Download Unit 2: Cellular Processes Study Guide Big Idea 2: Biological

Unit 2: Cellular Processes Study Guide
Big Idea 2: Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks
to grow, to reproduce and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.
2.a.1 All living systems require constant input of free energy. 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 9.1. 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5
10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 40.1, 40.2, 40.3, 40.4 51.4, 53.2, 53.4, 55.2, 55.3
Concept 8.1 An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy, subject to the laws of
thermodynamics
1. Define metabolism.
2. There are two types of reactions in metabolic pathways: anabolic and catabolic.
a. Which reactions release energy?
b. Which reactions consume energy?
c. Which reactions build up larger molecules?
d. Which reactions break down molecules?
e. Which reactions are considered “uphill”?
f. What type of reaction is photosynthesis?
g. What type of reaction is cellular respiration?
h. Which reactions require enzymes to catalyze reactions?
3. Contrast kinetic energy with potential energy.
4. Which type of energy does water behind a dam have? A mole of glucose?
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Concept 8.2 The free-energy change of a reaction tells us whether the reaction occurs
spontaneously
1. What is free energy? What is its symbol?
2. For an exergonic reaction, is ∆G negative or positive?
3. Is cellular respiration an endergonic or an exergonic reaction? What is ∆G for this reaction?
4. Is photosynthesis endergonic or exergonic? What is the energy source that drives it?
5. To summarize, if energy is released, ∆G must be what?
Concept 8.3 ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic
reactions
1. List the three main kinds of work that a cell does. Give an example of each.
1.
2.
3.
2. Here is a molecule of ATP. Label it. Use an arrow to show which bond is likely to break.
a. By what process will that bond break?
b. Explain the name ATP by listing all the molecules that make it up.
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3. When the terminal phosphate bond is broken, a molecule of inorganic phosphate Pi
is formed, and energy is ___________________?
For this reaction: ATPADP + Pi, ∆G = __________________________
Is this reaction endergonic or exergonic?
FYI: An essay question on the 2009 AP Biology exam asked students to identify the molecules
that make up ATP. What are they again?
4. What is energy coupling?
In many cellular reactions, a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to some other molecule
in order to make the second molecule less stable. The second molecule is said to be
_________________.
5. Look for this amazing bit of trivia: If you could not regenerate ATP by phosphorylating ADP, how
much ATP would you need to consume each day?
Concept 9.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels
Overview: Before getting involved with the details of cellular respiration and photosynthesis, take a
second to look at the big picture. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are key ecological concepts
involved with energy flow. Use Figure 9.2 to label the missing parts below.
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1. Explain the difference between fermentation and cellular respiration.
2. Give the formula (with names) for the catabolic degradation of glucose by cellular respiration.
3. Both cellular respiration and photosynthesis are redox reactions. In redox, reactions pay attention
to the flow of electrons. What is the difference between oxidation and reduction?
4. The following is a generalized formula for a redox reaction:
Xe - + Y ----> X + Ye Draw an arrow showing which part of the reaction is oxidized and which part is reduced.
___________ is the reducing agent in this reaction, and __________ is the oxidizing agent.
5. When compounds lose electrons, they _________ energy; when compounds gain electrons, they
_________ energy.
6. In cellular respiration, electrons are not transferred directly from glucose to oxygen. Each electron
is coupled with a proton to form a hydrogen atom. Following the movement of hydrogens allows
you to follow the flow of electrons. The hydrogens are held in the cell temporarily by what electron
carrier?
What is a coenzyme? (If you have forgotten, look back to a few pages in Chapter 8.)
7. What is the function of the electron transport chain in cellular respiration?
8. Show the normal, downhill route most electrons follow in cellular respiration:
glucose --> ______________________ --> ____________________ --> oxygen
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9. Understanding the overall map of how cellular respiration works will make the details easier to
learn. Use Figure 9.2 to label the missing information in the figure below.
10.Three types of phosphorylation (adding a phosphate) are covered in the text, and two of these
occur in cellular respiration. Explain how the electron transport chain is utilized in oxidative
phosphorylation.
11.The second form of phosphorylation is substrate level. Label the figure below to show the direct
transfer of a phosphate from a substrate to ADP to form ATP.
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Concept 9.2 Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
1. Why is glycolysis an appropriate term for this step of cellular respiration?
2. The starting product of glycolysis is the six-carbon sugar ________________, and the ending
product is two ____________ carbon compounds termed ____________________.
3. The ten individual steps of glycolysis can be divided into two stages: energy investment and energy
payoff. Label the energy investment stage below; then use Figure 9.9 to find the two specific
stages where ATP is used.
4. The second step in glycolysis is the energy payoff phase. Label this stage. Note that it provides
both ATP and NADH. Look at Figure 9.9 to locate the two stages where ATP is formed and the one
stage where NADH is formed.
5. This final figure shows the net gain of energy for the cell after glycolysis. Most of the energy is still
present in the two molecules of pyruvate. Fill in the chart below and show the net energy gains.
