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Directorate for Human Capital
Islam in Rural Afghanistan:
Instructor:
Ms. Lyla Kohistany
This presentation is Unclassified
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Why Culture and Religion Matter
“The issue of desecration cannot be resolved
with apologies. Those behind the tragic
incident must be punished and sent to jail,…
we Afghans have rendered countless sacrifices
to protect our religion, with millions embracing
martyrdom and suffering disabilities during
jihad against the Soviet occupation army!”
Maulvi Qayamuddin Kashaf, Leader of
the Afghan Ulema Council
(Photo: Pajhwok Afghan News)
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Directorate for Human Capital
Learning Objectives

TLO#1: Understand the basic tenets of Islam and how they manifest
in rural Afghanistan

TLO#2: Understand how Islam was once in balance with rural
Afghan Society (Musahiban Dynasty) and the presenters perspective
on how this could be again

TLO#3: Understand the historical role of Islam within the context of
Pashtun society and its place within Pashtunwali

TLO#4: Understand the underlying historic tensions between
Pashtun Khans and Mullahs, with Mullahs upsetting the balance of
stability and rising to the forefront of power under the banner of Islam

TLO#5: Understand the historic inability of Mullahs to make peace
and establish stability and that normally Khans or external actors are
required to put things back in balance

TLO#6: Attendees are familiar with some recommendations on how
to deal with Islam when conducting VSO
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BLUF
Directorate for Human Capital
 Afghanistan is a 99% Muslim state
 Islam permeates all aspects of life
 Pashtuns make little distinction between culture
and religion
 Greater tension between Pashtunwali and Sharia in the
Loya Paktia area, less in the South
 Pashtuns consider themselves pious Muslims and
see no forced “conversion” or ever having been
non-Muslim
 You can’t out-Muslim an Afghan, you can’t outPashtunwali a Pashtun
 Abdul Rahman and Taliban have tried, with terror and
force
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BLUF
Directorate for Human Capital
 Islam and Informal Governance MUST be balanced
 Jirga without Mullah is largely ineffective
 Line between Mullah and Malik blurred
 If government courts worked, locals would use them
for conflict resolution related to land, water, etc.
 Taliban Sharia Court not traditional form of dispute
resolution, but more and more accepted due to reach and
enforcement
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Directorate for Human Capital
Islamic Identity in Afghanistan
shahadah
“testimony of faith”
allah-u akbar
“God is greatest”
masjid
(mosque)
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Directorate for Human Capital
Islam: An Abrahamic Faith
Angels & Demons
Monotheism
Prophets
Commonalities?
Judgment Day
Sacred Texts
Heaven
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Directorate for Human Capital
Five Pillars of Islam and Manifestations
 shahadah: lit. “bearing
witness” (kalima)
 salat: “prayer,” 5 x daily
 zakat: “almsgiving”
 sawm (Persian ~ roza):
“fasting” during
Ramadan (ramazan)
 hajj: “pilgrimage” to
Mecca
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Directorate for Human Capital
The Quran-e Sharif (“Holy/Noble Qur’an”)
 Muslims believe the Qur’an
(Arabic ~ “Recitations”) is
revealed word of God
 Muhammad received message
in Arabic during a period of 23
years from Angel Jibril (Gabriel)
 As Allah’s final message to mankind,
Muslims believe that the Qur’an
supersedes all others: the Old
Testament, Gospels, etc.
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Directorate for Human Capital
Hadith (al-hadith) : Narrative
 Oral traditions relating to the words
and deeds of the prophet
 Regarded by all madh’hab as tools
for determining the sunnah
 Estimated from 159,000 - 203,000,
collected hundreds of years after
Muhammad’s death
 Determined by isnad (“chain of
transmission”) and graded
 Six Sunni compilations
 Three Shia compliations
Page from 9th Century
Hadith Collection, Syria
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Directorate for Human Capital
Khorasan: Land of al-Mahdi
 Hadith: "If you see the black flags
coming from Khorasan, join that
army, even if you have to crawl
over ice, for that is the army of the
Imam al-Mahdi and no one can
stop that army until it reaches al-Quds“
 Strength of hadith is disputed, --- but
militants around the world (esp.
Al Qaeda) use it to muster support
for insurgency in AFPAK
 Some even infer Mullah Omar (as
amir ul-mu’minin) or UBL could be
al-Mahdi
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Unclassified
Sources of Authority in Islam
Directorate for Human Capital
Title
Safeguard
Substance
Qur’an
Allah
Collated after Prophet Muhammad’s
death; compiled under Umar and
standardized under Uthman
Aḥadīth
(Traditions or
Sayings)
Prophet Muhammad
6 major compilations in Sunni Islam;
3 major compilations in Shi’ism
Ijmā‘ (Consensus)
Community or
Hidden Imam (Shi’a)
Four Sunni madhhabs;
Shi’a Imam in every age
Qiyās
(analogy)
Qur’an, ahadith, Ijma
Analogical reasoning of jurists with regard
to the teachings of 3 prior sources
Istislāh
(“to deem proper”)
Mujtahid (personal
interpreter)
------------------------------Mujtahid/Marja-e
taqlid
Supported by Hanafi madhhab
Supported by Maliki madhhab
------------------------------------------------Supported by Ja’fari (Shi’a) madhhab
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Directorate for Human Capital
Sectarian Schism: Sunni and Shi’a
 Like Christianity, Islam had its own schism
 Schism over succession of Prophet
Muhammad upon his death
 Sunnis believe that leadership
should be based on consensus of
the community of beleivers (ummah)
 Shiites believe leadership should be
based on Prophet’s bloodline
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Directorate for Human Capital
Schools of Jurisprudence (madh’hab)
 Schools deal with rites (orthopraxis) not sects
 All schools concerned with study and
practical application of jurisprudence ( fiqh )
Madh’hab
Hanafi
Maliki
 Fiqh: The human endeavor to determine the
will of God on any matter; fiqh subject to
error, sharia’h is not
 Muslims in Afghanistan and Pakistan are
majority Sunni Hanafi
 Important Note: Most Muslims are not
overly concerned with the differences
between schools except Sunni-Shi’a split
Shafi’i
Sunni
Hanbali
Ja’ffari
Shi’a
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Directorate for Human Capital
Sufism (tasawwuf)
 Lexical root: ṣūf "wool” (simple
clothing of early ascetics) or
possibly ṣafā "purity"
O Allah! if I worship you
 Mystical tradition that emerged in for fear of hell…
Burn me in hell
early 8th cent. in Iraq / Persia
If I worship you in hope of
paradise…
 Emphasizes internal, spiritual
Exclude me from
dimension of Islam; asceticism paradise
But if I worship you for
 Values insight, union with divine your own sake…
via meditation, music, and
Grudge me not your
everlasting beauty
dance (zhikr, qawwali, sema) to
focus awareness on Allah
- Rabia al-Basra, 8th Cent.
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Directorate for Human Capital
Sufi Orders (Tariqa)
 Sufi teacher known as shaykh or pir ;
murids are followers or disciples
 Hundreds of sufi orders; nearly
universal membership prior to 18thc.
 Some of most prominent tariqat:







Naqshbandi, Baha Din Naqshband (14th c.)
Qadiri, Abd al-Qadir Jilani (12th c.)
Chishti, Mu’in ad-Din Chishti (13th c.)
Shadhili Abu’l-Hasan ash-Shadhili (13th c.)
Bektashi (Alevi), Haji Bektash Wali (13th c.)
Mevlevi, Jalal ad-Din Rumi al-Balkhi (13th c.)
Nimatullahi(Shi’a), Shah Wali Nimatullah (15th c.)
17th c. Mughal painting
showing Sufi founders in
imaginary council
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Overview of Islam in Afghanistan and
South Asia
 Sunni: Hanafi madhhab
 Sunni masalak since the
19th century
 Shi’a: two sub-sects
 Imami or “Twelver”
 Ismai’li or “Sevener”
Sunni
Sufi
Shi’a
Hanafi
Jaffari
Barelvi
Deobandi
madhhab
 Deobandi
 Ahl-e Hadith/Salafi
 Wahhabi
Muslims
Ismai’li
Nizari
Bohra
Hanbali
Wahhabi
 Sufism: both Sunni and
Madhhab (school) in black
Shi’a
Unclassified
Masalak (denomination) in dark blue or grey
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Sunni Muslims in Afghanistan
 Sunni majority, approx. 80% of pop.
 Arrived in early 9th cent.; full conversion by 14th cent.
 Majority of ethnic groups
except for Hazaras (mostly
shia)
 Sufism and Deobandism
influential
 Sunni Political Islam
Shamshir-e Do Masjid in downtown Kabul
 Muslim Youth Organization
 Mujahideen Tanzims (e.g. Jamiat Islami, Hezb-e Islami)
 Taliban
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Directorate for Human Capital
Role of the Mullah
 Persian word derived from Arabic mawla
("vicar", "master" and "guardian“)
 Not always used as a term of respect;
mullahs often subjects for humor
 Normally implies a person with a limited or
incomplete religious education
 In Afghanistan/Pakistan, most mullah’s paid
by local, regional, or tribal leader --- or government
 Community religious leader, provide dispute resolution on
family/personal issues; great orator; collects zakat tax
 Rise of Taliban changed traditional role of mullah
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Role of Mosque (Masjid)
 Center of religious life in rural areas/
“Community Center”
 Site of communal Friday prayer
 Hujrah is communal space
adjacent to mosque to
accommodate guests/visitors
 Madrassa: school focused on
memorization of Quran
 Madaris/mosques supported by
wafq (an Islamic communal trust
fund and educational board)
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Directorate for Human Capital
Denomination: Salafism
 Sunni revivalist movement started in the
19th century (but claims earlier)
 Advocates return to practices of original
ummah in 7th century; --- often Islamist
Anachronistic reconstruction of
the banner of the as-salaf salih
 Pious predecessors (first three
generations) of Muslims are exemplary:
 Sahaba ("Companions“)
 Tabi‘un ("Followers")
 Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in ("Those after the Followers")
 Not monolithic – has undergone many
structural and ideological changes
The Muslim Defense Force, a selfdeclared Salafi organization, stages
protest against “crusaders” in UK
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Denomination: Wahhabism
 Sunni Reformist movement founded by
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
(1703-1792)
 Influenced by ibn Hanbal , ibn Tamiyyah,
spartan desert upbringing
 Additions to Islam after Prophet and first four caliphs
is bidah (“innovation”) – including maddhabs
 18th c. reform movement that forged an
