender.

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Sources of English Vocabulary
2-1-7 Some Characteristics of Modern English
The Modern English period can be divided into
two parts:
1.The Early Modern English period (1500-1700)
The chief influence of this time was the great
humanistic movement of the Renaissance (文艺
复兴). In this period the study of Latin and Greek
classics was stressed, so the influence of Latin
and Greek on English was great.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
The following words came directly from Latin:
Conspicuous=visible, striking
Emancipate=declare free, give up
Expectation=anticipation
Exist=stand forth, appear, exist
External=outside
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Sources of English Vocabulary
The following words are of Greek origin, but
came in through Latin.
Chaos=complete disorder or confusion
Crisis
System=organized whole, body
Emphasis=significance, stress
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Sources of English Vocabulary
The following words are directly derived from
Greek:
Catastrophe=overturning, disaster
Lexicon=wordbook
Criterion=standard
Anonymous=without the name known
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Sources of English Vocabulary
2.The Late Modern English period (after 1700)
The 18th century in England was a time of
stabilizing and purifying the English language.
In the 18th century French greatly influenced
English.
The number of French words in the period
from 1650 to 1800 increased rapidly.
For example:
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Sources of English Vocabulary
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
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
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
Ballet=dance
Cartoon=pasteboard
Champagne=bubbly wine
Cohesion=unity
Dentist=doctor
Patrol=a night watch of soldiers
Publicity=make public
Routine=way, path, course
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Sources of English Vocabulary
The 19th and 20th centuries are a period of
rapid expansion for the English vocabulary in the
history of the English vocabulary.
1.Especially the great development of science and
technology is reflected in the English vocabulary.
2.The great changes in industry, in political and
social lives, in sports and amusements all have
contributed a great deal to the English vocabulary.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
3. Since the Second World War the English
vocabulary has been affected powerfully by social,
political, economic, especially scientific and
technical changes.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
2-1-8 Etymological Twins in English
In the course of the development of the
English vocabulary we may find that there are a
few pairs of words which came from the same
language source. At the beginning of the
formation of words they were similar not only in
form but also in meaning. As time went by their
senses became divergent, especially today.
According to the linguistic phenomenon we call
these pairs of words etymological twins or
etymological variants in English.
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Sources of English Vocabulary
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Human and humane (good, kind)
Urban and urbane (courteous, elegant)
german (having the same parents) and germane (relevant
and appropriate)
Forge (a furnace for melting) and fabric
Frail (physically weak, easily broken, morally weak) and
fragile (easily damaged, not strong and healthy)
Hospital and hostel or hotel
Aptitude and attitude
Guard and ward
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Sources of English Vocabulary
2-1-9 Some Combining Forms Used in Modern
English
A combining form is “ a linguistic form that
occurs only in compounds or derivatives and can
be distinguished from an affix
(1) by its ability to occur as one immediate
constituent (直接成分) of a form whose only
other immediate constituent is an affix ( as
cephal- in cephalic)
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Sources of English Vocabulary
(2) by its being derived from an independent
word (as electro- representing electric in
electromagnet or para- representing parachute in
paratrooper)
(3) or can be distinguished historically from
an affix by the fact that it is borrowed from
another language in which it is descriptively a
word or a combining form ( as French mal giving
English mal- in malodorous).
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Sources of English Vocabulary

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
-meter is a combining form, meaning ‘device of
measuring sth. by means of it to form a word
Barometer
(气压计)
Hydrometer (液体比重计)
Hygrometer (湿度计)
Pedometer
(计步器)
Speedometer (测速器)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
6) Calorimeter (热量计)
7) Gravimeter (重力计)
8) Ammeter
(安培计)
9) Voltmeter (电压计)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Radio- is combining form derived from the
Latin word radius.
Radiometer
(辐射计)
Radiotherapy (放射疗法)
Radioisotope (放射性同位素)
Radiology
(放射学)
Radiobroadcast
Radiojournalism (广播新闻)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Psycho- is a combining form, borrowed from
Greek, meaning ‘soul, mind’.
Psychoanalysis
Psychology
Psychosurgery (神经外科学)
Psychodrama （心理剧）
Psychotherapy（心理疗法）
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
Iso- is a combining form, meaning ‘equal, alike’.
It was borrowed from Greek iso-.
1) Isobar
(等压线)
2) Isometric (等距的)
3) Isomorph (同态律)
4) Isosceles (等边、等腰)

Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Hydro- is a combining form, derived from Greek
hydro.
1）Hydroelectric (水电)
2）Hydrology
(水文学)
3）Hydrometeor (水文气象学)
4）Hydrophone
(水下测声仪)
5）Hydroplane
(水上飞机)
6） hydrotherapy (水疗法)
7）Hydrocarbon (碳水化合物)
8） Hydrochloric (氯化氢)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

-Athon or –thon is a modern combing form
abstracted from the word marathon, meaning
‘ any prolong or extended activity, event, etc.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
walkathon
talkathon
telethon
bikeathon
singathon
workathon
discothon
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

-Logy is a combining form, borrowed through
French –logie or Latin –logia, and directly from
Greek.
1) biology
2) ecology
3) meteorology (气象学)
4) eulogy
(赞美)
5) tautology (同义反复)
6) anthology (文学、艺术集)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Hygro-, a combining form, was borrowed from
Greek hygro-, meaning ‘wet, moist, moisture’.
1) hygrograph (湿度计)
2) hygrology (湿度学)
3) hygrometer (湿度表)
4) hygroscopic (测湿器)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Hypno-, a combining form, was borrowed from
Greek hypno-, meaning ‘sleep’.
1) hypnosis
(催眠)
2) hypnotherapy (催眠疗法)
3) hypnotism (催眠术)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Micro- is a combining form used chiefly to form
scientific terms, borrowed from Greek , mikro-,
meaning ‘small’.
1) microdot
(微型相片)
2) microenterprise (小企业)
3) microprocessor (微型处理器)
4) microsatellite (基因的基本成分)
5) microstate
(袖珍国家)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Macro- is a combing form borrowed through
Middle French, Old English, Latin and Greek
macro, meaning ‘large, long’.
1) macrobiotics
(长寿食谱)
2) macroeconomics (宏观经济学)
3) macronutrient
(大量营养元素)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Magneto- is a combing form borrowed from Latin
magnes, meaning ‘loadstone, magnet’.
1) magneto
(磁电机)
2) magnetoelectric (电磁)
3) magnetograph (磁强计录仪)
4)magnetometer (磁强计)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Petro- is a combing form borrowed from Greek
petro-.
1) petrology
(岩石学)
2) petrochemical (石化)
3) petrodollar (石油货币)
4) petropower (石油强权)
5)petropolitics (石油政治)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-2-1 Words of Native Origin

The English vocabulary can be divided into two great
groups according to its origin: native words and borrowed
words.
Characteristics of native words:
1) the foundation and core of the English vocabulary;
2) monosyllabic words (单音节词) in structure;
3) expressing the fundamental concepts in meaning;
4) including most parts of speech (词性) in grammar.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
Three characteristics of native words
1) Polysemic character of native words in English
Native words are polysemic words, that is, they
have many meanings. For example:
power, multiply, bank, etc.

Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2) Collocability (搭配能力)of native words in English







An eye for an eye---a punishment which hurts the criminal in the
same way as he hurt someone else
Have an eye for---to have the ability to say
To do someone in the eye---to trick someone
To catch someone’s eye---to be noticed; to draw someone’s attention
to oneself
In the eye (s) of the law---according to the law
Mind your eye---Look out! Be careful!
To see eye to eye with---to agree completely
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary








A good/great hand
(行家)
With clean hands
(清清白白)
At first hand
(直接地，第一手)
Hand in hand
(手拉手)
To show one’s hand
(亮牌)
To play into sb’s hands (授人以柄)
In the hands of…
(受控于……)
A fresh/green hand
(新手)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
3) Word-forming ability of native words in
Modern English
Native words in Modern English can form
many derivatives and compounds.
 Derivatives : water → watery → waterless
seven → seventh →seventeen…
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Compounds :
waterfall
waterline waterfront (岸线)
waterproof water-ski waterlocks (环水)
waterhead waterman water-sick (受涝的)
waterside waterway waterskin (水袋)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
Compounds :
Question: What is the Chinese meaning for each
of the following compound?
1) loudspeaker
2) lookers-on
3) greybeard
4) mousemat
5) forgery ring

Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-2-2 Borrowed Words in the English Vocabulary
Latin, Greek and French are the three languages
that have contributed most to the English language.
Other foreign languages that have contributed
words are of far less importance.
1. Causes and means of borrowings into English
There are two causes of borrowings into English:
historical and social.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Historical cause
Historically, (1) English shares with West
Germanic languages many common words and
similar grammatical structures; (2) more than half
of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin.
Some of these borrowings have been direct, but a
great many came through French, some through
other Romance languages, such as Italian,
Spanish and Portuguese (the Latin family).
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
(3) The influence of foreign languages on the
English language has been the result of the
succession of invaders who came into contact
with the English people during the Middle Ages;
(4) Invasions and trade by the English themselves
have carried English to most parts of the world,
and at the same time brought many words from
foreign languages into English.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Social cause
Socially, as the world develops so does the
English language. Especially in the 20th century,
owing to the rapid development of the modern
mass media, the international and cultural
exchange and information, a great number of
borrowed words have come into English. They
have become a component of the English
vocabulary to satisfy needs of society.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary



Means of borrowings
They have come through conquest, commerce,
travel, literature, mass media, i.e. newspaper,
radio broadcast, television and many other ways.
Loan-words have come into English through:
spoken words
written words
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2.Four groups of loan-words:
1) Aliens (异化词)
2) Denizens (外来词)
3) Translation-loans (翻译外来词)
4) Semantic borrowings (语义外来词)
Foreign borrowings can be divided into four
groups according to their character:
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Aliens (异化词)
Aliens are words borrowed from a foreign
language without any change of the foreign
sound and spelling. They are usually considered
as foreign words. For example:
automobile
coup de main=sudden attack
elite
trou-de-loup=trap
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Denizens (外来词)
Denizens are words taken from a foreign
language with a transformation of the foreign
sound and spelling into native forms. They are
not foreign words, but have been naturalized into
native sound and spelling. For example:
egg get give skill skin sky take
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
Hybrids (混合词) are also denizens, because
they are words made up of two parts, each from a
different language. For example:
sociology: a French element socio + a Greek
element –logy
hydroplane: a Greek element hydro + a Latin
element plane
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Translation-loans (翻译外来词)
Sometimes English compounds are borrowed
from other languages, but their components are
translated into English. These are called loantranslations or translation-loans. The following
examples are words borrowed from French by
means of translation.
black humor (humour noir)
auteur theory (politique auteurs, 导演创作论)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Semantic borrowings (语义外来词)
Words which have acquired a new meaning
under the influence of other languages are called
semantic borrowings.
The Old English word gift meant ‘the price of
a wife,’ while the Scandinavian word gipt meant
‘gift, present.’ The word has acquired a new
meaning under the influence of the Scandinavian
language.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
In China, the word modernization is used in
the phrase ‘four modernizations.’(四化) .
One divides into two (一分为二)
Shock brigade
(突击队)
Shock worker
(突击队员)
Postliberation
(解放后)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
The word represent is used in the phrase
‘Three Represents’ (三个代表）(representing
the development trend of China’s advanced
productive forces; representing the orientation
of China’s advanced culture; and representing
the fundamental interests of the overwhelming
majority of the Chinese people).
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-3-1 The Foreign Elements in the English
Vocabulary
 1)The Scandinavian element;
 2)The French element;
 3)The Latin element;
 4)The Greek element;
 5)Other foreign elements.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-3-2 The Scandinavian Element in the English
Vocabulary
 Towards the close of the 8th century, the Danes
appeared in England, first as raiders, then as
conquerors and settlers. At that time the country
was divided, the northern half being ruled by the
Danes; the southern half by the Anglo-Saxons.
 The language spoken by the Danes was similar to
the language of England. For example:
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
Words like come, father, grass, house,
lend, man, mother, ride, see, summer, think,
town, tree, wife, will, winter and many others
were common to both languages. Though the
words were similar, the endings were
different.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

An interesting feature of the language is a number of
Danish forms existing side by side with the English forms
in the English vocabulary. For example:
English
blossom
drop
from
no
rear
shirt
sit
Danish
bloom
drip
fro
nay
raise
skirt
seat
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
It should be noted that most of the Scandinavian
borrowings belong to the colloquial language.
These words have become the common core of
the English vocabulary.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-3-3 The French Element in the English
Vocabulary
 1. 1066 Norman Conquest
 2.Bilingual country
 1)Norman-French
 2)Parisian French
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary



The Norman conquerors became masters of the
country for a long time left a deep influence upon
the English language
All the important places in the government, at the
courts and in the churches were filled by Frenchspeaking supporters of the conquerors
These conditions brought about by the Norman
Conquest opened the door for a great influx of
French words.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary


The upper classes of England spoke French and
the common people in England spoke English.
Therefore England became a bilingual country at
that time.
By the end of 13th century Parisian French began
to enter England, and more still in the 15th century.
Many French words appeared in the works of
Chaucer and other English writers, thus exerting
a great influence on the English language.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

1)
French loan-words in the Middle English period
Words connected with government:
administration
assembly
authority
government
council
court
parliament
empire
crown
majesty
realm
state
oppress
tyrant
reign
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2) Words connected with religions
clerk
clergy dean
devotion
faith
lesson saint
baptism
confess divine virgin theology
trinity passion prayer religion
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
3) words connected with law
arrest
blame
crime
condemn
proof
seize
jury
judgment
pledge justice
judge
evidence
equity plaintiff prison
defendant
attorney
sentence
punishment
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
4) words connected with army
arms
army
enemy
peace guard
spy
navy
battle
retreat
soldier combat sergeant
defense
captain
conqueror
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
5) words connected with fashion and food
bacon
beef
biscuit
boots
button cloak
collar
cream
dress
lemon
mutton
diamond
pork
sugar
coat
orange
gown
robe
dinner
embroidery
fur
garment
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
6) words connected with arts, literature
art
beauty color
figure
poet
image paper
learning
prose story
study
painting
title tone
chapter
preface
pen
tragedy
The loan-words from French are commonly used
and constitute an important part of the English
vocabulary.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

French loan-words after the Middle English
period
French loan-words continued to enrich the
English vocabulary after the Middle English
period, especially in the 18th, 19th and 20th
centuries.
The words are connected chiefly with arts,
food and drink, fashion and diplomacy.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
1) words connected with arts
baroque (巴洛克，17世纪建筑风格)
baton
(警棍)
matinee (日场)
nocturne (夜场)
repertoire (演出节目)
renaissance
resume
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2) words connected with food and drink
bonbon (棒棒糖)
café
chef
(大厨师)
menu
restaurant
saute=fry
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
3) Words connected with fashion, dress and
materials
beret (贝雷帽)
blouse (宽松的女短袖)
corsage (胸衣)
crochet (钩针织品)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
4) words connected with diplomatic terms
a charge d’affaires ad interim
(临时代办)
attache (大使、公使随员)
communism
entente (协议)
laisser faire (不干涉主义)
secretariat (秘书处)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
High Frequency Vocabulary 5000
Native French
Latin others
Top1000
83% 11%
2% 4%
Top2000 34% 46%
11% 9%
Top3000 29% 46%
14% 11%
Top4000 27% 45%
17% 11%
Top5000 27% 47%
17^ 9%

Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-3-4 The Latin Element in the English Vocabulary


Classical Elements: Latin & Greek
Five Latin Influences: five periods
1) zero : domestic life
2) first : Celtic (凯尔特人) transmission
3) second: 597 Christianity
4) third : Norman conquest
5) fourth : Renaissance
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

The zero period of Latin influence
The first Latin words to find their way into the English
language owe their adoption to the early contact between
the Romans and the Germanic tribes on the continent.
To this period the English vocabulary owes a number of
Latin words to domestic life. For example：
wine butter cheese spoon cup kettle
table dish mustard onion
costermonger(水果商) fishmonger(鱼贩子)
ironmonger(五金商人) warmonger(战争贩子)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