6. Notice that glycolysis occurs in the ____________________ of the cell. What is the relationship
concerning glycolysis and oxygen?
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Concept 9.3 The citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic
molecules
1. To enter the citric acid cycle, pyruvate must enter the mitochondria by active transport. Three things
are necessary to convert pyruvate to acetyl CoA. Complete the missing parts of the chart below
and then explain the three steps in the conversion process.
1)
2)
3)
2. How many times does the citric acid cycle occur for each molecule of glucose?
3. Use Figure 9.11 to help you answer the following summary questions about the citric acid cycle:
a. How many NADHs are formed.
b. How many total carbons are lost as pyruvate is oxidized?
c. The carbons have been lost in the molecule __________ __________ .
d. How many FADH2 have been formed?
e. How many ATPs are formed?
4. The diagram covers only one pyruvate, although two pyruvates are formed from a single glucose.
How many molecules of the following are formed from the breakdown of glucose?
a. NADH = __________ b. FADH2 = __________ c. ATP = __________
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5. The step that converts pyruvate to acetyl CoA at the top of the diagram also occurs twice per
glucose. This step accounts for two additional reduced ____________ molecules and two carbon
dioxide molecules.
6. Explain what has happened to the six-carbon molecules found in the original glucose molecule.
Concept 9.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to
ATP synthesis
1. Oxidative phosphorylation involves two components: the electron transport chain and ATP
synthesis. Referring to Figure 9.13, notice that each member of the electron transport chain is
lower in free __________ than the preceding member of the chain, but higher in
_______________. The molecule at zero free energy, which is __________, is lowest of all the
molecules in free energy and highest in electronegativity.
2. Explain why oxygen is the ultimate electron acceptor. Oxygen stabilizes the electrons by combining
with two hydrogen ions to form what compound?
3. The two electron carrier molecules that feed electrons into the electron transport system are
________________ and __________________.
4. Using Figure 9.14, explain the overall concept of how ATP synthase uses the flow of hydrogen ions
to produce ATP.
5. What is the role of the electron transport chain in forming the H+ gradient across the inner
mitochondrial membrane?
6. Two key terms are chemiosmosis and proton-motive force. Relate both of these terms to the
process of oxidative phosphorylation.
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7. Figure 9.16 is a key to understanding the production of ATP in the mitochondria. In the figure
below, label all locations and molecules. Then use one color to trace the flow of electrons and
another color to show the flow of protons.
8. At this point, you should be able to account for the total number of ATPs that could be formed from
a glucose molecule. To accomplish this, we have to add the substrate-level ATPs from glycolysis
and the citric acid cycle to the ATPs formed by chemiosmosis. Each NADH can form a maximum of
________ ATP molecules. Each FADH2, which donates electrons that activate only two proton
pumps, makes _____ ATP molecules.
9. Use the figure to account for all the ATP molecules formed during cellular respiration. Use the text
to be sure you understand how each subtotal on the bar below the figure is reached.
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10.Why is the total count about 36 or 38 ATP molecules rather than a specific number?
Concept 9.5 Fermentation enables some cells to produce ATP without the use of oxygen
1. Fermentation allows for the production of ATP without using either __________ or any
___________ ______________________________.
2. For aerobic respiration to continue, the cell must be supplied with oxygen—the ultimate electron
acceptor. What is the electron acceptor in fermentation?
3. Explain how alcohol fermentation starts with glucose and yields ethanol. Be sure to stress how
NAD+ is recycled.
4. Explain how lactic acid fermentation starts with glucose and yields lactate. Be sure to stress how
NAD+ is recycled.
5. Using Figure 9.19 as a guide,draw and explain why pyruvate is a key juncture in metabolism.
Concept 10.1 Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food
1. As a review, define the terms autotroph and heterotroph. Keep in mind that plants have
mitochondria and chloroplasts and do both cellular respiration and photosynthesis!
2. Take a moment to place the chloroplast in the leaf by working through Figure 10.3. Draw a picture
of the chloroplast and label the stroma, thylakoid, thylakoid space, inner membrane, and outer
membrane.
3. Use both chemical symbols and words to write out the formula for photosynthesis (use the one that
indicates only the net consumption of water). The formula is the opposite of cellular respiration. You
should know both formulas from memory.
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4. Using 18O as the basis of your discussion, explain how we know that the oxygen released in
photosynthesis comes from water.
5. Photosynthesis is not a single process, but two processes, each with multiple steps.
a. Explain what occurs in the light reactions stage of photosynthesis. Be sure to use NADP+
and photophosphorylation in your discussion.
b. Explain the Calvin cycle, utilizing the term carbon fixation in your discussion.
6. The details of photosynthesis will be easier to organize if you can visualize the overall process.
Label Figure 10.5, below. As you work on this, underline the items that are cycled between the light
reactions and the Calvin cycle.