alliance with House of Saud (Hanbali)
 Advocates “puritanical” version of Islam;
rejection of Sufism/hostility towards Shiism
 Petro-dollars used to export interpretation
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Wahhabism and Salafism Compared
Name
Overview
Founder or
Prominent Thinkers
wahhabiyya
or
muwahhidun
(“unitarians”)
or
ahl-e hadith
(South Asia)
Reformist
(“puritanical”)
movement
Origin: 18th c.
Arabia (Nejd);
Saudi Arabia
ibn Hanbali (d. 240
AH / 855 AD);
Muhammad ibn
Abd al-Wahhab (d.
1206 AH / 1792 AD)
salafiyya
or
ahl-assunnah
Revivalist
as-salaf as-salih
movement
(“pious
predecessors”) or
Origin: 7th c.
first three Muslim
Arabia (Hejaz)
generations;
-or- 19th c.
Muhammad Abduh
Egypt (esp.
(d. 1905 AD); et al
al-Azhar)
madh’hab
and kalam
Central Beliefs
Hanbali
madh’hab;
Athari
theology
tawhid: uniqueness
and unity of God;
Islam must be
purged of impurities
and heretical
practices, esp. shirk
and bid’ah
Disavow all
madh’hab
as unnecessary;
Athari
theology
Same as above
to incl.
Imitation of the salaf
should be the basis of
social order
Note: As a general rule of thumb; many Wahhabi might also consider
themselves Salafi, --- but not all Salafi regard themselves as Wahhabi
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Denomination: Deobandism
 Ahmad Sarhindi
 Purify Islam of Hindu influence, return to Sunnah
 Shah Waliullah (d. 1762) - Indian Sufi
 Pilgrimage to Mecca/Medina
 Contemporary of al-Wahhab
 Islam an individual pursuit
Dar ul-Uloom Madrassa, Deoband,
Uttar Pradesh, India
 1865-66: Indian Roots
 Dar-ul-Uloom University
 Hanafi fiqh and al-Ashari theology
 Many teachers associated with Naqshbandi and
Qadari tariqas
 Anti-Colonial Revivalist movement that emerged in
wake of the 1857 “Indian Mutiny”
UNCLASSIFIED
 Late 1800’s – early 1900’s: Generated hundreds of
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Deobandi Details
 Beliefs
 Movement seeks to purify Islam of syncretism and popular
devotional practices, seen as being “Hindu”
 Over time, became more strict, austere, and anti-Barelvi
 Rejects popular mysticism
 Affiliations
 Strong madaris network, represented by the Wafq-ulMadaris al-Arabia in Pakistan
 Pashtun-majority JUI political parties in Pakistan
 Pakistani Militant groups
 Taliban groups and “Talibanism”
UNCLASSIFIED
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Shi’a Sub-sects
 Result of disagreements
over succession of the
Imamate
 Three branches/sects
of Shi’ism:
7
.
 Zaydiyya (“Fivers”)
 Ismai’li (“Seveners”)
 Imami (“Twelvers”)
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Unclassified
Shi’ism in Afghanistan
Directorate for Human Capital
Shi’a masjid
in west Kabul
 Shi’a minority; approx. 19% of pop.
 Shi’ism first appears during
Mongol Ilkhanate (1200 -1300s)
then Safavid Dynasty (1600 - 1700s)
 Afghan Shi’a are Jaffari (“Twelver”)
or Ismai’li (“Sevener”)
 “Dovazdah Imami”: Hazara, Qizilbash,
Tajiks (Farsiwan, Nimruzi, Yazidi, some
Kabuli)
 Ismai’li - Tajiks (Baghlan and Badakhshan),
Pamiri, some Hazara and Qizilbash
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Unclassified
Prominent Afghan Shi’a Leader
Directorate for Human Capital
 Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Asif Muhsini
(aka Mohseni) (b. 1935); Qizilbash Shi’a scholar
 Received training in Qom (Iran) under Ayatollah Khui
(a rival of Khomeini); Kandahar born, speaks Pashto