The first period of Latin influence
There was no opportunity for direct contact between
Latin and Old English in England, so many Latin words
came in through Celtic transmission (). The Celtic word
cester, for instance, which represents the Latin word
castra (camp), forms a familiar element in English placenames such as:
Chester, Dorchester, Glouchester, Lancaster, Manchester,
Winchester, Worchester.
mountain harbor village
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

The second period of Latin influence
The greatest influence of Latin upon Old English
was occasioned by the introduction of Christianity
into Britain in 597.
During the period from 597 to the end of the
Old English period (over 5 hundred years) Latin
words had been making their way gradually into
English language.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

The church’s influence:
altar
angel
candle
martyr
mass offer
nun
rule
temple discipline organ
hymn
pope priest
disciple minister (教长、牧
师)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

The third period of Latin influence
The influence of the Norman Conquest is
generally known as the third period of the Latin
influence. This period was especially prolific in
Latin borrowings.
A list of examples for direct borrowings from
Latin is given below:
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
abject allegory
gesture history
index
individual
legal
minor
nervous picture
prevent private
quiet
script
subdivide suppress
contempt
include
infinite
moderate
polite
project
scripture
testify
genius
incredible
interrupt
necessary
popular
promote
solitary
subordinate
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
The fourth period of Latin influence
The influence of the Renaissance on English was great
and far-reaching in this period. The Latin words that were
introduced at this time were often basic words—nouns,
adjectives, and verbs.
Noun: allurement allusion autograph emanation(闪光点)
quantum vacuum recipe
tractor
Adjective: appropriate expensive external insane

Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
Verb: adopt consolidate disregard emancipate
exert exist
extinguish
Latin abbreviations:
a.m. (ante meridiem)=before noon
cf. (confer)=compare
e.g. (exempli gratia)=for example
etc. (et cetera)=and so on
i.e. (id est)=that is to say
p.m. (post meridiem)=afternoon
pct. (per centum)=per cent
viz. (videlicet)=that is to say, in other words
v.v. (vice versa)=the other way round
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-3-5 The Greek Element in the English
Vocabulary
 Time: Renaissance
 Medium: Latin , French
 Words relating to literature , linguistics, natural
science , social sciences , medicine
 Many English words are based on Greek roots in
Modern English.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
The influx of Greek words into English began
at the time of the Renaissance. Many Greek
borrowings came in chiefly through the medium
of Latin or French.
1) words relating to literature
antithesis comedy drama rhetoric
thesis
tragedy
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2) words relating to linguistics
diachrony grammar lexicon lexicology
synchrony syntax
lexis
morphology
phonology semantics
3) words relating to natural sciences
biology
dynamics electric mathematics
mechanics physics
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
4) words relating to social sciences
basis
ethics
theory
category economics philosophy
5) words relating to medicine
enteritis (肠炎)
gastrectomy (胃切除)
hepatitis (肝炎) osteitis
(骨炎)
hypertension (高血压)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

There are many English words based on Greek
roots in Modern English.
bio (life)—biochemistry, biology
gam (marriage)—bigamy, monogamy, polygamy
gen (to produce)—genesis, genius genuine
anthrop (human)—anthropology
auto (self)—autocrat, automobile, autograph
geo (earth)—geography, geology, geometry
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
tele (at a distance)—telelecture(电话讲课),
telenewspaper(传真报纸), telesat(远程通讯卫星),
teleset(电视接收机), telescope
phone (voice)—phone-in(电话抗议),
phonerecord(唱片)
photo (light)—photobiologist, photochemical,
photobotany
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-3-6 The Influence of the Classical Elements
upon the English Vocabulary
 Main source of scientific and technical vocabulary

Influence:
1)The preciseness of meaning
2)The richness
3)The cosmopolitan character
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary


The influence of the classical elements upon
English, especially upon Modern English is very
great. Many scientific and technical words in the
English vocabulary come from the Latin and
Greek elements, which are the main source of
scientific vocabulary in English.
The characteristics of the classical elements are
as follows:
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

The preciseness of meaning
Scientific description emphasizes preciseness of meaning of
words. The Latin and Greek elements embody this
advantage. E.g.
1)
Futurology meteorology radiobiology
2)
Astronomy economy radiothermy (热放电疗法)
3) Astrophysics (天文物理学) astronautics (宇宙航行学)
radioacoustics(无线电声学) linguistics stylistics
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

The richness of the classical elements in the
English vocabulary
The root vit comes from a Latin noun, meaning ‘life’
and a Latin verb viv meaning to ‘live.’
verb: revive
adjective: vital vivacious=lively
vivid viviparous (胎生的)
noun: vitamin
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

The cosmopolitan/universal character
The vast majority of scientific and technical words
in English have the same meaning and spelling as
words in other languages of the Indo-European
family. We call these words cosmopolitan ones
because the total number of speakers of all IndoEuropean languages amounts to approximately
half of the population of the world.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

English
atom
method
micron
neuron
proton
radio
French
atome
methode
micron
neutron
protone
radio
German
Atom
Methode
Mikron (微米)
Neutron (中子)
Pronton (质子)
Radio
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-3-7 Other Foreign Elements in the English
Vocabulary
English has borrowed words from more than
fifty languages in the course of its historical
development.
1.Words borrowed from Italian
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary



(1)words concerning architecture:
balcony (阳台)
cameo (浮雕)
corridor (走廊)
cupola (圆顶)
(2)commonly-used words:
carat (克拉) charlatan (庸医) gala (节日)
(3)military terms:
baston (座盘) brigade (队)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary






2. Spanish and Portuguese:
(1)plants: apricot banana maize potato
yam (甘薯)
(2)boats: armada (舰队) canoe (独木舟)
(3)persons: desperado (暴徒) Negro
muchacha (姑娘)
(4)articles: hammock (吊床)
(5)insects: mosquito (蚊子)
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-3-8 The Interrelation between the Native and
Foreign Elements in the English Vocabulary
 Loan-words---70%
 Native words---30%, which form the basic stock
of Modern English vocabulary and are used in
everyday speech and writing more frequently than
borrowed words.
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary

Latin or Greek roots, prefixes or suffixes have
changed the structures of English words.
A number of hybrids are typical examples:
Latin root duc-/duct- (‘to lead’): conduct deduce
induce introduce produce reduce seduce
traduce (诽谤)
Greek prefixes anti- (‘against): antiaircraft
antihero antiparticle antipollution antismog
Chapter 2
Sources of English Vocabulary
2-3-9 The linguistic and Historical Origins of
Some Common English Words
 Every word in English has its story. In this section
some common English words are selected to
describe their origins and developments in the
history of the English language.
this section is for self-study.
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-1-1 Some general remarks on semantics and
meaning
Question 1 :
What is semantics?
Question 2 :
What is to be understood by
meaning?
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Answer 1: Semantics is a major branch of linguistics
devoted to the study of meaning.
Semantics can be divided into :
1) historical semantics;
2) structural semantics
(结构语义 学);
3) behavioral semantics.
(行为语义学)
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Question 2:
Meaning can be defined as a reciprocal
relation between name and sense.
 Semantics refers not only to word meaning but
also to sentence meaning.
 Many linguists have been primarily concerned
with sentence meaning and its relation to word
meaning.

According to Palmer, a semantic theory must
explain such sentences as:
1) His typewriter has bad intentions. (anomaly)
2) My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
(Contradiction)
3) John was looking for the glasses. (ambiguity)
4) (a) The needle is too short. (synonymy)
(b) The needle is not long enough.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
5) (a) Many of the students were unable to answer your
question.
(b) Only a few students grasped your question.
In (5) the meaning of one sentence follows from the
other.
6) (a) How long did Archibald remain in Monte Carlo?
(b) Archibald remained in Monte Carlo for some time.
In (6) the first sentence implies the second one.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-1-2 The Relationship Between Meaning and the
Object
 The sign theory (符号理论) of de Saussure
Linguistic sign consists of a signifier (能指)
and a signified (所指), that is, a sound image (声
音形象) and a concept.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations


The semiotic triangle (语义三角)
According to Ogden and Richards, the symbol
is the linguistic element, that is, the word,
sentence, etc. and the referent (指称对象) is the
object, etc. in the world of experience, while
thought or reference is concept.
The sign theory and the semiotic triangle (the
traditional semantics) are useful to help us
understand meaning and semantic relations.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
thought or Reference (Concept) “母牛”
Symbol
Referent (Object)
(Word, sentence)
实物 (母牛)
“cow”
As mentioned above, whenever we have a word, there
will be a concept, from which the meaning of a word is
derived.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-2-1 What is a word?
According to contemporary linguistic theory:
A word is a minimum free form, that is to
say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation.
The smallest significant unit of speech is not
the word, but the morpheme (词素).
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Two types of linguistic forms:
A bound form is one which cannot occur on
its own as a separate word, e.g. The
various affixes: de-, -tion, -ize, etc.
A free form is one which can occur as a
separate word.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Every word has a fixed sound form and a
certain meaning. In other words, a word has
two aspects: the external aspect , that is sound ,
the internal aspect , that is , meaning.
the external aspect = sound
the internal aspect = meaning
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

The relation between the meaning of a word and
its sound is arbitrary (任意的) or conventional
(约定俗成).
The majority of the words in the vocabulary of
any language are conventional symbols (约定俗
成的符号). It is not possible to explain why this
or that word has this or that sound, or why this or
that word has this or that meaning.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-2-2 Meaning and motivation (理据)
Question: What is motivation?
Answer : Motivation is the relationship between
the structure of a word and its meaning.
Three motivations of word-structure in terms of
meaning: 1) phonetic motivation (语音理据); 2)
grammatical motivation (语法理据); 3) semantic
motivation or motivation by meaning (语义理据).
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
1) Phonetic motivation
The formation or use of words that
were coined in imitation of the sounds
associated with the things named are called
echo-words (仿声词).
cuckoo - a bird whose call is like its name
coo – the low soft cry of a dove
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
mew – the sound made by a cat
ding-dong – the sound of two bells striking
alternately
more examples:
roar of a lion
cluck of a hen
hiss of a snake
croak of a frog
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
2) Grammatical motivation
Words which were formed by means of
grammatical structure belong to the category
of motivation by grammar.
(1) derivation
mother + land =motherland
teach + er (suffix) = teacher
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(2) compound
shuttle diplomacy
motherland
return ticket
shoemaker
mobile home
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3) Motivation by meaning/Semantic motivation
Words which may be explained by the
motivation of meaning belong to the category of
semantic motivation. For example:
bottleneck
the brow of a hill
a rain of bullets
the teeth of a saw
a sea of troubles
blooming health
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
“bottleneck” , the original meaning is the neck
of a bottle . Later we use the word to express
a narrow strip of road . Now the word also
had another sense , that is , that part of a
manufacturing process , where production is
slowed down . Here the figurative sense of the
word “bottleneck” is an obstruction in the
case of traffic or production which resembles
the obstruction of the neck of a bottle.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-3-1 Classifications of Word
1. According to the lexical meaning and
grammatical function of word:
There are two kinds of words classified
according to their lexical meaning and
grammatical function: full words (实词) and
form-words (虚词).
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations


Nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals, adverbs---- full words or notional words (概念词)，
which function as independent members in
sentences.
Articles, prepositions, conjunctions,
pronouns, pronominal adverbs----form-words
or functional words (功能词), which have no
independent meaning proper, which are
‘synsemantic’(辅助意义).
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
2. According to the usage of words:
There are two great classes of words classified
according to their usage：popular words (通俗词)
and learned words (学术词).
(1) Popular words are words usually used in
ordinary conversation. They are concerned with
common things of life, and are a part of everyday
vocabulary. So it is obvious that popular words
belong to the people as a whole.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(2) Learned words are words comparatively
seldom used in ordinary conversation but are used
in books. The meanings of learned words are
known to every educated person, but there is little
opportunity to use them at home. That is to say,
learned words come from books we read, not
from people’s lips.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations


The difference between popular and learned
words may be easily seen in a few example:
A lively girl/ a vivacious girl
In English it will usually be found that most
learned are words of foreign origin derived from
French or Latin. Some of them came from Greek.
However, it should be mentioned here that
some popular words are also of foreign origin.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
From French: army arrest city engine
hour map
move manner
river pen
table mountain
soldier second
village
From Latin: act
animal anxious congress
equal various dentist describe
medicine graduate suggest
From Greek: crisis
dialogue biography photograph
chemist telegraph zoology
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

So the true distinction between a learned word
and a popular word depends not upon etymology,
but upon usage, that is, current use, although the
sources of words are an important factor in
distinguishing a learned word or a popular one.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3. According to the character of words:
Words can be divided into two kinds according
to their character: abstract words and concrete
words.
(1)Abstract words are those which refer to
states, events, feelings, etc.. For example:
difficulty, meeting, talk, thought, work, etc.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(2) concrete words are those which are
concerned with objects, things, etc.
beer, car, milk, oil
4. according to motivation:
Words can be divided into transparent (显性)
or motivated words and opaque (隐性) or nonmotivated words according to motivation.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
How the majority of words were formed cannot
be explained. These words are called opaque
words, such as axe, book, table, work, etc.
 Only a minority of words can be explained. They
are transparent words whose meaning is
determined from the meaning of their components.
Many echo-words and compound words are
transparent ones. For example:
Cuckoo, ping-pong, motherland, blackbird, etc.

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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
5. According to polysemy and monosemy:
Words can be divided into polysemic and
monosemic words according to polysemy and
monosemy.
A polysemic word has a range of differering
meanings while a monosemic word consists of a
single meaning.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
6.According to the origin:
Words can be divided into native words and
loan-words according to their origin.
Native words are Anglo-Saxon words still
retained in Modern English, whereas loan-words
are words taken from different foreign languages.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-3-2 Main Types of Word Meaning
1. Grammatical meaning:
Grammatical meaning is the component of
meaning identical in individual forms of
different words.
1) Tense meaning: worked studied thought
2) Case meaning: boy’s word’s
3) Plural meaning: girl-girls child-children
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
2. Lexical meaning (词汇意义):
Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated
word in a dictionary. This component of meaning
is identical in all the forms of the word.
The word-forms ‘go, goes, went, gone, going’
possesses different grammatical meanings of
tenses, persons and so on. In each of these forms
we find the same lexical meaning—the process of
movement.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3. Contextual meaning (语境意义):
The context generally shows in what sense the
word is used, in its primary sense or its figurative
sense.
When used literally, words have their original
meaning; when used figuratively, words have
symbolic meaning (象征意义).
The meaning of the word is defined by the context.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
The word country, for instance, may mean:
Some of the country are warmer than others.
After many years abroad he wanted to return to
his country.
The country is opposed to war.
What does a farming country mean?
We’re hoping to go for a day in the country if
the weather’s fine tomorrow.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
4.Denotative meaning (外延意义):
Denotative meaning is the same meaning for all
speakers of a given language. That is to say, it is
the extensional meaning of a word.
book, water, chemical, etc.
So denotative meaning is called the dictionary
meaning.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
5. Connotative meaning (内涵意义):
Connotative meaning is the intensional meaning
which a word suggests or implies. It includes the
stylistic reference and the emotive charge proper
to the word (full of emotion). For example:
1) home—a place of warmth, comfort and affection;
2) Mother—love, care and tenderness.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
6. Stylistic meaning (文体意义):
Stylistic meaning is “that which a piece of
language conveys about the social circumstances
of its use.”
Three kinds of words (common words, formal
words and informal words) are used on different
occasions.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(1) Common words (普通词)
Words used on any occasion are called common
words. These words stylistically express a neutral
meaning.
Common words are the core of the English
vocabulary and can be used on both formal and
informal occasions.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(2) Formal words:
Learned words are formal words. These words
are usually used in books, newspapers, documents
and serious speeches. Many of these words are
derived from Latin or Greek.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(3)Informal words:
A）Colloquialisms are used in ordinary, familiar, or
informal conversation. For example:
Brolly=umbrella nippy=nimble
Tell off=to scold do for=to keep house
Run in=to catch make up with to kill
bike=bicycle
phone=telephone
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
B) Slang is a kind of language that is not acceptable in
serious speech or writing. It is regarded as informal or
impolite and is used among particular groups of people.
For example:
bread (AmE)=money dough (AmE)=money
lolly (BrE)=money buck=an American dollar
chichen feed=a small unimportant amount of money)
Peanut (AmE)=a sum of money so small that it is not
worth considering
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
C) Vulgarisms (粗俗语) are words not usually used by
educated person. For example:
It’s a bloody shame. (bloody=showing a strong feeling);
gent=a vulgar abbreviation of gentleman
D) Jargon (术语) is a kind of language that is hard to
understand because it is full of special words known only
to the people of a certain group.
TESL; TOEFL
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
E) Argot (暗语) is a kind of speech spoken and
understood by a small class of people, especial
thieves.
can-opener=all-purpose or universal key;
dip=pickpocket
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-3-3 Word Meaning and Context (语境)
Word meaning depends on context.
Different contexts give words different
meanings.
Two types of context: linguistic context and
nonlinguistic context.
Question: How do you understand each context
mentioned above?
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Answer: 1) Linguistic context refers to lexical
and grammatical context. That is to say, the
context determines which meaning out of all
the possible meanings, including lexical and
grammatical meaning, is attached to the word.
2) nonlinguistic context refers to context of
situation, culture and style.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