Concept 10.2 The light reactions convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and
NADPH
This is a long and challenging concept. Take your time, work through the questions, and realize that
this is the key concept for photosynthesis.
1. Some of the types of energy in the electromagnetic spectrum will be familiar, such as X-rays,
microwaves, and radio waves. The most important part of the spectrum in photosynthesis is visible
light. What are the colors of the visible spectrum?
Notice the colors and corresponding wavelengths and then explain the relationship between
wavelength and energy.
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2. Read Figure 10.9 carefully; then explain the correlation between an absorbtion spectra and an
action spectrum.
3. Describe how Englemann was able to form an action spectrum long before the invention of a
spectrophotometer.
4. A photosystem is composed of a protein complex called a ___________-__________ complex
surrounded by several __________-____________ complexes.
5. Within the photosystems, the critical conversion of solar energy to chemical energy occurs. This
process is the essence of being a producer! Using Figure 10.12 as a guide, label the diagram and
then explain the role of the terms in the photosystem.
a. Reaction center complex—
b. Light-harvesting complex—
c. Primary electron acceptor—
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6. Photosystem I is referred to by the wavelength at which its reaction center best absorbs light, or
P__________; photosystem II is also known by this characteristic, or P__________.
7. Linear electron flow is, fortunately, easier than it looks. It is an electron transport chain, somewhat
like the one we worked through in cellular respiration. While reading the section “Linear Electron
Flow,” label the diagram number by number as you read.
8. The following set of questions deal with linear electron flow:
a. What is the source of energy that requires the electron in photosystem II?
b. What compound is the source of electrons for linear electron flow? This compound is also the
source of ___________ in the atmosphere.
c. As electrons fall between photosystem I and II, the cytochrome complex uses the energy to
pump ________ ions. This builds a proton gradient that is used in chemiosmosis to produce
what?
d. In photosystem II, the excited electron is eventually used by NADP+ reductase to join NADP+
and a H+ to form ___________.
* Notice that two high-energy compounds have been produced by the light reactions: ATP and
NADPH. Both of these compounds will be used in the Calvin cycle.
9. Cyclic electron flow can be visualized in Figure 10.15. Cyclic electron flow is thought to be similar
to the first forms of photosynthesis to evolve. In cyclic electron flow no water is split, there is no
production of __________, and there is no release of __________.
10.The last idea in this challenging concept is how chemiosmosis works in photosynthesis. Use four
examples to compare how chemiosmosis is similar in photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
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11.Use two key differences to explain how chemiosmosis is different in photosynthesis and cellular
respiration. (These two questions are another example of compare and contrast.)
12.Label all the locations in the diagram first. Next, follow the steps in linear electron flow to label the
components of the light reactions in chemiosmosis.
13.List the three places in the light reactions where a proton-motive force is generated.
14.As a review, note that the light reactions store chemical energy in __________ and __________,
which shuttle the energy to the carbohydrate-producing __________ cycle.
Concept 10.3 The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to sugar
The Calvin cycle is a metabolic pathway in which each step is governed by an enzyme, much like the
citric acid cycle from cellular respiration. However, keep in mind that the Calvin cycle uses energy (in
the form of ATP and NADPH) and is therefore anabolic; in contrast, cellular respiration is catabolic
and releases energy that is used to generate ATP and NADH.
1. The carbohydrate produced directly from the Calvin cycle is not glucose, but the three-carbon
compound __________________________. Each turn of the Calvin cycle fixes one molecule of
CO2; therefore, it will take ___________ turns of the Calvin cycle to net one G3P.
2. Explain the important events that occur in the carbon fixation stage of the Calvin cycle.
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3. The enzyme responsible for carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle, and possibly the most abundant
protein on Earth, is __________________.
4. In phase two, the reduction stage, the reducing power of _________________ will donate
electrons to the low-energy acid 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to form the three-carbon sugar
_________________________.
5. Examine Figure 10.18 while we tally carbons. This figure is designed to show the production of one
net G3P. That means the Calvin cycle must be turned three times. Each turn will require a starting
molecule of ribulose bisphosphate, a five-carbon compound. This means we start with __________
carbons distributed in three RuBPs. After fixing three carbon dioxides using the enzyme
_______________, the Calvin cycle forms six G3Ps with a total of _________ carbons. At this
point the net gain of carbons is _________, or one net G3P molecule.
6. Three turns of the Calvin cycle nets one G3P because the other five must be recycled to RuBP.
Explain how the regeneration of RuBP is accomplished.
7. The net production of one G3P requires __________ molecules of ATP and __________
molecules of NADPH.
Concept 40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization
1. Animals need to exchange materials with their environment. This process occurs as substances
dissolved in an aqueous medium move across the plasma membrane of each cell. For each of the
following organisms, explain how this is possible:
a. amoeba
b. hydra
c. tapeworm
d. whale
2. What is interstitial fluid?
3. What is a tissue?
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4. There are four types of tissues. For each, give examples, the general function, and where you
would find each type.
