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The Human Body as a Whole Mrs. Bailey 1 Anatomy & Physiology Anatomy deals with the structure (morphology) of the body and its parts, in other words, what are things called? Physiology studies the functions of these parts, in other words, how do these things work? 2 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION Refer to page 8 3 BODY SYSTEMS Refer to page 8 1. Integumentary System 2. Skeletal System 3. Muscular System 4. Nervous System 5. Endocrine System 6. Cardiovascular System 7. Lymphatic System 8. Respiratory System 9. Digestive System 10. Urinary System 11. Reproductive System 4 What are the major organs within each of the following body systems … Integumentary System? Skin 5 Skeletal System? Bones & Ligaments 6 Muscular System? Skeletal Muscles & Tendons 7 Nervous System? Brain, Spinal cord, Nerves, Eye, Ear, Nose, Tongue, Skin 8 Endocrine System? Pituitary gland, Adrenals, Pancreas, Thyroid, Parathyroids, etc. 9 Cardiovascular System? Heart, Arteries, Veins, Capillaries 10 Lymphatic System? Lymph nodes, Lymphatic vessels, Spleen, Thymus, Tonsils 11 Respiratory System? Lungs, Bronchial tree, Trachea, Larynx, Nasal cavity 12 Digestive System? Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small and Large Intestines, Liver, Pancreas 13 Urinary System? Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder, Urethra 14 Reproductive System? Male: Testes, Vas deferens, Prostate, Seminal vesicles, Penis Female: Ovaries, Fallopian tubes, Uterus, Vagina, Breasts 15 BODY REGIONS The abdominal cavity can be divided into nine regions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Right Hypochondriac Region Epigastric Region Left Hypochondriac Region Right Lumbar Region Umbilical Region Left Lumbar Region Right Iliac Region Hypogastric Region Left Iliac Region Refer to page 15 Refer to page 14 (Table 1.3) for Descriptive Terms for Body Regions. STUDY … 16 Directional Terms 1. SUPERIOR - means that a body part is above another part or is closer to the head. 2. INFERIOR - means that a body part is below another body part or toward the feet. 3. ANTERIOR – means toward the front. 4. VENTRAL – also means toward the front 5. POSTERIOR – is the opposite of anterior; it means toward the back. 6. DORSAL - also is the opposite of anterior; it means toward the back. 7. MEDIAL – relates to an imaginary midline dividing the body in right and left halves Sample: The nose is medial to the eyes. 8. LATERAL – means toward the side with respect to the imaginary midline. Sample: The ears are lateral to the eyes. 9. PROXIMAL – describes a body part that is closer to a point of attachment or closer to the trunk of the body than another part. Sample: The elbow is proximal to the wrist. 10. DISTAL – is the opposite of proximal. It means that a particular body part is farther from the point of attachment or farther from the trunk of the body than another part. Sample: The fingers are distal to the wrist. 11. SUPERFICIAL – means situated near the surface. 12. PERIPHERAL – also means outward or near the surface. 13. DEEP – describes parts that are more internal. 14. CORTEX - the outer layer of an organ 17 15. MEDULLA - the inner portion of an organ. Let’s practice our Directional Terms … a. The thorax is to the abdomen. b. The heart is c. The hand is to the lungs. to the elbow. d. The navel is on the e. The skin is side of the body. to the muscles. f. The legs are to the trunk. g. The ears are on the side of the head. h. The knee is to the foot. i. The brain is to the cranium. 18 Body Planes Reference positions that gives meaning to the directional terms used to describe the body parts and regions. Refer to page 15 Which plane shows bilateral symmetry? _______________ 19 HOMEOSTASIS The relatively constant states maintained by the body Examples: 1. Thermoregulation 2. Regulation of blood O2/CO2 level 3. Glucoregulation 4. Osmoregulation 20 HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS SENSOR INTEGRATOR EFFECTOR detects some physiological parameter constantly when significant changes occur sums up information from sensors “target” whose activity is altered in order to compensate to bring parameter back into its normal range 21 Negative feedback - a reaction in which the system responds in such a way as to reverse the direction of change. Since this tends to keep things constant, it allows the maintenance of homeostasis. For example, when the concentration of carbon dioxide in the human body increases, the lungs are signaled to increase their activity and expel more carbon dioxide. Positive feedback - the response is to amplify the change in the variable. This has a de-stabilizing effect, so does not result in homeostasis. Positive feedback is less common in naturally occurring systems than negative feedback, but it has its applications. For example, in nerves, a threshold electric potential triggers the 22 generation of a much larger action potential. Thermoregulation Keeping a constant body temperature • The body’s enzymes work best at 37°C (body temperature)! • The temperature of the body is monitored by the hypothalamus. • If you are too cold or too hot the hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to the skin. 23 Thermoregulation SENSOR Temperature receptors in skin INTEGRATOR Hypothalamus EFFECTOR Muscles Refer to page 24 24 Regulation of Blood O2/CO2 level Keeping a constant blood gas level • Homeostasis of blood gases is primarily controlled by changes in ventilation – the rate and depth of breathing • Respiratory centers, located in the brainstem, are the integrators that control the nerves which affect the inspiratory and expiratory muscles. 25 Regulation of Blood O2/CO2 level Refer to page 730 26 Glucoregulation Keeping a constant blood sugar level • Insulin is a hormone that reduces the level of glucose in the blood. When you eat carbohydrates (potatoes, bread, rice or pasta) your digestive system releases lots of glucose. This glucose is absorbed into the blood. The sugar level must be returned to normal as soon as possible. • When the blood sugar level rises, the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas release insulin into the blood. Insulin makes the liver turn glucose into glycogen, which is stored. This brings the blood sugar level down. When blood sugar levels are low, the pancreas stops producing insulin, releasing glucose into the blood. This is an example of negative feedback. 27 Glucoregulation 28 Glucoregulation • SENSOR Periphery brain neurons • INTEGRATOR Brain • EFFECTOR Pancreas 29 Osmoregulation keeping a constant amount of water and salts in the blood • Osmoregulation is monitored by the hypothalamus. • When the hypothalamus senses too little water in the blood it sends messages to the pituitary gland which releases the antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH stops the kidneys removing water from the blood. • If you have too much water in your body it moves into your cells by osmosis, causing the cells to swell up and possibly burst. Too much water in the blood stops the hypothalamus signaling the pituitary gland to make ADH, so water is removed from the blood by the kidneys. 30 Osmoregulation Pituitary Gland secretes 31 Osmoregulation • SENSOR Hypothalamus • INTEGRATOR Hypothalamus • EFFECTOR Pituitary gland • Responding organ Kidney 32