Many consider him an Islamist, misogynist, and
human rights violator; --- infamous for marriage to underage girl
and advocacy of Shi’a marriage “rape law” in Feb 2009
 Founded Harakat-I Islami-yi Afghanistan in 1978; most effective
military Shi’a mujahidin group against Soviets, later joined NA
against Taliban
 Owner of Tamadon (“Civilisation”) TV station; has visual
appearance and religious content similar to Iranian state-run TV
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Sufism in Afghanistan
 Permeates society (both Afghan
and Pakistani)
 Influences poetry, literature,
music, and folk customs
 Offers alternative to rigid
orthopraxy
 Often blends pre-Islamic or localized
beliefs and customs with Islamic
practices (syncreticism)
 Many sufi pir and waliullah acquire
legendary reputation for heroic feats
or miraculous healing powers
Pir Syed Ahmad
Gailani (b. 1932);
Qadiri tariqat
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Wandering Sufis: Malang, Qalander, or Fakir
 Itinerant sufis who wander the country begging for alms
(similar to the Hindu sadhu); often gather at ziarats and for urs
 Some venerated (if truly pious), some distrusted (as charlatans
and dope-smoking social “drop-outs”)
 Shams-e malang, shab-e palang:
“In daytime, a holy man… but at
night,…a leopard (predator)”
 In past, some renowned for
miraculous powers or having
defeated djinn, dragons, or
monsters
“…The malang is an example of syncreticism, the blending
of Islam with elements of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, or even
older shamanic and animistic beliefs (in Afghanistan)”
--- M. H. Sidky
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Islam in Afghanistan:
S3T
vs.
R3P
Tension
S3T
►
►
►
►
R3P
► Rigid (literalist)
Soft (pluralist)
Sufism
Syncretic(ism)
Traditional
► Revivalist*
► Radicalized**
► Puritanical
Key figures:
malang and pir
Key figures:
mujahidin and taliban
mullah, maulana,
and some mujahidin
* Salafi (Muslim Youth Organization)
** “Jihadi” (Taliban, HQN, AQ)
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Pashtunwali – The Way of the Pashtun
Melmastia
• Hospitality for all visitors
Ghayrat (or Nang)
• Personal honor, self respect, dignity
Nanawati
• Asylum; Acceptance of a surrender;
Protection of those who seek it
Badal
• Justice; Revenge against wrongdoers
Tureh
• Bravery; Defense of land and property
Sabat
• Loyalty to friends, relatives, tribe
Namus
• Honor of women (honor of country)
Tarburwali
• “Law of the Cousins” – hatred, rivalry
Unclassified
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Other Codes of Honor
 Practiced by non-Pashtuns in Afghanistan
 Abdur Zadegi (Tajik)
 Jealousy
 Inheritance
 Competition
 Siyal Misyar (Hazara)
 Baluchmiyar (Baluch)
 Yasa-e Moghali (Uzbek)
 Very prevalent in Northern Afghanistan
Unclassified
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Village Governance
Executive
Karbalayi
Judicial
(Hazara)
Maraka
(Uzbek)
Unclassified
Legislative
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Traditional Conflict Resolution
Pashtun society back in
equilibrium; elders/elites
playing lead roles at
different levels of Jirgas
Mullahs find chiga
(common rally cause)
to unit local tribes
against real or
perceived external
threat
Mullahs retreat to
original role as clerics,
elders/elites take back
leadership
Tribal elites sidelined
and Mullahs/young
Pashtuns assume
leadership
Elites take back seat, don’t
openly challenge mullah for
fear of being labeled as
supporters of infidels
Elites, sensing mood
shift, mobilize elders
to end conflict/restore
peace
Tribesman tire of
conflict and question
wisdom of war and
mullah’s leadership
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Unclassified
Unclassified
So…what happened?
Directorate for Human Capital
 Internal
 Pan-Islamic Ideology
 Muslim Youth Organization: Burhanuddin Rabbani,
Ahmad Shah Massoud, Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, and
Hekmatyar
 Mujahideen/Arabs supporting “jihad” in Afghanistan
 External
 Radicalization of Pakistani Society under Zia ul-Haq
 Destroy traditional Pashtun Islam and replace with an Islam
that respected and acknowledged outside authority
 Influx of Saudi ideology
 Prevention of Shia Iranian influence
 Targeting of Traditional Tribal Structure by Soviet, Taliban
and Tehrik-e Taliban Pakistan (TTP)
Unclassified
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
The “Afghan Arabs” (1980s – Present)
 Arab / other Muslim fighters who
came to help Mujahideen
 Questionable effectiveness as
fighting force
 Attained hero-status for role in
defeat of atheist superpower
Afghan and Arab Mujahidin
cross Pakistan Border to
fight Anti-Soviet Jihad, 1985
 Many stayed and married local Pashtun women;
formed strong bonds with tribes in FATA, RC
East/South
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Mujahideen Groups and Orientations
Leader
Party
Supporters
Orientation
Notes
Gulbuddin
Hekmatyar
Hizb-e Islam
Eastern Pashtuns, Pashai,
Nuristanis,(Konar, Nuristani,
Laghman, Kunduz)
Islamist
b. 1947 -
Younis Khalis
Hizb-e Islam
Khalis
Eastern Pashtuns
(Nangarhar)
Islamist
1999 2006
Burhanuddin
Rabbani
Jamiat-e
Islami
Tajiks and Uzbeks (Panjshir
and Northern Alliance)
Islamist
b. 1940 2011
Abdul Rabb
Rasul Sayyaf
Ittehad-al
Islami
KSA, Gulf states, Ikwan alMuslimeen
Islamist (Wahhabi)
b. 1946 -
Mohammad
Nabi
Mohammadi
Harakat-e
Inqilib-e Islam
Eastern and Southern
Pashtuns (Logar)
Traditionalist
(village-based)
and Islamist
1920 2002
Pir Sayyid
Ahmed Gailani
Mohaz Mille
Islami
Nationalist/Pro-Democracy
Pashtuns, Qadiri tariqat
Nationalist /
Royalist, pro-West
b. 1932 -
Sibghatullah
Mojaddedi
Jabhe Mille
Nejad
Nationalist Pashtuns,
Nasqhbandi tariqat
Nationalist /
Royalist
b. 1926 40
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
The Taliban and Sharia Law
 Pre-Taliban rural governance largely rooted in
Pashtunwali, Jirgas/Shuras
 Pre-Taliban rural religion largely rooted in folk Islam
 Taliban caught between Pashtun ethnic Nationalism
and supra-ethnic Islamic identity
 Taliban governance firmly rooted in fundamentalist
religious law