Tissue Type
Examples
Epithelial
cuboidal
simple columnar
simple squamous
stratified squamous
Connective
cartilage
adipose
blood
bone
fibrous connective
loose connective
Muscle
skeletal
smooth
cardiac
Nervous
Cell types:
neurons
glial cells
General Function
Locations
Concept 40.2 Feedback control loops maintain the internal environment in many animals
1. Explain the difference between animals that are regulators and those that are conformers.
2. The example in the text is related to temperature regulation. Would ectotherms be regulators or
conformers?
3. Throughout the text, a common theme has been regulation of homeostasis by feedback loops. We
discuss feedback loops again as we look at hormone levels. What is meant by a set point?
4. Describe an example of a negative feedback loop. Clearly identify the set point, the stimulus, and
the response.
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5. We sometimes say that in negative feedback “more gets you less,” and in positive feedback “more
gets you more.” Describe an example of a positive feedback loop.
Concept 40.3 Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and
behavior
1. What is thermoregulation?
2. Describe the difference between endothermy and ectothermy, and give an animal that exhibits
each.
Property
Description
Example
Endothermy
Exothermy
3. What are the four processes by which heat is exchanged with the environment? Use this figure to
name and explain each process.
4. Discuss how each of the following are involved in thermoregulation:
a. fur/feathers
b. adipose tissue
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c. goose bumps
d. vasodilation/vasoconstriction
e. panting/sweating
f. burrowing/sunning
5. Heat loss in extremities is reduced by countercurrent exchange. Use this figure to explain how
countercurrent exchange works.
6. What is the role of the hypothalamus in temperature regulation?
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Concept 40.4 Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment
1. What is the metabolic rate? In what units is it usually measured?
2. What is basal metabolic rate (BMR)?
3. What is the relationship between BMR and body mass?
4. What are the evolutionary advantages of torpor and hibernation?
5. If a mouse and a small lizard of the same mass (both at rest) were placed in experimental
chambers under identical environmental conditions, which animal would consume oxygen at a
higher rate? Explain.
Concept 51.4 Selection for individual survival and reproductive success can explain most
behaviors
1. What is foraging behavior?
2. What is proposed by the optimal foraging theory? Explain it in terms of cost and benefit, and cite
two examples from your text.
3. To demonstrate that you understand the principle of optimal foraging, describe a food source that
you would not be likely to exploit.
4. Explain each of these mating systems:
a. promiscuity
b. monogamy
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c. polygamy
d. polygyny
e. polyandry
5. Explain two factors that may be important in determining the evolution of these systems, and apply
each factor to a particular species.
6. Let’s return to an earlier idea. What is sexual selection? (Chapter 23)
7. There are two types of sexual selection. Explain each of them.
a. intersexual selection
b. intrasexual selection
8. What is agonistic behavior? Give one example of this behavior that is not in your book.
Concept 53.2 Life history traits are products of natural selection
1. On what is the life history of an organism based?
2. What three variables form the life history of a species?
3. Explain the difference between semelparity (big-bang reproduction) and iteroparity (repeated
reproduction) as life history strategies.
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4. Explain how two critical factors influence whether a species will evolve toward semelparity or
iteroparity.
5. Explain the effect of offspring care on parental survival in kestrels.
Concept 53.4 The logistic model describes how a population grows more slowly as it nears its
carrying capacity
1. What is carrying capacity?
2. What are six examples of limiting resources that can influence carrying capacity?
3. In the logistic population growth model, the per capita rate of increase approaches zero as the
__________________________ is reached.
4. If the carrying capacity (or K) is 1,000 and N is 10, the term (K – N)/K is large. Explain why a large
value for (K – N)/K predicts growth close to the maximum rate of increase for this population.
5. In the graph below, explain why the logistic model predicts a sigmoid (S-shaped) growth curve
when the population density is plotted over time. Hint: The critical part of this answer concerns why
growth slows as N approaches K.
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6. The end of this concept attempts to bring together the ideas of life histories and growth models.
This is done with the introduction of two new terms: K-selection and r-selection. Explain the ideas
behind the creation of these two terms.
7. Compare and contrast these two terms:
a. density-independent regulation
b. density-dependent regulation
8. Explain how negative feedback plays an essential role in the unifying theme of regulation of
populations. Does negative feedback play a role in both density-independent and densitydependent regulation?
9. Complete the following chart.
Negative Feedback
Mechanism
Explanation
Example
Competition for resources
Territoriality
Disease
Predation
Toxic wastes
Intrinsic factors
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10.Give both biotic and abiotic reasons for population fluctuations over the last 50 years in the moose
population on Isle Royale, based on population dynamics.
11.Explain the importance of immigration and emigration in metapopulations.
Concept 55.2 Energy and other limiting factors control primary production in ecosystems
1. What is primary production? Distinguish between gross primary production and net primary
production.