Context of situation
This term , formulated by Firth, a famous
linguist, refers to “the whole set of external
world features considered to be relevant in the
analysis of an utterance (话语) at different
levels.”
In other words, context of situation refers to
stating the meanings of a word in terms of the
speech situation in which the word is used.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
For instance, there is a phatica communion
(寒暄语) in English which is used to establish
common thought and feeling. In this phatic
communion the words do not express meaning
but a purely social action because of the speech
situation.
“How are you?” “How do you do?” “Good
morning!” are typical examples.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-4-1 synonyms
Synonyms are traditionally defined as words
different in sound and spelling but identical or
similar in meaning.
In fact, there are no two words in English that
are interchangeable in all contexts. For example:
head=leader, ruler, headmaster
head=ability or talent (He has a good head for
mathematics)
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

It is obvious that words are synonymous or
similar in meaning only in a certain sense, not in
all their meanings. Therefore, the term synonym
can be defined as follows:
The term synonym is used in semantics to refer
to a major type of sense-relation between lexical
items (词项). The lexical items which have the
same meanings are synonyms.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

The source of synonyms
English is rich in synonyms, this is because the
English language has grown over many centuries
by incorporating words from other languages.
Three sources of synonyms in English:
1) Words borrowed from Latin, Greek and
Scandinavian before the Norman Conquest in
1066;
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
2) Words enriched by the addition of French
words after the Norman Conquest;
3) Nowadays British English exists side by side
with American English.
There are countless paired synonyms where a
native word is opposed to one borrowed from
Latin, Greek or French. These words are called
doublets (成对同义词).
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
English
answer
brotherly
buy
heavenly
help
inner
sharp
bodily
Latin
reply
fraternal
purchase
celestial
aid
internal
acute
corporate
heartily
house
cordial
mansion
English
deed
might
dale
foe
meed
violin
Latin
action
power
valley
enemy
reward
fiddle
formal or informal?
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

Another type of synonyms (triplets)
English
French
Latin or Greek
ask
question
interrogate
end
finish
conclude
fire
flame
conflagration
fear
terror
trepidation
goodness
virtue
probity
holy
sacred
consecrated
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

Another type of synonyms (triplets)
English
French
Latin or Greek
rise
mount
ascend
time
age
epoch
kingly
royal
regal
belly
stomach
abdomen
fast
firm
secure
wise
sage
sapient
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

1)
2)
3)
The characteristics of the words of the above
three columns:
The native word is the simplest and most
ordinary of the three terms;
The Latin or Greek word is learned;
The French word stands between the native
word and the Latin or Greek word.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
British
American
Call box
telephone tooth
Coach
bus
Chemist druggist
Lift
elevator
Garage
service station
Petro
gasoline
Railway railroad
British
Pavement
Servant
Car park
Tube
American
sidewalk
help
parking lot
subway
Hire purchase installment plan
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

Absolute synonyms and relative synonyms
Absolute synonyms are words which are fully
identical in meaning. There are a few absolute
synonyms in English. These synonyms may be
found in scientific terms. For example:
scarlet fever=scarlatina (腥血热)
caecitis =typhlitis (盲肠炎)
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

In ordinary English few words are absolute
synonyms.
fatherland=motherland=mother country
mother tongue=native language
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
English has many relative synonyms, which differ
from absolute synonyms in the following respects:
1) In the shade of meaning (意义的细微差别)
(1) escape
flee(在紧急情况下)
(2) amaze (难以相信) astound (程度高)
(3) anger—rage—fury
(4) decline—refuse—reject

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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
2) In stylistic meaning (文体意义)
(1) man (neutral)
chap (colloquial)
fellow (colloquial)
bird (colloquial)
guy (slang)
bozo (slang)
gent (vulgar)
(2) die (neutral)
pass away (euphemistic)
kick the bucket (slang)
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3) In emotive meaning (情感意义)
(1) negro (a neutral word in a somewhat derogatory sense)
nigger (a derogatory term used in an impolite way)
black (a commendatory term often used in a good sense)
(2) small—little
(3) intellectual—egghead (derogatory, 知识分子)
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
4) In range of use (使用范围)
The words about and on meaning ‘with regard to’ or
‘concerning’ are relative synonyms. On is used to suggest
that a book, article, lecture, etc. is serious or academic,
suitable for specialists. About is used when information is
given more general. For example:
A textbook on Indian history
A book for children about Indian and its people
A lecture on classical physics
A conversation about study skills
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
5) In collocation (搭配)
(1) Rancid (not fresh) bacon or butter
addled (not fresh) eggs or brains
(2) A flock of sheep
A herd of cows
A school of whales
A pride of lions
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
6) In British and American usages
British English
American English
autumn
fall
ill/sick (形容词） sick
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-4-2 antonyms
Antonyms are traditionally described as words opposite
in meaning.
A new definition of antonyms:
Antonyms are really synonyms—of a special kind. The
basic property of the two words which are antonyms is
that they share all semantic properties but one. The
property they do not share is present in one word and
absent in the other. Thus, in order to be opposite, two
words must be semantically very similar.
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
The two words in each antonymic pair differ in
only one aspect. They have a lot of semantic
properties in common. For example:
long—short (length)
young—old (age)
big—small (size)
high—low (height)
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Types of antonyms
There are two types of antonyms according to
morphology and semantics:
1.Morphological classification (形态分类):
1) Root antonyms (词根反义词)
clear—vague large—small up—down
love—hate
deep—shallow

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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
2) derivative antonyms (派生反义词)
pleasant—unpleasant happy—unhappy
polite—impolite
loyal—disloyal
formal—informal
harmful—harmless
legitimate—illegitimate honest—dishonest
prewar—postwar
useful--useless
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
2. Semantic classification (语义分类)
1）contraries (相对反义词)
big—little happy—sad wide—narrow
old—young rich—poor
heavy—light
The first feature of contraries is that the semantic
polarity is relative; the other feature is gradualness. That is
to say, we can put words in different degrees between
contraries. For example:
Beautiful—pretty—good-looking—plain—ugly
Love—attachment—liking—indifference—antipathy--hate
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
2) complementaries (互补反义词)
Complementaries denote that the denial of one
of the items means the assertion of the other or
vice versa. We can say that if John is not married,
he is single. If John is not single, he is married.
male—female dead—alive
present—absent
boy—girl
brother—sister perfect--imperfect
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3) conversives (换位反义词)
Conversives denotes not only the oppositeness of
meaning, but also an interdependence of meaning. This
kind of antonyms is always found in words concerning
social and spatial relationships. Examples are:
If A sells a watch to B, B buys a watch from A.
verb: Lend—borrow rent—let
give—receive
Noun: Husband—wife parent—child teacher—student
preposition: Above—below in front of--behind
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

Different antonyms of one word
Words which have several meanings have
different antonyms. For example:
Fresh bread—stale bread
Fresh air—foul air
Fresh flower—faded flower
Fresh meant—frozen meant
Fresh newspaper—stale newspaper
Fresh water—salt water
Fresh color—faded color
Fresh hand—old hand
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
1) gross (粗大的)—petty (细小的)
gross (粗劣的)—delicate (优美的)
2) backward—forward
backward—advanced
3) an old man—a young man
an old house—a modern/new house
4) a thin slice—a thin slice
a thin man—a fat man
5) a tall building—a low building
a tall man—a short man
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Use of antonyms
More haste, less speed.
To save time is to lengthen life.
Every tide hath (has) its ebb.
Adversity leads to prosperity.
The world is a ladder for some to go up and for
other to go down.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
6) The wise man knows he knows nothing, the fool
thinks he knows all.
7) Speech is silver, silence is gold.
8) Few words, many deeds.
9) He that is full of himself, is very empty.
10)East or west, home is best.
11)Like father, like son.
12)An old physician, and a young lawyer.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
13) “It was the best times, it was the worst times, it
was the age of wisdom, it was the age of
foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the
epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it
was the season of darkness, it was the spring of
hope, it was the winter of despair, we had
everything before us, we had nothing before us…”
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-4-3 Polysemy and Homonymy (同音/形异义)
Polysemy is “ a term used in semantic analysis
to refer to a lexical item which has a range of
different meanings.” That is to say, the same
word may have a set of different meanings.
Polysemy gives rise to a great number of
polysemic words which are products of senseshift in the course of the development of the
vocabulary.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

Two main processes of sense-shift (意义变化)
1. Radiation (词义的辐射) :
Radiation is a term used to refer to a process of senseshift in which the original meaning of a word is to be
considered as the central meaning and the other
meanings are derived from it.
The primary meaning of the word hand (a part
of the human body beyond the wrist) is used as a
central meaning. Other meanings are derived from
it in every direction like rays.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
1) Part of the human body beyond the wrist:
I had it in my right hand.
2) keeping, possession:
The property is no longer in my hands.
3) Influence or agency:
The hand of an enemy has been at work here.
4) Person or source from which something comes:
She heard the news at first hand.
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Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
5) skill:
She has a light hand at Chinese food.
6) Person who does (what is indicated in the context):
He is a new hand.
7) employee:
The factory has taken on 200 extra hands.
8) turn, share in an activity:
Let me have a hand now.
9) A thing like a hand, pointer on a watch, clock:
the hour/minute/second hand
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
10) Side or direct:
on every hand or on all hands=in all directions
11) handwritings:
He writes a good hand.
12) signature:
He set his hand to a document.
13) (card games) cards dealt to a player:
You have a good hand.
14) (colloq) applause
Give a performer a big hand.
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
2. Concatenation (词义的连锁联结):
Concatenation is a term used to refer to another process
of sense-shift in which the original meaning of a word
may be lost on other meanings, that is to say, other
meanings of a word produced are not connected with the
primary sense.
The word fond once meant ‘foolish’ in Old English. It
was then specialized to ‘foolish or doting affection’ (溺爱),
but now it means ‘loving in a kind, gentle or tender way.
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

The definition of homonymy and homonyms:
Homonymy is a term used to refer to two or
more words which have the same form, but differ
in meaning.
Concretely speaking, homonyms are words
different in meaning, but either identical both in
sound and spelling or identical only in spelling
or sound.
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

The classification of homonyms:

Two main kinds of homonyms:
Perfect homonyms:
1.
Perfect homonyms are words identical in sound and spelling or
both in sound-form and parts of speech, but different in meaning.
(1) Words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning.
angle—the space between two lines or surfaces that meet
or cross each other.
angle—to fish with a hook and line
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Base—low, dishonest
Base—the bottom of something
last—following all the rest
last—to go on, to continue
last—a piece of wood or metal shaped like a human
foot, used by shoemakers and shoe repairers
Light—the natural force that is produced from
objects and other things, so that we see
Light—of little weight
Light—to come down from flight and settle
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Pop—modern popular music
Pop—to make a short, sharp explosive sound
Pop—father (American slang)
Sound—in good condition
Sound—what is or may be heard
Sound—to measure the depth of
Sound—a fairly broad stretch of sea water
mostly surrounded by coast
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(2) Words identical in both sound-form and parts of speech,
but different in meaning:
Ball—a round object used in play
Ball—a large formal occasion for social dancing
Date—the number of the day, the month, and the year
Date—a small brown sweet fruit with a long stone
Yard—an enclosed area next to a building
Yard—a measure of length that is a little less than a meter
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Bank—a place in which money is kept or paid out on
demand
Bank—land along the side of a river, lake, etc
Bank—a row, especially of oars in an ancient boat or
keys on a typewriter
Pile—a tidy heap
Pile—a heavy wooden, metal, or stone-like post
Pile—the soft surface of short threads on some cloths
and floor coverings
Pile—a single hemorrhoid
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
2. Partial homonyms:
Partial homonyms are words different in meaning, but
identical in spelling or sound.
(1)
Homographs (同形异义)—words identical in spelling but different
in sound and meaning.
Close —near
Close—to shut
Sow—to plant or scatter seeds
Sow—a fully grown female pig
Lead—to show someone the way
Lead—a soft heavy easily melted metal
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Shower—one who shows
Shower—a fall of rain of short duration
Wind—strong moving air
Wind—to turn round and round
Entrance—a gate, door or other openings
by which one enters
Entrance—to fill someone with great wonder
and delight
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(2) Homophones (同音异义)—words identical in sound but different in
spelling and meaning.
Son—a male child
Sun—a burning star which it receives light and heat
Eye—the organ of sight
I—used by speaker to refer to himself
Dear—much loved
Deer—any of several types of rather large fast four-footed animal
Flower—the part of a plant, often beautiful and colored
Flour—powder made from grains especially wheat
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(3) Homoforms (同形词)—words quite different in meaning
but identical in some of their grammatical forms.
Found—the past tense and the past participle
Found—to establish
Provided—the past tense and the past participle
Provided—if and only if, on condition that
Concerning—the present participle
Concerning—about, with regard to
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations

(1)
Three ways of forming homonyms:
Converging sound-development (音变的汇合)
Converging sound-development is commonest
cause of the formation of homonyms. These
homonyms came from different origins in the
early part of the development of the language.
They sounded different. Then they became words
identical in sound but different in meaning.
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Race—a competition in speed (from Old Norse)
Race—one of the member of divisions of human
beings (from Italian)
Race—root (of ginger) (from Old French)
Meat—animal flesh as food (from Old English)
Meet—to come together with (Old English)
Heal/heel/
steal/steel
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(2) Diverging sense-development (词义变化分化)：
If two or more meanings of the same word
drift apart in the course of the development of
the English vocabulary, we may say that one word
has split into two, that is, homonymy happens
because there is no connection between them.
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
Historically, the word pupil (a person, especially
a child who is being taught) and the pupil of the
eye are from the same origin. In the language of
today they are unrelated in meaning, that is,
homonyms.
So are the sole of a shoe (the bottom of a shoe)
and the fish sole (the name of a fish).
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(3) foreign influence:
Foreign influence is a special form of converging sounddevelopment.
Mail—the postal system directed and worked by
the government (from Od French ‘male’
Male—of the sex that does not give birth to young
(from Old Frencg ‘ma(s)le’
Straight—in a straight line (from Middle English ‘stregt’
Strait—narrow (from Old French ‘estreit’
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
(4) Shortening of words (词义的缩略)：
Homonyms may also be created by the wordformation process of clipping (shortening). This
source is of secondary importance in formal writing
but has widespread influence in everyday speech.
E.g.
Pop—popular
Rock—rock’n’rooll
Disc—discoteque
Pop—to thrust or push
Rock—stone
Disc—round plate
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-4-4 Hyponymy
Hyponymy is the relationship of inclusion.
Inclusion is a matter of class membership.
Hyponymy includes the upper term (上义词)
and the lower term (下义词) . The upper term is
called the super-ordinate while the lower term is
called the hyponym.
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
1) Superordinate—animal
Hyponyms—dog, cat,…
2) superordinate—tool
Hyponyms—hammer, axe, saw, screw,…
3) Superordinate—sheep
Hyponyms—ewe, lamb
Chapter 3
Word Meaning and Semantic Relations
3-4-5 a list of Synonyms and Antonyms
This section is for self-study.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
4-1-1 The Constant Change in Language and the
Continuous Appearance of Neologisms
All living languages in the world are
constantly changing. The changes can be seen
in the vocabulary, that is, in neologisms. Now
neologisms are commonly called new words.
Changes in pronunciation and grammar are
much slower than changes in vocabulary.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary

In the English vocabulary there are three
types of words according to their appearance
and disappearance:
Old words die out, new words are born,
and existing words add new sense.
Completely new words coinages are few,
existing words adding new meanings are
many.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
4-1-2 The Definition of Neologisms or New
Words
1) A new word is novel arrangement of letters with s
meaning not quit duplicated by any other
arrangement of letters. This is the ideal form of a
new word. (The Oxford Essential Dictionary of
New Words)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
2) A new word should have been in consistent use
for at least ten years before being entered into
our dictionary, though the rapid adoption of some
words (especially in technology and medicine)
has led us to speed up the process in some cases.
(Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
When we define neologisms or new words, two aspects
should be considered:
A. What new words are.
B. When they appear and enter into the dictionary.
The criterion of time concerning the birth and use of
new words is important. Within the given period of time
the newly coined words and words adding new meanings
are called new words. Beyond the period they will become
existing words, not new words.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
From the above-mentioned aspects the definition
of new words may be described as follows:
Neologisms are newly coined words (also
called vogue-words) or words that are given
new meanings to fit new situations and new
needs because of the social, economic, political,
cultural, especially scientific and technical
changes in the given period in human society.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
4-1-3 The Rate of Changes of the English Vocabulary
The English vocabulary changes with the development
of society (a fundamental linguistic law)
The rate of vocabulary changes varies from age to age .
In the 14 century: an influx of French words into English;
In the 16 century :large numbers of words from Latin;
In the 19 century :a great expansion of the vocabulary
(science and technology) ;
Today: one again a period of vocabulary expansion (science
and technology, international exchange).
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
4-1-4 The Sources of New Words
New words are being invented or introduced all the
time. Sometimes a new word is produced by a single
person only, in some special situation. These words are
called nonce words (临时用词) used only once or coined
for one particular occasion, and never occur again.
Sometimes a new word is coined by a number of people,
such a word becomes an accepted part of language, and is
fixed in a dictionary.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
Two main sources of new words:
1) The rapid development of modern science and
techonlogy
Modern science and technology bring about the
addition of new words without numbers. They are
the most importance source of new words.
Modern science and technology contain many new
branches apart from the existing fields, which gives rise
to a great number of new words, such as:
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Biomimetics (1974, 生物拟态学)
Biomineralization (1973)
Biomedical engineering (1961)
Bionics (1960, 仿生学）
Ecophysiology (1962)
Ecotoxicology (1977, 生态毒理学)
Euphenics (1977, 人种改良运动)
Generative semantics (1970)
High-energy physics (1964)
Information science (1960)
Media studies (the 1980s)
Ocean engineering (the 1960s)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
Some of the areas that produce new words:
(1)Computing
Computing is a newly developing and widely
used area in modern society. Every day people
use computers to learn and know a lot of
happenings in the world. So a great number of
new words concerning computers appear
constantly in Modern English. For example:
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Computerese (1960, 计算机语言)
Computerist (1973)
Computernik (1968, 计算机专家、爱好者)
Computerphobe (1976, 计算机恐惧者)
Cybercafe (1994)
Cybercitizen (1994)
Cyberspace (1982)
Cybersurfer (1993)
Cyberspeak (1991, jargon)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Download (1979)
E-mail (1982)
Extranet (1995, 外联网)
Intranet (1993, 内联网)
Floppy disk (1972)
Floppy or floppies=floppy disk (1974)
Generation D=digital generation
Hyperlink (1988)
Hypermedia (1965)
Mouse
Multimedia (1967)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Read-only memory (1961), ROM (1966)
Search engine (1984)
Spam (1994, 群发)
Upload (1983)
webcam( (1995, made up of web+camara)
Webcast (1995, a transmission of sound and image via the
World Wide Web)
Webmaster (1994, a person responsible for the creation or
maintenance of a web site)
Web site (1992)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(2) Biology
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Bioactive (1965)
Bioavailability (1971, 生物利用率)
Biohebavioral (1970)
Biochip (1981,生物芯片 )
Biocontainment (1985, 生物抑制)
Biodiversity (1986)
Bioremediation (1986)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Biomineralization (1973)
Biopesticide (1980)
Biopharmaceutical (1985)
Bioprospect (1996, used as a verb to ‘search for
substances produced by living organisms and
having medical or commercial value)
Bioregion (1978)
Bioregionalism (1981)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(3) the deep space
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Space suit (1929)
Astronaut (1929)
Spacecraft (1930)
Spaceflight (1931)
Spaceport (1935)
Space station (1936)
Spaceman (1938)
Space-age (1946)
Space medicine (1949)
Deep space (1952)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Heliosphere (1976, 日光层)
Space walk (1965)
Spacewalker (1969)
Space shuttle (1969)
Pulsar 1968, 脉冲星)
Quasar (1964, 类星体)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(4) Medicine
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Aids (1982)
Antidrug (1969)
Birth control (1966)
Cryonics (1967, )
Gene therapy
Genetic fingerprinting (1984)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Immunodeficiency (1969, )
Mad cow disease (1988)
Megavitamin (1974)
Open-heart surgery (1960)
SARS (2003)
Gulf War syndrome (1992, fatigue, joint paint,
memory loss, skin rash and headache)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
2) Political, economic and social changes:
(1)
Political, economic and social changes are another
important source of new words.
International struggle:
CF=Coalition Forces (stationed in Iraq);
developing (1963);
ecoterrorism (1987);
ECU (1999)=European Currency Unit;
EU=European Union;
Euro (1981)=the common basic monetary unit of most countries
of the European Union.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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First strike (1960, 先发制人)
Global village (1960)
Green revolution (1968)
Interpol=Criminal Police Organization
Nuclear winter (1983)
Third world (1963)
Third worlder (1963)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
（2）Internal political struggle：
In 1960 four black students of the Greenshore
Agriculture and Technical College in North Carolina went
to a Woolworth’s store for a cup of coffee. The waiter
refused to serve them simply because they were black.
When the students insisted on being served, they were
taken away; hence grew up a series of protest words.
Before 1960 we may find a number of protest words
listed below:
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Live-in(1952)=living in one’s place of
employment
Sit-in (1937) =an act of occupying seats in a
racially segregated establishment in organized
protest against discrimination
Sleep-in (1951)=living in the place of
employment
The following are new words created in the 60s
and after the 60 last century.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Ableism (1981)=discrimination or prejudice against
individuals with disability
Freedom ride (1961)=a ride made by civil rights workers
Lie-in (1963)=an act of lying down (as in a public place)
in organized protest or as a means of forcing compliance
with demands
Peacenik (1965)=an opponent of war
Teach-in (1965)=an extended meeting for lectures, debates,
and discussions to raise awareness of or express a position
on a social issue
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary

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
After the appearance of missile gap, grew up
other new words by analogy, such as:
Credibility gap=lack of trust
Culture gap=a difference between cultures
Communications gap=a failure of understanding,
usually because of lack of information, especially
between different age groups, economic classes,
political factions, or cultural groups
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(3) Women’s liberation
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businessperson (1974)
Chairperson (1971)
clergyperson (1976)=a member of the clergy
Ecofeminism (1980)=a movement or theory that applies
feminist principles and ideas to ecological issues
lib (1970)=a movement seeking equal rights and status
for women
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Libber (1971)
Newspeople (1972)=reporters
Newsperson (1973)=reporter
Spokespeople (1972)=people serving as spokesman or
spokeswoman
Womanism (1984)=a form of feminism focused on the
condition and concerns of black women
Sexism (1968)=prejudice or discrimination based on sex,
especially discrimination against women
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(4) Education:
 B school (1967)=a school of business within a university
 CAI=computer-aided instruction or computer-assisted
instruction
 ESL=English as a second language
 Grade inflation (1975)=a rise in the average grade
assigned to students
 Homeschool(1980, verb)=to teach school subjects to one’s
child at home
 Homeschooler (1981)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Open admission (1969)=enrollment on demand as
a student in an institution of higher learning
irrespective of formal qualifications
Open class (the 1960s)
TA=teaching assistant
TESL=teaching English as a second language
TESOL=teachers of English of other languages
TOEFL=Test of English as a Foreign Language
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(5) Sports and entertainment:

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Autocross (1963)=automobile gymkhana
Electronica (1994)=dance music
Slimnastics (1967)=exercises designed to reduce one’s
weight
Spaghetti western (1969)=a western motion picture
produced in Italy
Sports medicine (1961)
Kung fu (1966)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(6) communications
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aerotrain (the 1970s)=a propeller-driven vehicle that rides
on a cushion of air astride a single rail
Air-cushion vehicle (1962, )
Bullet train (1966)=a high-speed passenger train
Cell phone (1984)
Cellular (1987)=cell phone
Video phone (1950)=picture phone (1956)
E-book (1988)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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E-commerce (1993)
E-text (the 1990s)
Hypertext (1965)=a database format in which information
related to that on a display can be accessed directly from
the display; material (as text) in this format
Information superhighway (1983)
Teleconferencing (1979)
Telemarketing (1980)=the marketing of goods or services
by telephone
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(7) Changes in social and domestic habits:
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ATM (1976)=Automatic Teller Machine
Big science (1961)=large-scale scientific research
Databank (1966)
Digital camera (1976)
Digital versatile disc (1995)=DVD
Disco (1979)=to dance to disco music
Home page (1992)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(8) Pollution
 Before the 1960s appeared such words as:
airpollution
antipollution
environmental pollution graffiti pollution
visual pollution
 in the 1960s and 1970s:
light pollution
noise pollution
thermal pollution
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
4-1-5 The formation of Neologisms
New words are created in different ways:
(1) By word-formation
(2) By adding new meanings to existing words
(3) By borrowing words from other languages
(4)By analogy
(5) By creating completely new coinages
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(1) By word-formation (see chapter 5)
(2) By adding new meanings to existing words
Existing words in English are often given new meanings
to fit new situations. For example:
Dove—any various types of pigeon or soft-voiced bird
often used as a sign of peace; now used for ‘a person,
especially a politician in favor of peace.
Hawk—now also means ‘a person who believes in using
forces, or in increasing violence in war, or in advocating
military solutions in a conflict.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
Angel—the name of a spiritual being; now it has a
new meaning to refer to a radar echo (雷达反响，
异常回波) caused by something not visually
discernible.
In English many existing words have added
new meanings in the course of time, especially
in the past few decades:
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Air guitar (1982)—something imaginary
Air rage (1996)—an airline passenger’s uncontrolled
anger that is usually expressed in aggressive or violent
behavior
Black hole (1968)
Bread—an American slang, meaning ‘money’
Country rock (1968)—rock music containing elements of
country music
Cold call (1966)—a telephone call soliciting business
made directly to a potential customer without prior contact
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Family leave (1981)
Family practice (1969)—family medicine
(medical care)
Future shock (1965)
Heavy lifting (1980)—a burdensome or laborious
duty
Hot pants (1970)—very short pants (trousers)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Scientific creationism (1979)—a doctrine holding
that the biblical account of creation is supported
by scientific evidence
Solar panel (1961)—a battery of solar cells
Science fair (1962)—a competitive exhibition of
science projects usually carried out by
schoolchildren
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(3) by borrowing words from other languages
From French, English has taken such words as:
 Auteur (1967)—a film director whose practice
accords with the auteur theory; an artist whose
style and practice are distinctive
 Autoroute (1951)—an expressway especially in
France
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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From German we have:
Autobahn (1939)—a German, Swiss, or Austrian
expressway
Humoresque (1889)—a typically whimsical or
fanciful musical composition (诙谐剧)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(4) By analogy
 In the study of the English language we sometimes meet
the way in which the form of a word is changed or derived
because of another word that is like it.
 Apolune (1968，远月点) and perilune (1960，近月点)
are new words formed from ‘aphelion’ (1956) and
‘perihelion’(1966) by using analogy
This is a special kind of word-formation, that is,
word-formation by analogy.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Airbag
from handbag
Airtel
from hotel
Earthrise
from sunrise
E-commerce from e-mail
H-bomb
from A-bomb
Low-rise
from high-rise
Moonsuit from sunsuit
Moonquake from earthquake
Off-the-job from on-the job
Picturephone from videophone
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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From White Paper (1899) English gets new
words by using an analogy between names of
colors:
Green Paper (BrE)—a government document that
proposes and invites discussion on approaches to
a problem
Black Paper—(BrE) an authoritative document
that criticizes or censure an existing policy,
practice, institution, etc.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
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Fourth World comes from Third World by analogy
between names of numbers:
Fourth World—a group of nations especially in Africa and
Asia characterized by extremely low per capital income
and an absence of valuable natural resources
Fourth market—the private market for the sale of
securities by institutional investors
From the three ‘s (the ability of reading, writing, and
arithmetic) English has the following expressions, such as:
The three P’s (peace, petroleum, Palestine)
The three I’s (inflation, interest rate, impeachment)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(5) By creating completely new coinages:
 Pharm—a place where genetically modified
plants or animals are grown or reared in order to
produce the pharmaceutical products
 Bebop—jazz
 Gobbledygook or gobbledegook—wordy and
generally unintelligible jargon
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
4-2-1 Archaisms
Archaisms sometimes are called
obsolete, which are not used now
except for special purpose.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
The reasons for the disappearance of words
1） When two homonyms (同音异义词) collide, one word
may become archaic as in queen and quean. The latter is
an obsolete word meaning ‘a badly behaved woman’.
2） A word may fall into disuse when the thing the word
denotes has disappeared, such as richshaw.
3） Synonymy is another factor of disappearance of words.
There are 37 expressions for ‘hero’ and ‘principle’ in the
Old English epic Beowulf and 30 for sea in the poems.
But nowadays these words have disappeared.