Ministry for Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice
Demoted role of jirgas/shuras
Claimed some aspects of Pashtunwali were against Islam
However, collectivism gives them credibility (Quetta Shura)
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
A Strange Mix: Folk Islam and Salafism
 Salt collected from “Arab Qabiristan”
(graveyard) in Kandahar for its
blessing and used as miracle cure
 In the east, many shrines, totems,
graveyards destroyed by wahhabi /
salafi Arabs
 Local population killed those responsible
 Example of religious syncreticism
and complexity of debate concerning
what is cultural versus religious
tradition
Shaheed (male) or shaheeda (female)
Honorific title for Muslims who die
fulfilling a religious commandment,
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or while fighting in jihad
Unclassified
Folk Traditions and Superstitions
Directorate for Human Capital
Djinn possession often
attributed as cause of
mental illness, addiction, or
irrational behavior
Ta’weez, protective amulet containing
prayers or verses from Qur’an or Ahadith
Falgeer (Palmistry
Fortune Tellers) in Mazare Sharif with Falnameh
collection
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
The Way Ahead
 Enable traditional village governance
 Include both religious and secular representatives
 Achieve balance between Mullahs and Maliks
 Reach out to moderate Islamic voices (i.e. Jordanians)
who want to assist with de-radicalization
 Practice cultural and religious judo (read the Quran,
Hadiths, understand Codes of Honor)
 Spend funds on religious items (mosques, shrines,
prayer rugs, etc.)
 And remember, be patient and tolerant…
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Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Religious Etiquette
 Mosques (masjid) normally closed to
non-Muslims unless invited or escorted
 Always remove shoes
- socks or bare feet are acceptable
- cover head in masjid (men and women)
 Men and women pray in separate spaces
 Avoid crossing qibla (direction of prayer)
 Polite to state “Peace Be Upon Him” after
referring to “Prophet Muhammad”
 Refer to Isa, Ali and Rashidun as “Hazrat”
(Arabic honorific; literal translation = “Great Presence”)
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Summary
 Identities in Afghanistan are multi-layered and complex, with
religious affiliations as only one of many layers
 Understanding Islam can greatly assist in building rapport,
especially in an ethnically/tribally diverse society such as
Afghanistan where Islam can be a unifying factor
 Religious identity in Afghanistan is not monolithic but may be
characterized by a tension between older pluralist and more
recent reformist (or extremist) interpretive traditions
 Islam permeates all aspects of society, but has historically
served as moral guidelines, not as an all-encompassing
governance mechanism
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Questions and Discussion
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Recommended Reading (Articles)