2. Write an equation here that shows the relationship between gross and net primary production.
3. You may recall from Chapter 54 that biomass is the total mass of all individuals in a trophic level.
Another way of defining net primary production is as the amount of new biomass added in a given
period of time. Why is net primary production, or the amount of new biomass/unit of time, the key
measurement to ecologists?
4. Which ecosystem would tend to have a greater biomass/unit area, a prairie or a tropical rain forest?
Explain.
5. Describe a technique for measuring net primary production in an aquatic environment.
(We will use this technique for AP Lab 12, Dissolved Oxygen and Aquatic Primary Productivity.)
6. What are some factors that limit primary productivity in aquatic ecosystems?
7. What is a limiting nutrient? What is the limiting nutrient off the shore of Long Island, New York? In
the Sargasso Sea?
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8. Phytoplankton growth can be increased by additional nitrates and phosphates. What are common
sources of each of these?
9. What is eutrophication? What are factors that contribute to eutrophication?
Concept 55.3 Energy transfer between trophic levels is typically only 10% efficient
1. What is trophic efficiency?
2. Generally, what percentage of energy available at one trophic level is available at the next?
3. Consider a food chain with 1,000 joules (an energy unit) available at the producer level. If this food
chain is grass --> grasshopper --> lizard --> crow, how much energy is found at the level of the
crow? (See answer at the end of this Reading Guide.) Show your work here.
4. Notice that most biomass pyramids have greatest biomass on the bottom of the pyramid. Label the
trophic levels on the figure. Explain why the second pyramid of biomass is inverted.
5. Why do people who have limited diets in overpopulated parts of the world eat low on the food
chain?
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2.a.2 Organisms capture and store free energy for use in biological processes. 9.1-9.5
10.1, 10.2, 10.3
2.a.3 Organisms must exchange matter with the environment to grow, reproduce, and maintain
organization. 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 4.1, 4.2, 6.2
Concept 3.1 The polarity of water molecules results in hydrogen bonding
1. Study the water molecules at the right. On the central molecule, label oxygen (O) and hydrogen
(H).
2. What is a polar molecule? Why is water considered polar?
3. Now, add ‘+’ and ‘–’ signs to indicate the charged regions of
each molecule. Then, indicate the hydrogen bonds.
4. Explain hydrogen bonding. How many hydrogen bonds can
a single water molecule form?
Concept 3.2 Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s fitness for life
Hydrogen bonding accounts for the unique properties of water. Let’s look at several.
Cohesion
1. Distinguish between cohesion and adhesion.
2. What is demonstrated when you see beads of water on a waxed car hood?
3. Which property explains the ability of a water strider to walk on water?
Moderation of Temperature
4. The calorie is a unit of heat. Define calorie.
5. Water has high specific heat. What does this mean? How does water’s specific heat compare to
alcohol’s?
6. Explain how hydrogen bonding contributes to water’s high specific heat.
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7. Summarize how water’s high specific heat contributes to the moderation of temperature. How is
this property important to life?
8. Define evaporation. What is heat of vaporization? Explain at least three effects of this property on
living organisms.
Expansion upon Freezing
9. Ice floats! So what? Consider what would happen if ponds and other bodies of water accumulated
ice at the bottom. Describe why this property of water is important.
10.Now, explain why ice floats. Why is 4oC the critical temperature in this story?
Solvent of Life
11. Review and define these terms:
a. solvent
b. solution
c. solute
12. Consider coffee to which you have added sugar. Which is the solvent? The solute?
13. Explain why water is such a fine solvent.
14. Define hydrophobic and hydrophilic.
15. You already know that some materials, such as olive oil, will not dissolve in water. In fact, oil will
float on top of water. Explain this property in terms of hydrogen bonding.
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16. Now, let’s do a little work that will enable you to prepare solutions. Read the section on solute
concentrations carefully, and show the calculations here for preparing a 1-molar solution of
sucrose. Steps to help you do this follow. The first step is done for you. Fill in the rest.
Steps to prepare a solution:
a. Write the molecular formula. C12H22O11
b. Use your periodic table to calculate the mass of each element. Multiply by the number of
atoms of the element. (For example, O has a mass of 16. Therefore one mole of O has a
mass of 16 x 11 = 176 g/mole.)
c. Add the masses of each element in the molecule.
d. Add this mass of the compound to water to bring it to a volume of 1 liter. This makes 1 liter of a
1-M (1 molar) solution.
17. Can you prepare 1 liter of a 0.5-molar glucose solution? Show your work here.
18. Define molarity.
Concept 3.3 Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms
1. What two ions form when water dissociates?
You should have answered “hydronium (H3O+) and hydroxide ions (OH–)” in the preceding
question. However, by convention, we will represent the hydronium ion as H+.
2. What is the concentration of each ion in pure water at 25ºC?
3. Water has a pH of 7. pH is defined as the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+]. Can
you now see how water is assigned a pH of 7?
4. To go a step further, the product of H+ and OH– concentrations is constant at 10–14. [H+}[OH–} =
10–14.