Obsolete words may be still used at the present
time
Sometimes a word or one meaning of a word
has become obsolete except in a few idioms
which are still in common use.
For example, the word let meaning hinder or
obstruct has become archaic. But it survives as a
noun in the phrase without let or hindrance; let
ball.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
The English proverb Many a little makes a
mickle is a good example for illustrating this
point.
In Modern English obsolete words sometimes
survive, but they are different from the original
in meaning.
The word trident was derived from Latin.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
two elements--- tri—meaning ‘three’
dent—meaning ‘tooth’
which originally meant ‘a three-pronged
spear serving in classical mythology as the
attribute of a sea-god.’
Now it has come to mean “three-pronged
implement”.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary

Some obsolete words remain in Modern
English as purely historical terms
Examples:
maiden---a kind of guillotine (断头台)used at
Edinburgh
armour---defensive covering for the body worn
in fighting
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
Some archaic words are preserved in poetry,
fiction and oratory.
“rise, like Lions after slumber,
…
Shake your chains to earth like dew,
…
Ye are many—they are few.”
(P.B. Shelly: The Mask of Anarchy)

Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
4-3-1 Changes in Meaning
The gradual change of meaning in words is a
universal feature of human language
1. Historical causes
2. Social causes
3. Psychological causes
4. Linguistic causes
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
From the sociolinguistic point of view, vocabulary not
only changes, but also changes quickly. Changes in
meaning can be brought about by many causes:
1. Historical causes:
The word atom was borrowed from Greek. It has been
regarded as the smallest indivisible particle of matter for a
long time. The latest scientific discoveries have proved
that an atom can be subdivided into a proton, neutron, and
electron. The word is still retained to describe a different
scientific concept.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
2. Social causes:
In the course of the development of society a
number of new words are needed to describe new
things. For example:
futurology—consisting of two parts: future and –
logy, “the science of”, “the study of”
artificial intelligence—the capability of a machine
to imitate intelligent human behavior.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
3. Psychological causes:
The speaker‘s state of mind may bring about
semantic changes.
boor and clown—from ‘a peasant’ to ‘a rude
ungraceful ungentlemanly person’ and ‘a person
who continually tells jokes or acts stupidly’
Both words are now used as derogatory terms.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
4. Linguistic causes:
There has been a tendency towards ellipsis in
English.
Fall=autumn—to descend or go down freely: the
ellipsis of the phrase “fall of leaves”.
Private=private soldier
General=general officer
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
4-3-2 Four Tendencies in Semantic Changes
Sense development of English words can be
divided into four groups according to the range of
the their usage and the attitude towards their
senses.
1) Changes in denotative component of the lexical
meaning may result in:
(1) the extension of meaning;
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
(2) the narrowing of meaning.
2) Change in the connotative component may bring
about:
(3) the elevation of meaning;
(4) the degradation of meaning.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
1 Extension of meaning (Generalization):
The extension of meaning, or widening of
meaning, refers to the extension of the range of
the lexical meaning. Extension of meaning is one
of the most common features of the history of
English words.
Semantic changes of the extension of meaning
may occur in four ways:
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
A. From specific to general
(具体词汇到一般词汇）
B. From proper nouns to common nouns
（专有名词到普通名词）
C. From concrete to abstract
（具象词汇到抽象词汇）
D. From technical terms to general words
(科技词汇到普遍词汇）
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
A. From specific to general
Picture—used to refer to painting or drawing; now it is
applied to a representation of somebody or something
made by painting or drawing, even a person or thing that
is beautiful to look at.
Journal—a daily
—a periodical
Industry—diligence or habitual employment in useful work
—branch of trade of manufacture or (the work of )
factories and large organizations generally
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
B. From proper nouns to common nouns:
Many proper nouns including person-names,
place-names etc., have become common nouns
used in everyday life.
1) Watt, Ampere, Volt, Newton, Joule
2) sandwich, Solomon, wellington (high boot),
champagne, gin, cashmere
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
C. From concrete to abstract:
The English language has its special stock of
words that stand for everything. Such words are :
affair, business, circumstance, concern, condition,
fact, matter, means, position, regard, respect,
situation, state, thing, way.
The word matter originally meant ‘timber, the
hard part of a tree.’ Now it has a lot of abstract
meanings.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
1) The world is made of matter.
2) The matter in your essay is good.
3) This is a matter I know little about.
4) What’s the matter?
5) It made no matter to him that his brother lost all
his money.
Another example is the word thing.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
1) what’s the next thing we have to do?
(an act, deed)
2) The murder was a terrible thing, wasn’t it?
(an event)
3) The next thing is for you to get well again.
(an aim or effort)
4) He says the first thing that comes into his head. (an idea)
5) She was wearing the latest thing in shoes.
(the fashion or custom)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
D. From technical terms to general:
The word bomb is originally a technical term
(炸弹). Now it has other meanings, especially in
the phrase ‘like a bomb.’ (1)The party went like a
bomb.=The party was very successful.
(2) The workers’ demand for higher wages was
a catalyst in a s difficult state of affairs, and led to
important social changes. (an agent that provokes
or speed significant changes or actions)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
2 Narrowing of meaning (Specialization)
In the process of extension of meaning, some
words acquire narrower sense. This is called
narrowing of meaning, that is, specialization.
The word ‘to starve’ originally meant to ‘to die.’
in Middle English it was specialized to mean ‘to
die of cold,’ but in the 16th century it meant ‘to
die of hunger.’ This meaning has survived in
Modern English.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary

Three kinds of narrowing of meaning
A. From general to specific
(一般词汇到特殊词汇)
For example, in the early times, a human
or animal body, living or dead, was called corpse.
Now this general term has specialized to mean ‘a
dead body ,especially of a human being.’
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary




Other examples of this kind are:
Meat—flesh of animal used as food, excluding that of fish
and bird; it originally meant ‘food and drink.’
Wife—a married woman; it originally meant ‘a woman
not necessarily married, especially one who is old and
uneducated.’
Garage—building where motorcars are stored or repaired;
it originally meant ‘any safe place.’
Hospital—place where people are treated for illness or
injuries; it originally meant ‘a place for shelter or
entertainment of travelers.’
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
B. From abstract to concrete
(抽象词汇到具体词汇)
One of the commonest transformations in the English
language is a transformation from an abstract meaning to
a concrete one.
The word ‘catch’ which was used to describe an act
of catching, especially a ball; Now it come to mean a
concrete thing , namely, ‘a hook or other apparatus for
fastening something or holding it shut.’
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
C. From common nouns to proper nouns
(普通词汇到专有词汇）
The word “city” means a large town, but the City refers to
‘part of London governed by Lord Mayor and Corporation,
the business part of this, commercial circles.’
Peninsula means ‘a piece of land almost surrounded by
water or projecting far into the sea.’ The Peninsula is used
to refer to the Iberian Peninsula (伊比利亚半岛).
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
Specialization has something to do with
polysemy. In the process of sense-development
the meaning of a word may become narrower than
its primary meaning.
The word ‘disease’, for instance, was formerly
used for any kind of ‘discomfort,’ but now it has
come to mean ‘an illness.’
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary

Specialization and generalization are closely
related. The latter is now less common than the
former, because language in everyday life is
directed towards the concrete and specific rather
than towards the abstract and general.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
3 Elevation of meaning
(Amelioration 词义的升格）
Words often rises from a humble beginning to a position
of greater importance because of social changes. This is
called elevation of meaning, or amelioration.
Elevation of meaning is also a special kind of narrowing
of meaning. A special narrowing of meaning is the
acquisition by a word of good implications.
The word ‘success’ has changed its meaning from ‘result’
to ‘good result.’
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary




The word ‘politician’ had sinister meaning: tricker in
Shakespeare’s day, but now it has come to mean ‘a person
whose business is politics, especially one who is a
member of a parliament.’
Other examples are:
Enthusiasm—ardent seal, great eagerness; it originally
meant ‘extravagant religious emotion.
Comrade—fellow member of a political party, etc.; it is
derived from the Spanish for ‘roommate.’
Fame—being known; it originally meant ‘report’ or
common talk.’
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
4 Degradation of meaning
(Deterioration词义的降格）
Words with a commendatory meaning may become ones
with a derogatory sense. This is called degradation of
meaning, or deterioration.
There are four kinds of degradation of meaning.
A. A word falls into disrepute because of social
prejudice against certain classes and occupations.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary



Examples are:
The word ‘boor’ (乡下人) has given to English the
historical term ‘villein’ meaning ‘feudal serf’ (农奴) and
the pejorative word ‘villain’ meaning ‘scoundrel.’
The word ‘wench’ once meant ‘a young woman or a girl,
especially in the country,’ now it means ‘a lewd woman,
prostitute.’
The word ‘quean’ was originally ‘a woman,’ now it has
come to mean ‘an impudent or ill-behaved girl or woman.’
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
B. A word becomes less respectable because of
euphemism.
We may find a number of euphemisms connected with
illness and death. These words have lost their euphemistic
value and relived their unpleasantness.
The word ‘disease’ once meant ‘discomfort,’ now it
refers to ‘an illness.’
The word ‘undertake’ means ‘one whose business is to
carry out arrangements for funerals,’ but it originally
meant ‘an influential person in the 17th century England.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
C. Middle terms in English belong to a special kind
of ameliorative and pejorative developments.
Middle terms are words which are neutral in
meaning and take on favorable or unfavorable
significance according to their different contexts.
The word ‘fortune’ is a middle term, because it
may be either good or bad, but the adjective
‘fortunate’ has a positive value.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
4-3-3 Semantic Changes from Literal Use of
Words to Their Figurative Use
We have discussed four tendencies in semantic change:
generalization and specialization of denotative meaning,
elevation and degradation of connotative meaning

Words are used in two ways:
1. Literally: they have their natural and usual meaning.
2. Figuratively : they have a nonliteral, suggested meaning.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
Metaphor
※makes a comparison
between two unlike
element and this
comparison is implied
rather than stated.
※does not have
connecting words
Simile
※ makes a comparison
between two unlike
element, having at least
one point of resemblance
in appearance, quality
action or effect.
※connecting words: like,
as if, as though…
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary






Imperialism is a paper tiger.
College is a comma in the sentence of life.
A silver plate is rising up in the sky.
All your fingers are thumbs.
He and his brother are as like as two peas.
The world is like a stage.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
Metaphor
①Anthropomorphic metaphor(拟人隐喻）:




the eye of a needle—he hole in a needle through which the
thread passes.
The eye of the law—according to the law , as law sees it.
the teeth of a comb—any of the narrow pointed parts that
stand out from a comb , saw, cog.
a long narrow arm of the sea(狭长港湾)—something that
is shape of this organ（臂状物）
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary





the brow of a hill—the upper part of a hill or a slope
the elbow of a pipe—an angular pipe fitting, something
resembling an elbow
the lungs of London—parks and open spaces in or close to
a great city
the apple of the eye—the pupil, eyeball, any cherished
object
Adam’s apple
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
②Animal metaphor(动物隐喻）
 an ass—a stupid foolish person
 a pig—a dirty , greedy person
 a goose—a silly person , especially female
 A rat—a worthless, disloyal man
 A lion—a famous and important person
 A black sheep—a person regarded with disfavor or shame
compared to others in a group
 An owl—a solemn person, wise-looking dullard
 An ape—a person who copies the behavior of others
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
③ Synesthetic metaphor(通感）
Synesthetic metaphors are based on transition
from one sense to another, such as from sound to
sight or from touch to sound. For example: warm
or cold temperature (literal meaning); warm or
cold voice (metaphorical meaning).




loud colors—loud music
sweet sound—sweet
piercing sound—piercing wind
a golden opportunity—a golden crown
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
The use of a noun as a metaphor:












A ray of hope
A grain of truth
A shadow of doubt
A flight of fancy (想入非非，异想天开)
The fire of passion
The wish is father to the thought
Bed of roses (安逸的生活)
Crocodile tears
Banana oil (花巧语言)
In the same camp (志同道合)
Be on the thin ice
Under the weather
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
The use of an adjective as a metaphor:
 Bitter enemy
 Murderous heat
 Iron courage
 Give sb a dirty look (色迷迷的看)
 Blooming health
 Ironwilled
 ironhanded
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
The use of a verb as a metaphor:







Time flies.
Time presses.
He bridles his anger.
Spongfeed the students
I sandwiched myself between two fat men on the bus.
He is fond of blowing his own trumpet
Throw/pour cold water on sb
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary

Metonymy
Metonymy is a very common, useful and effective
language device. Metonymy is also an important factor in
the shift of meaning that involves substitution of the name
of one thing for that of another closely associated with it.
According to different associations between names and
senses metonymy can be classified as follows:
①according to names of persons:


Uncle Sam: the United States government
Lu Xun: Lu Xun’s works
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
②according to names of animals:


the bear: the former Soviet Union
the British Lion: England
③ according to names of parts of the body:



Foot: infantry
Heart: feelings
Head: mind , brain
④according to names of professions:


Press: newspaper and magazines in general
Bench: the judge himself
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
⑤ according to locations of government, business:


White House : the official home of President of US
Hollywood : American film industry and its products
⑥ according to container for the thing contained:




Kettle: water in the kettle
Cup: a cup of tea or coffee
Dish: food brought to table or in a dish
The hall applauded.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary

Synecdoche（提喻）
Synecdoche is a figure of speech that involved the
substitution of the part for the whole or the whole for the
part.
Synecdoche may be classified into two kinds according
to meaning.
The part for the whole

The whole for the part

Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
1)
The part for the whole:

Hand—worker, helper
we are no longer short of hands.

head—person
The teacher gave the students two
pencils per head.

bread—food
He manages to earn his bread.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
2)The whole for the part:
 Australia beat Canada in cricket.
(the name of a country for a group of people of that country)

The TV set is out of order.
(the mechanism for the machine)

The doctor cut him open and took out the
appendix and stitched him up again.
(a person for a part of his body)
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary

Euphemism
Euphemism is the substitution of a word of
more pleasant connotation for one of unpleasant
connotation.
we can divide the use of euphemism into the
following groups.
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
1)





Euphemism is often caused in speaking of things
that are painful and distressing to think about.
Death
to decease (for legal use)
to join the (great) majority
to pass away
to go to heaven
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary






Kill
to finish
to remove
to do for
to destroy
to put away
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
2) In Western countries some people avoid using religious
words or the name of God, thus people say goodness,
goodness gracious instead of saying the word God. And
My Gum is a euphemism of My God.





My Goodness!
Goodness me!
For Goodness’ sake!
Thank Goodness!
...
Chapter 4
The Changing English Vocabulary
3) Sometimes learned or scientific terms are used as
euphemisms.



effluvium -- stench
perspiration -- sweat
idiot -- fool
4) One interesting way of making a euphemism is to
substitute the negative or opposite for a positive
word.



dirty -- untidy / unclean
lying -- untruthful
foolish -- unwise
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
5-1-1 Introduction

Word-formation or word-building is an important means
of vocabulary enlargement.

The English language has increased its resources not only
through the adoption of words from other languages, but
also through the formation of new words with the material
available in the language.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
5-1-2 Morphological Structure of Words
1)What is a word?
A word is a minimum free form. For instance, work is a
word, and so is worker. Work can not be broken down
into any smaller units. Worker can be divided into two
grammatically significant elements: work and -er.
These minimal grammatical units are called morphemes.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
The Definition of Morpheme
As pointed out by David Crystal in his book
A First Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics,
the morpheme is ‘the minimal distinctive unit of
grammar, and the central concern of morphology.’
The morpheme, accordingly, can be considered as
‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of
words.’
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
5-1-3 Two Types of Morphemes
1)According to character


Morphemes are commonly classified into forms: one
is free form, and the other is bound form.
Free morphemes are morphemes which can occur as
separate words.
Bound morphemes are morphemes which cannot stand
alone as words. They are mainly affixes.
e.g. Unfaithful=un-+ faith +-ful
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
2) According to lexical and grammatical
relationships
Morphemes may be classified into two
categories: lexical morphemes and grammatical
morphemes.
Lexical morphemes are morphemes used for
the construction of new words as in compound
words. For example:
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
blackbird
(consisting of two lexical morphemes):
black and bird;
friendship
(created on the basis of two morphemes):
friend and –ship.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
Grammatical morphemes are morphemes used to express
grammatical relationships between a word and its context, such as
plurality or past tense (e.g. books, studied, etc.).
(1) plurality (-s)
(2) possessive case (-’s)
(3) past tense or past particle) (-ed)
(4) present particle or gerund (-ing)
(5) present simple tense (-s)
(6) comparative degree or superlative degree (-er or –est)
(7) in/il/ir/im-
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English


Morphemes are also abstract units, which are
realized in speech by discrete units, known as
morphs (语子).
But some morphemes are expressed by more than
one morph according to their position in a word
or sentence, such alternative morphs are called
allomorphs (语素变体),or morphemic variants.
Examples are: books, legs, boxes. These three
words have the allomorphs /s/, /z/, /iz/.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
5-1-4 Three Types of Words
According to morphology:
1) Simple word is one which contains only one free
form. e.g. man water
2) Compound word is one which consists of more
than one free form. e.g. blackbird
3) Complex word is one which has one free form
and one or more than one bound form. e.g.
frankness=frank+-ness (free form+ bound form)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
5-1-5 Root, Base, Stem
1)Root:
 A root is the base form of a word that expresses
its essential meaning, a meaning that never
changes, even though affixes may be added at the
beginning of a word or at the end of a word.
unusefully: un-, -ful, -ly; the root=use
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
English has hundreds of thousands of words
built up from Latin or Greek roots. Of course,
these roots are limited in number and simple in
meaning.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English