Mad Mullahs, Opportunists, and Family Connections: The Violent
Pashtun Cycle by Tribal Analysis Center
(http://www.tribalanalysiscenter.com/PDF-TAC/Mad%20Mullahs.pdf)

Islam and Islamism in Afghanistan by Kristen Mendoza
(http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ilsp/research/mendoza.pdf)

Jirga System in Tribal Life by Dr. Sherzaman Taizi
(http://www.tribalanalysiscenter.com/PDFTAC/Jirga%20System%20in%20Tribal%20Life.pdf

Pashtun Tribal Dynamics by Tribal Analysis Center
(http://www.tribalanalysiscenter.com/PDFTAC/Pashtun%20Tribal%20Dynamics.pdf)

Doing Pashto: Pashtunwali as the ideal of honourable behaviour and
tribal life among the Pashtuns by Lutz Rzehak (http://aanafghanistan.com/uploads/20110321LR-Pashtunwali-FINAL.pdf)

How Tribal are the Taleban? by Thomas Ruttig (http://aanafghanistan.com/uploads/20100624TR-HowTribalAretheTaleban-FINAL.pdf)
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Recommended Reading (Articles)

Being Pashtun - Being Muslim by Bernt Glatzner
(http://www.khyber.org/publications/021-025/glatzer1998.pdf)

Legal Authorities in the Afghan Legal System (1964-1979) by Bruce
Etling (http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ilsp/research/etling.pdf)

Tribal Law of Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority by
Palwasha Kakar
(http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ilsp/research/kakar.pdf)

Local Governance in Rural Afghanistan by Human Terrain SystemAfghanistan
(http://publicintelligence.net/human-terrain-system-report-local-governancein-rural-afghanistan/)

The Political Economy of Customary Village Organizations in Rural
Afghanistan by Jennifer Brick (http://www.bu.edu/aias/brick.pdf)

Hindustani Fanatics, India’s Pashtuns, and Deobandism – Connections
by Tribal Analysis Center (http://www.tribalanalysiscenter.com/PDFTAC/Hindustani%20Fanatics.pdf)
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Recommended Reading
Unclassified
Directorate for Human Capital
Recommended Reading (Books)

No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam (2006)
by Reza Aslan

Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes (2009)
by Mir Tamim Ansary

Jirgas: The Pashtun Way of Conflict Resolution (2009) by Dr. Khan Idris

After the Prophet: The Epic Story of the Shia-Sunni Split (2009)
by Lesley Hazleton

God’s Terrorists: The Wahhabi Cult and the Modern Roots of Modern Jihad
(2006) by Charles Allen

Islam in Tribal Societies: From the Atlas to the Indus (1984)
Edited by Akbar S. Ahmed and David M. Hart

Chapter 9 - Holier than Thou: Islam in Three Tribal Societies by Richard Tapper

Chapter 10 – Tribal Warfare in Afghanistan and Pakistan: A Reflection of the Segmentary
Lineage System by Louis Dupree

Chapter 13 – Religious Presence and Symbolism in Pukhtun Society by Akbar S. Ahmed