Water, which is neutral with a pH of 7, has an equal number of H+ and OH– ions. Now, define
a. acid
b. base
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5. Because the pH scale is logarithmic, each numerical change represents a 10X change in ion
concentration.
a. So, how many times more acidic is a pH of 3 compared to a pH of 5?
b. How many times more basic is a pH of 12 compared to a pH of 8?
c. Explain difference between a pH of 8 and a pH of 12 in terms of H+ concentration.
6.On the pH chart, label pH 1–14. Label neutral, acid, base. Indicate the locations of
pure water, urine, gastric juice, and bleach.
7.Even a slight change in pH can be harmful! How do buffers moderate pH change?
8.Exercise will result in the production of CO2, which will acidify the blood. Explain
the buffering system that minimizes blood pH changes.
9. Acid precipitation is increasing. Explain its sources.
10.Discuss how CO2 emissions affect marine life and ecosystems.
2.b.1 Cell membranes are selectively permeable due to their structure. 7.1, 7.2
Concept 7.1 Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins
1. The large molecules of all living things fall into just four main classes. Name them.
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2. Explain what is meant when we say a molecule is amphipathic.
3. In the 1960s, the Davson-Danielli model of membrane structure was widely accepted. Describe this
model and then cite two lines of evidence that were inconsistent with it.
4. Who proposed the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure? When? Describe this model.
5. What is meant by membrane fluidity? Describe the movements seen in the fluid membrane.
6. Describe how each of the following can affect membrane fluidity:
a. decreasing temperature
b. phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon chains
c. cholesterol
7. Membrane proteins are the mosaic part of the model. Describe each of the two main categories:
a. integral proteins
b. peripheral proteins
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8. Use Figure 7.9 to briefly describe major functions of membrane proteins.
Function
Description
Transport
Enzymatic activity
Signal transduction
Cell-cell recognition
Intercellular joining
Attachment to cytoskeleton
and ECM
9. Membrane carbohydrates are important in cell-cell recognition. What are two examples of this?
10.Distinguish between glycolipids and glycoproteins.
11.Label the following structures:
glycolipid
glycoprotein
integral protein
peripheral protein
cholesterol
phospholipid
ECM fibers
cytoskeleton microfilaments integrins (go back to Chapter 6)
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Concept 7.2 Membrane structure results in selective permeability
1. Distinguish between channel proteins and carrier proteins.
2. Are transport proteins specific? Cite an example that supports your response.
3. Peter Agre received the Nobel Prize in 2003 for the discovery of aquaporins. What are they?
4. Consider the following materials that must cross the membrane. For each, tell how it is
accomplished.
Material
Method
CO2
glucose (C6H12O6)
H+
O2
H 2O
2.b.2 Growth and dynamic homeostasis are maintained by the constant movement of
molecules across membranes. 7.3, 7.4, 7.5
Concept 7.3 Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy
investment
1. Define the following terms:
a. diffusion concentration gradient passive transport osmosis
b. isotonic
c. hypertonic
d. hypotonic
e. turgid
f. flaccid
g. plasmolysis
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2. Use as many words from the list above to describe why a carrot left on the counter overnight would
become limp. Underline each word you use.
3. What is facilitated diffusion? Is it active or passive? Cite two examples.
4. Label the hypotonic solution, isotonic solution, and hypertonic solution. What is indicated by the
blue arrows? Label them. Which cell is lysed? Turgid? Flaccid? Plasmolyzed? Apply all these
labels.
5. Why doesn’t the plant cell burst?
Concept 7.4 Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradients
1. Describe active transport. What type of transport proteins are involved, and what is the role of ATP
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2. The sodium-potassium pump is an important system for you to know. Use the following diagram to
understand how it works. Use the following terms to label these figures, and briefly summarize
what is occurring in each figure: extracellular fluid, cytoplasm, Na+, K+, ATP, ADP, P, transport
protein
Summary
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
3. On the diagram below, add these labels: facilitated diffusion with a carrier protein, facilitated
diffusion with a channel protein, active transport with a carrier protein, simple diffusion. For each
type of transport, give an example of a material that is moved in this manner.
4. What is membrane potential? Which side of the membrane is positive?
5. What are the two forces that drive the diffusion of ions across the membrane? What is the
combination of these forces called?
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6. What is cotransport? Explain how understanding it is used in our treatment of diarrhea.
Concept 7.5 Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and
endocytosis
1. Define each of the following, and give a specific cellular example.
a. endocytosis
b. phagocytosis
c. pinocytosis
d. exocytosis
e. receptor-mediated endocytosis
2. What is a ligand? What do ligands have to do with receptor-mediated endocytosis?
3. Are the processes you described in question 23 active or passive transport? Explain your
response.
2.b.3 Eukaryotic cells maintain internal membranes that partition the cell into specialized
regions. 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5
Concept 6.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions
1. Which two domains consist of prokaryotic cells?
2. A major difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is the location of their DNA. Describe
this difference.