Latin roots:
Root
Meaning
Example
Meaning
acu-(acr-)
sharp
acute
working very well, sharp
bene-(benign-) well,good
benefit good effect
centone hundred
century a period of 100 years
de-(div-) a god
divine of ,related to,or being God or a god
ferto carry,to bring confer to give(a gift,title,ho-nor,etc.)
gen-(genit-)
to produce,to give birth to genesis the beginning or
origin
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English

Latin roots:
1)
acu-(acr-)—sharp: acute, acumen, acrid
Ag-(act-)—do, to drive: agent, action, activate
Am—to love: amateur, amity, amenity ()
Anim—life or mind: animate, inanimate, an animated debate
Annu-(ennu-)—year: annual, Anno Domini(A.D.), anniversary
Bene-(benign-)—good: benefit, benign tumor, benevolent
Cap-(capt-)—to take: capture, captive, captivate
Clam-(claim)—to cry out: claim, exclaim, proclaim, reclaim
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
2) Base:
 There are two explanations for the term base.
①Some linguists consider the term base to be equivalent to
the term root, that is ,the part of a word remaining when
all affixes have been removed.
 truthful truthfulness truthfully untruth untruthful
untruthfulness untruthfully
truth is the base form of all its derivatives
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
②Other linguists maintain that the term base is any
part of a word when an affix is added to a root or
stem.
unhappy=un+ happy (base)
unhappiness= un+ happy + ness (base)
In this book the terms base and root are the same in
meaning.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
3) Stem:
A stem is a term used as part of a classification of the
kinds of elements operating within the structure of a word.
That is to say, a stem is a main part of a word to which
case-endings, etc. are added.
classify: the root is class, the stem is classi, and the suffix
is –fy.
The stem and the root often coincide: shortly= short
(root or stem) + ly (suffix); manly= man (root or stem)+ ly
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English

There are three types of stems:
①The stem, which may consist of one root morpheme,
belongs to the category of the simple word. (e.g. star)
②The stem, which may consist of two root morphemes,
belongs to the category of the compound word. (e.g.
motherland)
③The stem, which may consist of one root morpheme and a
derivational affix, belongs to the category of the complex
word. (e.g. unmanly)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
5-2-1 The Main Processes of English
Word-formation
Four main types of word-formation in English:
 Prefixation
 Suffixation
 Conversion
 Compounding
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
1) Prefixation is a main type of word-formation
putting a prefix in front of the base, sometimes
with, but more usually without a change of word
class. (e.g. dislike=dis-+like)
There are ten categories of prefixes in English
according to the meaning.
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A Negative prefixes
B Reversative or
privative prefixes
C Pejorative prefixes
D Prefixes of degree or
size
E Prefixes of orientation
and attitude
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F Locative prefixes
G Prefixes of time and
order
H Number prefixes
I Miscellaneous neocalssical preixes
J Conversion prefixes
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A. Negative prefixes:
a-/anThe prefix a-(or an-)means ‘lacking in’ or ‘lack
of.’ It combines with adjectives, or some nouns
chiefly used in learned and scientific words.
amoral------nonmoral; not concerned with morals
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B. Reversative or privative prefixes:
unThe prefix un- has two meanings.
a) The prefix un- means ‘reversing the action.’ It combines
fairly freely with verbs.
undo—to unfasten what is tied or wrapped
b) The prefix un- means ‘depriving of,’ ‘releasing from,’
or’ degrading.’ It combines limitedly with nouns, turning
them into verbs.
unhorse---to dislodge from a horse
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C. Prjorative prefixes:
malThe prefix mal- means ‘badly,’ ‘bad.’ It combines
with verbs, participles,adjecives and abstract
nouns.
maltreat----to treat roughly and cruelly
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Word-formation in English
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D. Prefixes of degree or size:
arch—
The prefix arch- means ‘supreme,’ ‘most,’ and
usually with pejorative effect. It combines with
nouns, chiefly with human reference.
archbishop—a person in charge of churches
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Word-formation in English
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E. Prefixes of orientation and attitude:
anti—
The prefix anti- means ‘against.’ It combines freely with denominal
adjectives and nouns (mainly to from premodifying adjectives).
antisocial---opposed to laws or to organized societies
There are two new meanings of antia) Of or belonging to the hypothetical world consisting of antimatter
(the counterpart o f ordinary matter)
antineutron----the antiparticle of the neutron
b) That which rejects or reverses the traditional characteristics of
antinovel-----a work of fiction that lacks most or all of the traditional
features of the novel
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Word-formation in English
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F. Locative prefixes:
Locative prefixes, like spatial prepositions, may extend
their meaning metaphorically to abstract spheres.
foreThe prefix fore- means ‘front part of,’ ‘front.’ It combines
fairly freely with nouns.
forehead---the part of the face above the eyes and below
the hair
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Word-formation in English
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G. Prefixes of time and order:
exThe prefix ex- means ‘former.’It combines freely
with human nouns.
ex-husband-----former husband
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Word-formation in English
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H. Number prefixes:
bi-,diThe prefix bi-and di- mean ‘two’
biped—a two-footed creature digraph—a pair
fo letters that represent one sound
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Word-formation in English
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I. Miscellaneous neo-classical prefixes:
autoThe prefix auto- means ‘self.’ It combines freely
with nouns and adjectives
autocrat----a ruler with unlimited power
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Word-formation in English
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J. Conversion prefixes:
enThe prefix en- chiefly combines with nouns to
form verbs, means ‘to put into’ or ‘to provide with’
endanger---to cause danger to
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Word-formation in English
2) suffixation
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Suffixation is main type of word-formation, putting a
suffix after the base, sometimes without, but more usually
with a change of word class. (e.g. frankness=frank+ness)
A noun suffixes
B adjective suffixes
C adverb suffixes
D verb suffixes
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Word-formation in English
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A. Noun suffixes:
Noun suffixes may be subdivided into the
following five kinds.
1)Denominal nouns: abstract
-age: measure of/collection of
luggage-----the case, bags, boxes, etc. of a
traveler
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Word-formation in English
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2) Denominal nouns: concrete
-eer: skilled in /engaged in
engineer---a person who is devoted to engineering
work
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Word-formation in English
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3) Deverbal nouns:
-ant:a person or thing
Inbabitant—a person who lives in a particular
place regularly,as a general rule or for a period of
time
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Word-formation in English
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4) De-adjectival nouns:
-ness: the stated condition, quality or degree
frankness---the condition of being frank
5)Noun/adjective suffixes:
-ese: member of (nationality or race)/the language
Chinese-----a native or an inhabitant of China/the
Chinese language
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
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B. Adjective suffixes:
Adjective suffixes can be subdivided into two
groups.
1) Denominal suffixes: denominal suffixes have
the function of forming adjectives, especially
from nouns.
-ed: having pointed----shaped to a point at one
end
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Word-formation in English
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2) Deverbal suffixes:
-able: of the kind that can be done
eatable---(of food) in a fit condition to eaten
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
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C. Adverb suffixes:
-ly:
The suffix –ly can be added to an adjective to form an
adverb.
a) It means ‘in a…manner.’ calmly (from calm)---smoothly
b) It means ‘in a….respect.’
personally (from personal)---as far as oneself is
concerned
c) It means ‘in a …degree.’ extremely (from extreme)--very
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
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D .Verb suffixes:
-ate
The suffix –ate combines with mainly neolalsscial
noun bases.
hyphenate----to join with hyphen
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Word-formation in English
3 conversion
Conversion (or full conversion) is a main
type of word-formation assigning the base to a
different word class with no change of form.
Conversion: Full conversion+ Partial conversion
release (v)---release (n) (full conversion)
wealthy (adj)---the wealthy (n) (partial conversion)
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Word-formation in English
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Conversion can be classified into four
categories according to word classes:
conversion to noun
conversion to verb
conversion to adjective
minor categories of conversion
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
A. Conversion to noun:

Deverbal
a) To denote the state of mind of sensation (e.g. desire)
b) To denote an event or activity (e.g. attempt)
c) As object of the given verb (e.g. answer)
d) As subject of the given verb (e.g. cheat)
e) As instrument of the given verb (e.g. cover)
f) As manner of the given verb (e.g. walk)
g) As place of the given verb (e.g. divide)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English

De-adjectival
I’d like two of bitter, please.
the sweets and bitters
daily—daily newspaper
bimonthly—bimonthly magazine
perennial—perennial plant
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
B. Conversion to verb
1) Denominal
a) To put in N (e.g. bottle)
b) To give N or to provide with N (e.g. coat)
c) To deprive of N (e.g. skin)
d) To do with N (e.g. knife)
e) To be or act as N with respect to (e.g. father)
f) To make or change into N (e.g. cash)
g) To send or go by N (e.g. mail)
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Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
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2) De-adjectival
a) (transitive verb) to make adj. or to make more
adj. ( e.g .calm)
b) (intransitive verb) to become adj. (e.g. dry)
Dry—become dry
Yellow—become yellow
Grey—become grey
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English

C. Conversion to adjective
This category has only one type: Demominal
a brick garage—The garage is brick.
a very Oxbridge accent—His accent is Oxbridge.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English

D. Minor categories of conversion
1) Conversion to nouns :
a) Conversion from closed-system words to nouns. (e.g.
His speech contains too many ifs and buts.)
b) Conversion from affixes to nouns. (e.g. This is the age
of isms.)
c) Conversion from phrases to nouns. (e.g. My horse is one
of the also-rans.)
2) Conversion to verbs (e.g. They downed tools in protest.)
3) Conversion to adjectives (e.g. a face-to-face interview)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
According to the same word-classes
A. The change of secondary word class: nouns
1) Noncount---nouns
 a) a unit of N (e.g. two coffees)
 b) A kind of N (e.g. Some paints are more lasting than
others.)
 c) An instance of N (with abstract nouns) (e.g. small
kindness)
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Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
2) Count nouns---Noncount nouns
e.g. an inch of cigarette
3) Proper nouns---Common nouns
a) A member of the class typified by N (e.g. Edinburgh in
England and Boston in the United States are called the
Modern Athens.)
b) A person,place,etc. called N (e.g. There are two Zhang
Mings in our college.)
c) A specimen of the product made by N (e.g. ten Players)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
4) Stative nouns---Dynamic nouns
He’s being an actor. (He’s behaving like an actor.)
B. The change of secondary word class: verbs
1) Intransitive verbs---Transitive verbs
Cause to V (e.g. run the water)
2)Transitive verbs---Intransitive verbs
a) Can be V-ed (e.g. The table polished up badly.)
b) To V oneself (e.g. Have you washed yet?)
c) To V someone or something , etc. (e.g. We have eaten
already.)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
3) Intransitive verbs---Copular verbs
a) Current meaning (e.g. He lay flat.)
b) Resulting meaning (e.g. The water ran hot)
4) Copular verbs---Intransitive verbs
What must be, must be (exist).
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
5) Monotransitive verbs---Complex transitive verbs
a) Current meaning: I prefer tea green.
b) Resulting meaning: He knocked the boy flat.
The following examples belong to this group:
buy, find, hate, like, sell, etc.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
C. The change of secondary word class:
adjectives
1) Nongradable adjectives---Gradable adjectives
Some people’s behavior is rather incredible.
2) Stative adjectives---Dynamic adjectives
My brother’s being careful.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
In some cases conversion is related to certain
changes of pronunciation, spelling and stress
1)Voicing of final consonants
noun: abuse advice belief grief relief
verb: abuse advise believe grieve relieve
2)Shift of stress
verb: conduct compound digest export
noun: conduct compound digest export
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Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
4. Compounding
Compounding is a main type of word-formation
adding one base to another, such that usually the
one placed in front in some sense subcategorizes
the one that follows. (e.g. blackbird)
Compounding can occur not only in nouns,
adjectives and verbs but also in prepositions,
pronouns and adverbs.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English

What is a compound?
Compound is a lexical unit consisting of more
than one base and functioning both grammatically
and semantically as a single word.
Compounds can be divided into three categories
according to word classes: Noun compounds,
Adjective compounds and Verb compounds.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English

Noun compounds
1)Type ‘subject and verb’
a) subject+deverbal noun (e.g. sunrise)
b) verb+subject (e.g. crybaby)
c) Verbal noun in –ing+subject (e.g. dancing girl)
2)Type ‘verb and object’
a) object+deverbal noun (e.g. haircut)
b) object+edverbal noun in –ing (e.g.sightseeing)
c) object+agential noun in –er (e.g. language teacher)
d) verb+object (e.g. drawbridge)
e) verbal noun in –ing +object (e.g. reading material)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
3)Type ‘verb and adverbial’
a) verbal noun in –ing +adverbial (e.g. swimming
pool)
b) adverbial+verbal noun in –ing (e.g.
daydreaming)
c) adverbial+agential noun in –er (e.g. babysitter)
d) adverbial+deverbal noun (e.g. homework)
e) verb+adverbial (e.g. dancehall)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
4) Type ‘subject and object’
a) n.+n.(n. powers or operates n.) (e.g. windmill)
b) n.+n.(n.produces n.) (e.g. toyfactory)
c) n.+n.(n.produces n.) (e.g. canesugar)
d) n.+n.(n.has n.) (e.g. tableleg)
e) n.+n.(n. control or works in connection with n.)
(e.g. securityofficer)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
5)Type ‘subject and complement’
a) n.+n.(n.is n. )(e.g .girlfriend)
b) adj.+n.(n.is an adj.) (e.g. darkroom)
c) n.+n.(n.is like n.) (e.g. frogman)
d) n.+n.(n. is of or consists of n.) (e.g. raindrop)
e) n.+n.(n is for n) (e.g. tearoom)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
6)Type ‘combining form and noun’
a) n.(in its combining form)+n. (n. in respect of n.)
(e.g. agriculture)
b) n.+n. (in its combining form)+n. (n in respect of
n) (e.g. psychology)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
7)Type ‘exocentric compounds’ (离心结构合成词)
Exocentric compounds are compounds which refer not
to their pattern of formation, but to the relation they have
with the referents. These compounds are somewhat
derogatory in meaning and are used chiefly in the informal
style.
birdbrain—a stupid person
butterfingers—a person unable to hold things
blockhead—a foolish brained person
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
B. Adjective compounds
1)Type ‘verb and object’ (e.g. man-eating)
2)Type ‘verb and adverbial’
a) adverbial+-ing paticiple (e.g. ocean-going)
b) adverbial+ -ed participle (e.g. heat-felt)
c) adverbial./adjective-ing participle (e.g. hard-working)
d) adjective/adverb+-ed participle (e.g. dry-cleaned)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
3)Type ‘verbless’
a) noun-based adverbial of respect+adjective (e.g
footsore)
b) noun+adjective (e.g. grass-green)
c) adjective+adjective (e.g. grey-green)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
C. Verb compounds
 1)Type ‘object and verb’(e.g.sightsee)
 2)Type ‘adverbial and verb’(e.g.spring-clean)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English

Reduplicative compounds (重叠合成词)
a) The first kind of reduplicatives are those that imitate
sounds (e.g. rat-a-tat=sound of knocking)
b) The second kind of reduplicatives are those that suggest
alternating movements (e.g. see-saw)
c) The third kind of reduplicatives are those that disparage
by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity, vacillation,
etc. (e.g. higgledy-piggledy=in disorder)
d) The forth kind of reduplocatives are those that intensify.
(e.g. tip-top=excellent)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
5-2-2 The Minor Processes of English Wordformation
English uses minor word-formation processes.
Here are six devices which are considered as
means of forming new words on the basis of old
ones.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
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Clipping or shortening (截短法)
Acronyms (首字母法)
Blending (拼缀法)
Back-formation (逆构词法)
Forming new words by analogy (类比法)
Onomatopoeia (拟声法)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
1 Clipping or shortening
Clipping or shortening is a method of shortening
a word without changing its meaning.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English