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3. On the sketch of a prokaryotic cell, label each of these features and give its function or description.
a. cell wall
b. plasma membrane
c. bacterial chromosome
d. nucleoid
e. cytoplasm
f. flagella
4. Why are cells so small? Explain the relationship of surface area to volume.
5. Describe how many neurons and intestinal cells each have greatly increased surface area.
Concept 6.3 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried
out by the ribosomes
1. In the figure below, label the nuclear envelope, nuclear pores, and pore complex.
2. Describe the nuclear envelope. How many layers is it? What connects the layers?
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3. What is the nuclear lamina? Nuclear matrix?
4. Found within the nucleus are the chromosomes. They are made of chromatin. What are the two
components of chromatin? When do the thin chromatin fibers condense to become distinct
chromosomes?
5. When are the nucleoli visible? What are assembled here?
6. What is the function of ribosomes? What are their two components?
7. Ribosomes in any type of organism are all the same, but we distinguish between two types of
ribosomes based on where they are found and the destination of the protein product made.
Complete this chart to demonstrate this concept.
Type of Ribosome
Location
Product
Free ribosomes
Bound ribosomes
Concept 6.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic
functions in the cell
1. List all the structures of the endomembrane system.
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2. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) makes up more than half the total membrane system in many
eukaryotic cells. Use this sketch to explain the lumen, transport vesicles, and the difference
between smooth and rough ER.
3. List and describe three major functions of the smooth ER.
4. Why does alcohol abuse increase tolerance to other drugs such as barbiturates?
5. The rough ER is studded with ribosomes. As proteins are synthesized, they are threaded into the
lumen of the rough ER. Some of these proteins have carbohydrates attached to them in the ER to
form glycoproteins. What does the ER then do with these secretory proteins?
6. Besides packaging secretory proteins into transport vesicles, what is another major function of the
rough ER?
7. The transport vesicles formed from the rough ER fuse with the Golgi apparatus.
Use this sketch to label the cisterna of the Golgi apparatus, and its
cis and trans faces. Describe what happens to a transport vesicle
and its contents when it arrives at the Golgi.
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8. What is a lysosome? What do they contain? What is their pH?
9. One function of lysosomes is intracellular digestion of particles engulfed by phagocytosis. Describe
this process of digestion. What human cells carry out phagocytosis?
10.A second function of lysosomes is to recycle cellular components in a process called autophagy.
Describe this process.
11.What happens in Tay-Sachs disease? Explain the role of the lysosomes in Tay-Sachs.
12.There are many types of vacuoles. Briefly describe:
a. food vacuoles
b. contractile vacuoles
c. central vacuoles in plants
(give at least three functions/materials stored here)
13. Use this figure to explain how the elements of the endomembrane system function together to
secrete a protein and to digest a cellular component. Label as you explain.
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Concept 6.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another
1. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not considered part of the endomembrane system, although they
are enclosed by membranes. Sketch a mitochondrion here and label its outer membrane, inner
membrane, inner membrane space, cristae, matrix, and ribosomes.
2. Now sketch a chloroplast and label its outer membrane, inner membrane, inner membrane space,
thylakoids, granum, and stroma. Notice that the mitochondrion had two membrane compartments,
while the chloroplast has three compartments.
3. What is the function of the mitochondria?
4. What is the function of the chloroplasts?
5. Recall the relationship of structure to function. Why is the inner membrane of the mitochondria
highly folded? What role do all the individual thylakoid membranes serve? (Same answer for both
questions.) Chloroplasts and mitochondria both have ribosomes and their own DNA. You will learn
later about their evolution, but for now hold onto these facts. They are semiautonomous organelles
that grow and reproduce within the cell. And you’re lucky today— there is not a question here
6. Explain the important role played by peroxisomes.
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SUMMARY
On these diagrams of plant and animal cells, label each organelle and give a brief statement of its
function.
2.c.1 Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments and
respond to external environmental changes. 40.2, 40.3
2.C.2 Organisms respond to changes in their external environments. 40.3
2.d.1 All biological systems from cells and organisms to populations, communities, and
ecosystems are affected by complex biotic and abiotic interactions involving exchange of
matter and free energy. 52.4, 53.1, 53.2, 53.3, 53.4, 53.5, 54.1, 54.2, 54.3, 54.4, 54.5, 55.1, 55.2,
55.3, 55.4
Concept 52.4 The structure and distribution of terrestrial biomes are controlled by climate and
disturbance
1. Figure 52.20 shows a climograph for some major biomes in North America. What two abiotic
factors shown here are most important in determining the distribution of the biome?
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2. Label the axes of this figure, and identify each biome shown here. Try to do this based on your
understanding of the figure, and then use the text to check your answers. You will use these
biomes: temperate grassland, temperate broadleaf forest, tropical forest, northern coniferous
forest, desert, tundra.