Seven types of clipping are listed below.
1) Front clippings
bus -----------from omnibus
2) Back clippings
ad-------------from advertisement
3) Front and back clippings
flu-------------from influenza
4) Middle clippings
maths--------from mathematics
5) Phrase clippings
pub-----------from public house
6) Journalist clippings
H.K.-----------from Hong Kong
7) Back clipping+suffix
comfy---------from comfortable
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
2 Acronyms
Acronyms are a special kind of clipping. An
acronym is a word formed from the initial letter
of a word that makes up a name.
There are two types of acronyms according to
pronunciation and morphological structures.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
1) Acronyms which are pronounced as sequence
of letters can be called alphabetisms.
a) The letters represent full words. (e.g. UN--the
United Nations)
b) The letters represent elements in a compound
or just parts of a word. (e.g. TV--television)
c) The letters represent one word. (e.g. BBQ-barbecue)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
2) Acronyms are pronounced as a word.
LAN----Local Area Network
TOEFL----Test of English as a Foreign Language
Acronyms may be subdivided into six groups
according to their usage.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
a) Acronyms expressing the names of organizations. (e.g.
FBI—Federal Bureau of Investigation)
b) Acronyms representing the names of mechanisms. (e.g.
NS—nuclear ship)
c) Acronyms denoting scientific terms .(e.g. DP—data
processing)
d) Acronyms expressing the title of a technical or
professional post. (e.g. DA—Doctor of Arts)
e) Acronyms representing common words.(e.g. TV—
television)
f) semi-acronyms (e.g. N-bomb—nuclear bomb)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
3 Blending
Blending is a very productive process, esp in
commercial coinages. A blend is a compound
word made by blending one word with another
word.
That is to say, blending is a process of wordformation, in which a new word is made by using
the parts or the full of form of the two words and
combining their meanings.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
Four types of blending according to their
morphological structures:
a) The front part of the first word+the back part
of the second word:
botel—boat+hotel (a waterside hotel for tourists)
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
b) The first word+the back part of the second word:
moonmark—moon+landmark(a landmark on the moon)
c) The front part of the first word+the second word:
Eurasia (n)—European+Asia
d) The front parts of the first word and the second word:
Amerind—American+Indian
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
4 Back-formation
Back-formation is an abnormal type of word-formation
where a shorter word is derived deleting an imagined affix
from an already existing longer word in the vocabulary.
Affixation and back-formation are two contrary
processes of word-formation. The former is a method of
forming new words by means of affixes while the latter by
cutting imagined affixes.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
According to its origin back-formation may be formed
from the following parts of speech.
a) From nouns ending in –er,-ar,-or,-sion, etc.
to aggress—from aggression
b) From nouns ending in other forms:
to type—from typewriter
c) from noun compounds:
to baby-sit—from baby-sitter
d) From adjectives:
to laze—from lazy
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Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
5 Forming new words by analogy
The process of analogical creation is one of
the tendencies in English word-formation. A new
word or a new phrase is coined by an analogy
between a newly created one and an existing
corresponding one.
There are two types of analogically coined
words: one is single words, the other is phrase.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
a) Single words: the words earthrise and moonrise
are derived from the word sunrise by analogy.
b) phrases: the phrase off-the-job comes from the
phrase on-the-job by means of analogy.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
6 Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia is the oldest device of wordformation used to name a thing or an action by a
vocal imitation of the sound associated with it. In
other words, onomatopoeic words are echoic
words whose sound suggests sense.
Chapter 5
Word-formation in English
Echoic words may be classified into three types
according to their functions.
a) Echoic words in connection with the sound made by
animals: bark—to make the sound that dogs make, sharp
and loud; the sound made by a dog.
b) Echoic words in connection with the sound made by
person: boo—a shout of disapproval or strong
disagreement.
c) Echoic words in connection with the sound made by
things: bang—to strike sharply; a sudden loud noise.
Chapter 6
English Idioms
6-1-1 The Definition of Idioms
 An idiom is an element of a language that
possesses a unique way of expression based on its
time-honored use.
 An idiom is a fixed group of words or a single
word, or even a sentence, with a special meaning
that cannot be guessed from its structure.
 The meaning of an idiom must be learned as a
whole.
Chapter 6
English Idioms
6-1-2 The significance of Studying English Idioms
 The correct use of idiomatic English must be one of the
main aims for nonnative learners, because learning and
using idioms is the best way to master the language.
 In standard spoken and written English today idiom is an
established, universal and essential element that, used with
care, ornaments and enriches the language.( V.H. Collins
A Book of English Idioms)
Chapter 6
English Idioms
6-1-3 The Features of English Idioms
1. English idioms can be very short or rather long.
(1) An Indian summer
We had a splendid Indian summer last October .
(2) forty winks
I managed to get forty winks after lunch.
Chapter 6
English Idioms
(3) to be all in
After finishing the task ,I was all in (exhausted)
(4) right-hand man
Alice was my right-hand man during the election .
(5) rock the boat
Even if you don't agree with me, you mustn't rock
the boat at this critical time.
Chapter 6
English Idioms
(6) red-letter day
This is a red-letter day for Susan. She made her
first sale to a very important client.
Long idioms:
(1) All good things come to an end.
(2) to be like a bear with a sore head (be badtempered).
(3) to cut one’s coat according to one’s cloth.
Chapter 6
English Idioms
2. English idioms take different structures.
An irregular and illogical structure.
“I’m good friends with him.”
Diamond cut diamond.
棋逢对手，势均力敌
The devil take the hindmost.
落到最后，只好吃亏 (听天由命)
Chapter 6
English Idioms
A regular structure, but the meaning is not clear.
To have a bee in one’s bonnet( head).
(胡思乱想，想的出了神)
out of the world=wonderful
play it by ear (看情况而定)
not lift a finger (袖手旁观)
Most English idioms belong to this category.
Chapter 6
English Idioms
Out of this world
Have you ever tried the cakes in Anna’s cake house?
Yup, their chocolate is just out of the world.

Play it by ear
So, what are we going to do when I visit you in Los Angeles?
I’m not sure yet. Let’s play it by ear.

Not lift a finger
He spends all day stretched out on the sofa and never lift a finger to help.

Chapter 6
English Idioms
3.The idioms which cannot be changed at all are
called fixed idioms.
A Stitch in time saves nine.
You’d better fix the leak in the roof before it gets worse.
After all, a stitch in time saves nine.
Bone of the bone and flesh. (血肉关系)
Our army is bone of the bone and flesh of the people.
To come to a bad end. (死无葬身之地)
Chapter 6
English Idioms
4. An English idiom has a special meaning.

To rain cats and dogs.
猫和狗向来是宿敌，打起架来总是闹的天翻地覆，号叫和尖
锐的撕叫声，就像是雷雨交加，也因此用“下猫下狗”来比喻下
着倾盆大雨。也有人说，过去的地下排水系统不好，只要一连下
好几天大雨，野猫野狗被淹死的尸体便在街上四处漂浮。
另外一个关于此语的起源是，北欧的神话中，控制暴风雨的
女巫通常都会化身为黑猫，而海上的水手们见到猫便会知道暴风
雨即将袭来，他们之间还流传着一句成语：
"The cat has a gale of wind in her tail “
(猫尾巴里藏大风)
Chapter 6
English Idioms
不只是看到猫表示天气不好，狗也是大风
的象征。若是暴风雨之神奥丁（Odin）带着猫
狗一起来，那么就会大雨滂沱，狂风大作。
When we were well on the way, it began to rain
cats and dogs.
Chapter 6
English Idioms
5. English idioms are not only used as colloquial
expressions, they can also be found in formal
situations, in poetry or fiction, or in slang. Many
idioms can be used in any situation. (see 6-1-4)
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English Idioms
6. Some idioms consist of obsolete words.
1.For the sake of safety, you must keep all medicines away from children.
2.She ran hither and thither in the yard.=in all directions
3." Stop thief, " cried Smith as he ran. Others joined him, and soon there
was a hue and cry.=angry protests about something
4.Chinese people living all over the world are our kith and kin.=friends
and relations 居住在世界各地的华人都是我们的骨肉同胞。
5.At one o'clock in the afternoon, Tom was pacing to and fro in his office,
now smiling grimly, now drawing his brows together in a frown .
午后一点钟了。屠维岳在自己房里来回踱着，时时冷笑，又时时
皱着眉头。
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English Idioms
7. English idioms represent a semantic unit, though they
contain a group of words.
make up one’s mind = decide
look down upon = despise
8. English idioms are usually made of commonly-used
words.
cry for the moon
put the cart before the horse
turn up one’s nose at=show distain for
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English Idioms
1.This is a chance once in a blue moon.（千载难逢）
2. Deciding what to wear before you’ve even been invited to
the party is rather putting the cart before the horse, isn't it?
(本末倒置)
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English Idioms
9. English idioms are often created on the basis
of alliteration, rhyme, euphony and repetition.

Alliteration: black and blue
遍体鳞伤的
first and foremost
首要的
part and parcel
重要的部分
time and tide wait for no man
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English Idioms

Repetition :
again and again 反复，再三
by and by
不久，马上
by little and little 逐渐的，一点一点地
over and over (again)
wear and tear
磨损
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English Idioms

Rhyme:
dine and wine 吃喝
here and there
out and about 彻底地
rough and tough 粗野的
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English Idioms

Many idioms may produce euphonic effect
according to their sounds and structures.
Examples are:
A stitch in time saves nine.
an eye for an eye (and a tooth for a tooth)
Beggars cannot be choosers. 不能挑肥拣瘦
Look before you leap.
First come, first served.
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English Idioms
6-1-4 English Idioms in Different styles.
1. Idioms used in colloquial style.
a bird’s-eye view (全局观念)
If you have a bird’s-eye view of a situation, you’ll
have a clear idea of what’s happening.
a little bird (消息灵通人士)
How did you known they broke up?
Ah, a little bird told me.
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English Idioms
a rainy day 艰难的日子
You should save a little money for a rainy day.
cut to the chase 之切主题
Don’t talk too much- just cut to the chase, ok?
fat chance=slim chance; little chance
It’s a fat chance of your winning the jackpot in the
lottery.
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English Idioms
Similar examples are:
To Serve someone right (罪有应得)
No buts about it=no doubts bout it
A cat-and-dog life (水火不容的生活)
Down to the ground=perfectly; completely
To fill the bill=to be exactly suitable
Shoot the works (尽情享受)
Born yesterday (单纯的，易上当的)
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English Idioms
2.Idioms used in any situation:
to pass over=try not to mention something
Let us pass over his rude remarks in silence.
to go over
I’ll go over the explanation of how it works.
The police went over the gun for fingerprints.
to go along=agree with
We’ll go along with your suggestion.
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English Idioms
3.Idioms used in formal situations:
come to the point
Attention! Now I’m coming to the point.
at random
She took a book at random and sat down with it open on
her lap.
In return (for sb.)
I bought him a drink in return for his help.
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English Idioms
4.Idioms used as slang
carry coal to Newcastle
To write another book on the same topic means to carry coal to
Newcastle.
eat like a horse
The little boy eats like a horse though he is only nine.
every dog has its day
Though I’m humble now every dog has its day.
to put the screw on someone=force sb. to do sth.
to butter up=to flatter someone
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English Idioms
6-1-5 The Difference Between Idiomatic and
Free Phrases
Free phrases are ones in which the meaning can be
guessed from their components. Sometimes the same
phrasal verbs can be used as free phrases as well as
idioms. For example:
“We got up early everyday.” (free phrase)
“The students will get up an English evening next month.
(idiom, meaning ‘to arrange’ or perform’)
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English Idioms
Idiomatic phrases with a special meaning that
cannot be guessed from the combination of actual
words used. For example:
blue book=an official report
cold comfort=a wet blanket
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English Idioms

There are three types of phrasal verbs:
1) Verb+adverb, as in:
Please take the children in; it’s getting too cold out
here. (Free phrase)
Were you really taken in by an old trick like that?
(Idiom)
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English Idioms
2) Verb+preposition, as in:
The quickest way to go about the city is by underground
train. (Free phrase)
How do you go about building a boat? (Idiom) =start
3) Verb+adverb+preposition, as in:
You can put the shelf up with a hammer and nails. (Free
phrase)
I can’t put up with him; he’s always complaining. (Idiom)
=bear
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English Idioms
6-2-1 Classifications of English Idioms
There are five groups of idioms in English:
 Idiomatic expressions with specific grammatical
structures
 Phrases identified with the familiar parts of
speech
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English Idioms



Idioms not correlative with a given grammatical
part of speech
Idioms expressing greeting, surprise, praise, or
criticism
Proverbs
Chapter 6
English Idioms
1 Idiomatic expressions with specific
grammatical structures
(1) With specific morphological structures:
a) double genitive case of pronoun noun：
In the phrase a friend of mine, of mine is a
double genitive case of a pronoun. But we
cannot say ‘a friend of me,’ although of me is a
grammatically normal genitive case.
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English Idioms
a play of Shakespeare’s= a play of Shakespeare.
（But the former is rich in emotive charge.）
a picture of the student ≠a picture of the student’s
b) the superlative degree of an adjective in
place of the comparative degree of it:
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English Idioms
c) the conversion of one word class into another:
In English idioms almost any word class can be
converted into another word class.
There are four kinds of conversion according
to word classes:
(a) the conversion of adjectives into verbs :
Sorrow greyed his head.
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English Idioms
(b) the conversion of nouns into verbs :
He bridles his anger.
(c) the conversion of adverbs into nouns:
Every why has a wherefore.=reason
Never mind the why(s) and wherefore(s) .
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English Idioms
(d) the conversion of prepositions into nouns:
the ins and outs
(i) the political party in office and the political party out
of office;
(ii) the various parts and difficulties :
to be seen when something is looked at in detail.
(来龙去脉)
But me no buts=Don’t argue with; Don’t give me
excuse)
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English Idioms
(2) With specific syntactical structures:
a) adverbial clauses of concession joined by the
conjunction ‘as’:
Troubled as he was, he never exposed his
difficulties to her.
Predicative+ as+ subject+ link verb is called a
partial conversion
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English Idioms
(b) the imperative sentence+ the
imperative sentence joined by a comma:
waste not ,want not.
(c) the imperative sentence + the
declarative sentence introduced by and
Talk of the devil and he will appear.
(If you talk of the devil, he is sure to appear.)
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English Idioms
2 Phrase identified with the familiar parts of
speech:
(1) Noun phrase:
a) adjective + noun:
green fingers — skills as a gardener
an early bird —somebody who gets up or arrives early
bad blood—angry feeling
narrow escape
white elephant
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English Idioms
b) noun + noun :
zip code—post code
brain drain
monkey business— mischievous or dishonest
behaviors
top dog—the person in the highest or most important
position
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English Idioms
c) noun + and + noun :
flesh and blood— human beings; relatives.
son and heir— the first son
odds and ends— a variety of small items , the pieces left
over.
part and parcel—a most important part
rank and file—the common soldiers
the pros and cons—the arguments for and against a
matter
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English Idioms
d) noun + preposition + noun:
a bed of roses— a happy comfortable state
(not) a ray of hope— (no) some grounds of hope
a storm in a tea-cup— a violent agriculture over a trifle
a bag of bones—a a very thin person
a drugs on the market—goods which no one wishes to
buy
a pie in the sky—a Utopian plan or suggestion
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English Idioms
e) noun + ’s + noun :
somebody’s Sunday best—somebody’s best
clothes
a dog’s life—miserable life
the lion’s share—the greatest part
cat’s paw (被人利用的人)
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English Idioms
(2) Adjective phrases:
a) adjective + and + adjective:
high and mighty— too proud
rough and ready— simple without comfort
high and dry— without help
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English Idioms
b) preposition + noun:
on edge—nervous
at second-hand—obtained from others
on the go—working all the time
on pins and needles—worried; nervous
in the original
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English Idioms
c) adjective + preposition:
indifferent to—not interested in; not caring
about or noticing
applicable to—able to have an effect on;
directed towards
ashamed of—feeling shame , guilt, sorrow
(because of something done)
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English Idioms
d) as + adjective + as:
as drunk as a lord—very drunk
as busy as a bee—very busy
as happy as a sand boy—very happy
as cool as a cucumber—very calm and brave
as fit as a fiddle—in very good health
as like as two beans/peas—very similar
as dark as pitch—extraordinarily dark
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e) noun + and + noun
life-and-death—serious ,crucial, deciding between life
and death
blood and thunder—full of meaningless action, violence
(and noise)
bread-and-butter—concerned with the things that are
necessary for life
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3)Verbal phrases:
A) Verb+ preposition —prepositional verbs
a) intransitive verb + preposition:
to look after—to take care of
to look into—to investigate; to examine
to go against—to act in opposition to
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English Idioms
b) transitive verb +preposition:
to put at—to guess (something) to be to (something)
to get into—to put (oneself or someone else) into a bad
condition
to keep to—to keep something private to oneself
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English Idioms
2 The patterns of verb +adverb can be
subdivided into two groups.
a) intransitive verb+ adverb
to call up— to telephone
to come back — to become fashionable or
popular again
to get back— to return ,especially to one’s
home
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English Idioms
b) transitive verb +adverb
to get down—to swallow with difficulty
to make over— to change
to keep back—to keep silent about
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English Idioms
3 verb +adverb+ preposition. (prepositional phrasal
verbs)
a) intransitive verb +adverb +preposition
to come out with—to say ,especially suddenly or
unexpectedly: to publish
to go in for—to take part in (a test of skill or
knowledge)
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English Idioms
b) transitive verb +adverb +preposition
to put down to—to state that (something) is
caused by (something)
to talk out of—to persuade (someone) not to
do (something)
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English Idioms
4) Adverbial phrases
a) noun +and +noun
head and shoulder—much better at
something than everyone else
body and soul—heart and soul
right and left—in large number, from every
side
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English Idioms
b) adverb +and +adverb
It should be noted that the order of the two
adverbs is fixed by usage and cannot be changed.
up and down—backwards and forward
over and over—repeatedly
on and on—without stopping
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English Idioms
c) preposition +noun
Most adverbial phrases consist of preposition
+noun
as one man—with the agreement of everyone
by all means—certainly
by no means—not at all
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English Idioms
d) noun +adverb (or-ed participle)
hands down—win easily
all together—altogether
sight unseen—without a chance of seeing or
examining
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English Idioms
e) preposition + noun + and + noun
through fair and foul— at all times: in both bad
and good fortune
between the devil and the deep (blue) sea—
facing two choices ,both of which are bad
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English Idioms
3 Idioms not correlative with a given
grammatical part of speech
Phraseological idioms, which are an entire
clause in length, do not readily correlate with a
given grammatical part of speech.
They cannot be changed from the active voice
to the passive voice.
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English Idioms
a) transitive verb + noun (direct object)
blow town— leave a place quickly
ring a bell— sound familiar
play the (old) violin— try to get sympathy
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English Idioms
b) transitive verb + pronoun
to catch it—to be in trouble with someone for
doing something wrong; get scolded or punished
to make it—to arrive in time; to succeed
to go it—to proceed in a rapid or furious
manner
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English Idioms
c) transitive verb + object + prepositional phrase:
to put one’s head into the lion’s mouth—to take
a great risk
to cast sb. in the role of the villain—fix blame
on sb.
to cast light on sth— make sth. clearer
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English Idioms
d) transitive verb + noun + infinitive:
to keep [save] one’s breath to cool one’s
porridge—to keep silent because talking will not
help
to make (both) ends meet—to get just enough
money for one’s needs
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English Idioms
e) transitive verb + noun + -ing participle, or –ed
participle, or adjective
to do one’s heart good — to give satisfaction;
to please
to have one’s hands full— to be very busy
to keep the ball rolling— to keep the
conversation, etc. going
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English Idioms
f) verb + adjective:
to go red— to blush
to look green— to look sick
to come clean— to admit one’s guilt; to tell the
unpleasant truth
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English Idioms
g) adverbial clause:
if the worst comes to the worst—if the worst
difficulties happen; if there is no better way
when hell freezes over—never
when it comes to—to be about to; to be in the
field of
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English Idioms
h) the construction of the participle:
other things being equal—if conditions
are or were the same or alike except for the point
in question
weather permitting—if the weather is good
enough
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English Idioms
i) verb + noun + adverb :
to come out in the wash— (of something
shameful ) to become known
to give up the ghost— to die
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English Idioms
4 Idioms expressing greeting, surprise, praise or
criticism.
Here are a number of habitual expressions in
daily conversation which have a meaning that can
not be inferred from the meaning of their
individual words.
Chapter 6
English Idioms
Examples are:
How do you do ? (a polite style , used when
introduced to someone , in later meetings, say : How
are you ? )
How are you doing ? ( an informal greeting
to a friend , used in the United States)
You don’t say (so ). (an expression of
slight surprise)
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English Idioms
5 Proverbs
Proverbs are a special kind of English idioms.
According to their structures English proverbs have the
following groups:
a) the elliptical sentence:
Like father, like son.
Wine in, truth out.
Easy come, easy go.
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English Idioms
b) the simple sentence:
Practice makes perfect.
Every dog has his day.
A fault confessed is half redressed
They have been more and more stable in
structure , and become commonly-used idioms
in Modern English, while their original proverbs
become clichéd:
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English Idioms
Birds of a feather is derived from the
proverb Birds of a feather flock together,
and is used as an idiom to indicate “people
of the same sort,” as in the sentence：
“The neighbors thought that she and her
boyfriend were birds of a feather.”
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English Idioms
c) the imperative sentence:
‘to grasp the nettle’ is an example derived fro
the proverbs “Grasp the nettle and it won’t sting
you ,” and is used as an idiom to indicate ‘to
attack a difficult situation or problem with bold
determination,’ as in the sentence, “We are
wasting time in talk; let us grasp the nettle and
start work.” （勇敢地克服艰难）
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English Idioms
d) the composed sentence
Never trouble troubles till trouble
troubles you.
You scratch my back and I’ll scratch
yours. (捧别人场) — If one person furthers
the interests of another , the other will also
further his interests in return.
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English Idioms
e) the complex sentence:
All that glitters is not gold— Not everything
that seems good is gold.
If a thing is worth doing, it is worth doing well.
(不要半途而废)
Make hay while the sun shines. (及时把握机会)
strike while the iron is hot.=Seize a good
opportunity
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English Idioms
6-2-2 English Idioms Around Different
Subjects
1. Idioms containing names of birds and animals:
(1) a bird’s eye view —— wide view seen from
high up .
(2) to follow like sheep —— to follow blindly .
Chapter 6
English Idioms
some more examples:
(3) no spring chicken —— no longer young .
She needs lots of make-up to hide the fact that
she’s no spring chicken .
(4) take the bull by the horns —— face a problem
directly .
You need to take the bull by the horns .
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English Idioms
2. Idioms containing names of parts of the
human body .
(1) to get one’s back up —— to become or
to make angry .
(2) to cross one’s fingers —— to cross two
fingers of one hand for good luck .
Some more examples:
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English Idioms
(3) have the upper hand —— gain control .
（ 占上风；处于有利地位）
At last he got the upper hand over his opponent
and out knocked him .
(4) shut/close sb’s eyes to sth —— refuse to see
or take notice of sth.
The lock government shuts its eyes to pollution.
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English Idioms
3. Idioms involving colors :
(1) to look green —— to look sick .
(2) a bolt from the blue —— sth quite unexpected .
The news came like a bolt from the blue .
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English Idioms
4. Idioms containing words related to clothes:
(1) to fit like a glove —— to fit perfectly .
(2) be in sb. shots —— in sb’s difficulties or
problems .
I would not want to be in her shoes.
(3) keep sth under sb's hat —— keep it secret .
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English Idioms
5. Idioms involving time
(1) like clock-work —— smoothly
All work will be finished like clock-work.
(2) lose the day —— not win the day
(3) up to the minute —— fashionable
Her clothes are always right up to the minute.
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English Idioms
6.Idioms involving flowers and plants
(1) to nip the bud —— to destroy at an early stage
(2)hide sb's light under a bushel —— be modest
(3)in the bloom of youth —— in full beauty of
youth
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English Idioms
7.Idioms containing words related to fruit
(1) a hard nut to crack —— a problem difficult
to solve
(2) a bad apple —— a person who has a bad
influence
(3) go bananas —— go crazy
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English Idioms
8. Idioms involving food and cooking
(1) eat humble pie —— be very apologetic
When he realized his mistake ,he had to eat
humble pie.
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English Idioms
(2) a good egg —— sb. who you can depend on to
be honest, kind ,etc.
I had a letter from a good egg who used to own
the corner shop.
(3) sell /go like hot cakes —— sell quickly or in
great numbers
The book sold like hot cakes and we had to print
another ten thousand copies.
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English Idioms
9. Idioms containing words related to shapes or
measures
(1) bring sth. into line —— cause sth to conform
He managed to bring the whole committee into
line.
(2) reach the end of the line —— reach the point
of where it breaks down
There friendship reach the end of the line.
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British and American English
8-1-1 English as a Language of Worldwide Use
Users include three major groups:
1) speak English as native language (United States,
Britain, Ireland, etc.);
2) use English as second language (India, Pakistan,
Nigeria);
3) speak and write English as a foreign language
(China, Germany, Japan)
Chapter 8
British and American English
8-1-2 British and American English
English（under the influence of geography，history，
culture and social customs）
British English
used in
British Isles
States
Australia
New Zealand
American English
used in
the United
Canada
Chapter 8
British and American English


British and American English should be
regarded as two different forms of one
language，not two different language.
Why does American English differ from
British English？
Chapter 8
British and American English
Firstly, British English itself changed in the
course of time.
cafeteria highlight
 Secondly ，American English has acquired a
character of its own.
moose congress

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British and American English
8-1-3 The History Background of American English
 The development of English Language in
America can be separated into three
periods :
Chapter 8
British and American English
1. The first period extends from the
settlement of Jamestown in 1607 to the
end of colonial time.
2. The second period covers the expansion
of the original thirteen colonials.
3. The third period， since the civil war，is
marked by an important changes in the
sources from Which the immigrants came.
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British and American English

As time went by the English language
gradually changed on both sides of the
Atlantic. The Americans adopted many
words from foreign languages and invented
large numbers of
new words to meet their various needs.
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British and American English

With the rapid development of modern mass media and the
common needs of economic，cultural and political exchanges,
American English will be more widely used in the world than
British English.
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British and American English
8-2-1Differences between British English and American English
Grammatical differences between British English
and American English are few .The more
noticeable difference are phonetic and especially
lexical. The tendency is towards uniformity and
better understanding between the people of the
two counties, as the modes of communication
have improved.
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British and American English
8-2-2 Difference In Individual Sounds
(1)Americans prefer to use flat \a\ , similar
to \æ\.
For example：
Bag dad path grass
But Englishmen currently used \a\ .
Chapter 8
British and American English
(2)Americans prefer to use \r\ at the end of
words car, etc. or before consonants as in
hard ,etc ;in British English the \r\ is not
pronounced.
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British and American English
(3) Words in stressed syllable spelled with a
letter o followed by a single explosive
consonant, such as dog, not, stop are
pronounced by British speakers with a
rounded and short vowel , whereas in
America, people use with no rounding of
lips.
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British and American English
(4) Words beginning with wh in which when
why etc. are pronounced differently in
British and American English, e.g.
when why
[BrE] \wen\ \wai\
[ArE] \’hwen\ \hwi\
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British and American English
(5)The letter a is consonant combinations
aft ,ask,ass,ath and ance is pronounced as
 \a:\. In British English, whereas a is pronounced
as \a\ in American English.
 advance
dance
 [BrE]\əd’va:ns\

\da:ns\
 [ArE]\əd-’van(t)s\

\dan(t)s\
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British and American English
(6)Diphthongs in British English are
replaced by long vowels in American
English.
/ei/ by /a/
/eə/ by /e/
/əu/ by /o/
/iə/ by /i/
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British and American English
7)In British English four-syllabled
words ending in –ary or –ery are
pronounced as three syllables.
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British and American English
8)/ʌ/ in British English is pronounced as /ə/
in American English.
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British and American English
9)Note the striking differences in
pronunciation of certain words as
lieutenant, schedule, etc.
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British and American English
8-2-3 Differences in Stress
(1)Pronunciation of longer words:


British English tends to stress strongly one
syllable, usually the first and hurries over the
rest of the word.
American English tends to put the stress on the
first syllable but also to put a secondary stress
on the latter syllable and pronounces the
remaining syllables more distinctly.
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British and American English
(2)Different stresses on the same
words
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British and American English
8-2-4 Differences in Spelling

American spelling differs in small sides from British
spelling. Let us make a comparison between with them.
1)
2)
3)
4)
-our
-or
-ce
-se
-xion
-en
-in
[BrE]
colour
honour
defence
licence
offence
connexion
endorse
enquire
[AmE]
color
honor
defense
license
offense
connection
indorse
inquire
Chapter 8
British and American English
8-2-5 Differences in Vocabulary
In American English there are three types of
vocabulary.
1. The general vocabulary :
The general vocabulary comprises the great majority of word
stock which is exactly the same in both British and American
English:
cold,fish,hot,moon,sun,woman
and many others.
Chapter 8
British and American English
2. Survivals (Vestiges) of British English :
To collide, which was archaic in British
English, is used in American English, and
then returns to British usage.
Dead wrong and dead right were first
used in England, then they become
widespread in American, and now can be
found in British English.
So are the following words.
Chapter 8
British and American English
Mad for angry, mad is a survival of the
thirteenth century English.
Sick for ill, sick appeared in the ninth
century and was replaced by ill in the
fifteenth century.
Fall for autumn, fall is also a survival
of older British usage.
Chapter 8
British and American English
3. The American word stock:
Conservation and innovation are two major
features of American English.
 On the one hand ,American English has
preserved certain older features of the language
which have disappeared from British English. A
number of survivals of British English mentioned
above represent conservation of the American
vocabulary.
Chapter 8
British and American English
8-2-6 Differences in Grammar
Grammatical differences between British and
American English are few and trivial. But
nonnative should understand these small
differences in order to use them correctly.
e.g.
1) I wish I could have gotten here sooner. [AmE]
I wish I could have got here sooner. [BrE]
Chapter 8
British and American English
2)The new term begins on September1.
[BrE]
The new term begins September 1.
[AmE]
3)How many brothers do you have?
[AmE]
How many brothers have you? [BrE]
Chapter 8
British and American English
4) I feel guilty because I haven’t written her
lately. [AmE]
I feel guilty because I haven’t written to her
lately. [BrE]
5) I’d like to talk with Mr. Johns or Mr. Smith.
[AmE]
I’d like to talk to Mr. Johns or Mr. Smith.
[BrE]
Chapter 8
British and American English

6) I enclosed some photographs in my letter. [AmE]
I enclosed some photographs with my letter. [BrE]

7) I lived on Washington Street. [AmE]
I lived in King Street. [BrE]

8) The house needs painting. It’s in bad conditions.
[AmE]
The house needs painting. It’s in a bad conditions.
[BrE]
Chapter 8
British and American English
8-3-1 A Comparison Between Webster’s
Pronunciation Symbols (WPS) and International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)
 e. g WPS\ə\=IPA/ə/:

The symbol \ə\ is found in unstressed
syllables as in banana, collide, about, etc.

banana \bə-’na-nə\=∕bə’na:nə；bə’nænə∕

collide
\kə-’lid\=∕ kə’ laid；kə’laid ∕

about
\ə-’ bət\=/ə’ bʌt; ə’ bʌt/
Chapter 8
British and American English
The neutral vowel \ə\may be stood for any
of the letters a,e,I,o,u,y and many
combination of letters. These unstressed
vowels are pronounced as \ə\=/ə/ in
American and British speech.
Chapter 8
British and American English
8-3-2 British and American English in the Future
 What will be the future tendency in the
development of British English and American
English?
 British English and American English will be one
language, not two different languages.
 British English and American English will be two
major varieties of one language.