3. Describe each major terrestrial biome as to rainfall, temperature, location, and representative flora
and fauna.
a. tropical forest
b. desert
c. savanna
d. chaparral
e. temperate grassland
f. northern coniferous forest/taiga
g. temperate broadleaf forest
h. tundra
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Concept 53.1 Dynamic biological processes influence population density, dispersion, and
demographics
1. What two pieces of data are needed to mathematically determine density?
2. What is the difference between density and dispersion?
3. Work through Figure 53.2, doing the math to make sure you get the same answer as the text. Note
and understand what the letters of the formula mean. Next, try the following problem.
A population ecologist wished to determine the size of a population of white-footed deer mice,
Peromyscus leucopus, in a 1-hectare field. Her first trapping yielded 80 mice, all of which were
marked with a dab of purple hair dye on the back of the neck. Two weeks later, the trapping was
repeated. This time 75 mice were trapped, out of which 48 of the mice were marked. Using the
formula N = mn/x, what is the population of mice in the field? (Answer is at the end of this reading
guide.)
4. Explain the impact of immigration and emigration on population density. (To avoid confusion
between these two terms, it might help to use this memory trick: immigration is the movement into
a population, while emigration is the exiting of individuals from a population.)
5. Label the dispersion pattern shown by each population in the figure below. Second, and most
important, what do the dispersion patterns tell us about the
population and its interactions?
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6. In what population statistic do demographers have a particular interest? How is this data often
presented?
7. Is your biology class a cohort? Explain.
8. Survivorship curves show patterns of survival. In general terms, survivorship curves can be
classified into three types. Using the figure below, label and explain the three idealized survivorship
patterns.
9. In the natural world, many species show survivorship curves that are combinations of the standard
curves. How would an open nesting songbird’s survivorship curve appear if it was Type III for the
first year and then Type II for the rest of its life span? Sketch this curve on the survivorship curve
graph in question 8.
10.What does a reproductive table show?
Concept 53.3 The exponential model describes population growth in an idealized, unlimited
environment
Do not let the math in this section be a problem. Instead of trying to understand the calculus involved,
concentrate on the idea of exponential growth, how it is graphed, and what this type of growth
indicates about a population.
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1. What is the advantage to using per capita birth and death rates rather than just the raw numbers of
births and deaths?
2. What will the per capita birth and death rates be if a population is demonstrating zero population
growth?
3. What does it mean for a population to be in exponential population growth?
4. In the graph below, explain why the line with the value of 1.0 shows a steeper slope that reaches
exponential growth more quickly than does the line with the value of 0.5. On this graph, add a third
line that approximates a population with an exponential value of 1.25.
5. What are two examples of conditions that might lead to exponential population growth in natural
populations?
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Concept 53.5 The human population is no longer growing exponentially but is still increasing
rapidly
1. Summarize human population growth since 1650. (Of all the reported statistics, which one
surprises you the most?
2. What is demographic transition? Use the figure below to explain the process in Sweden and
Mexico.
3. You should be able to look at age-structure graphs and make predictions about the future growth of
the population. Using Figure 53.25, describe the key features for the three age- structure graphs
and predict how the population of each country will grow.
Country
Key Features
Predicted Future Growth
Afghanistan
United States
Italy
4. Why do infant mortality and life expectancy vary so greatly between certain countries?
5. Can the world’s population sustain an ecological footprint that is currently the average American
footprint? Explain.
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Concept 54.1 Community interactions are classified by whether they help, harm, or have no
effect on the species involved.
1. What is a community? List six organisms that would be found in your schoolyard community.
2. This section will look at interspecific interactions. Be clear on the meaning of the prefix! To begin,
distinguish between intraspecific competition and interspecific competition. Give an example of
each.
Type of Competition
Explanation
Example
Intraspecific
competition
Interspecific
competition
3. What is G. F. Gause’s competitive exclusion principle? Give one example.
4. Define ecological niche.
5. Several species of Anolis lizards live in the same types of trees and have a similar diet. Discuss
resource partitioning to explain how interspecific competition is reduced. (Study Figure 54.2.)
6. What is the difference between the fundamental niche and the realized niche?
7. Study Figure 54.5, and then explain what is meant by character displacement. (To do this, you will
have to learn or review the difference between sympatric populations and allopatric populations.
You will find this information in Chapter 24.)
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8. Predation is a term that you probably already know. Can you give examples of some predator-prey
combinations as listed below?
Predator
Prey
Example
Animal
Animal
Animal
Plant
Fungus
Animal
Bacteria
Animal
Fungus
Plant
9. List three special adaptations that predator species possess for obtaining food.
10.List three ways prey species elude predators.
11.Compare the two types of mimicry.
Type of Mimicry
Description
Example
Batesian
Mullerian
12.What is herbivory?
13.Did you list any special herbivore adaptations for predation in your response to question 9? Or
plant adaptations to avoid herbivory? List two adaptations for each category here.
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14.Describe and give an example of each of the following interactions:
Type of Interaction
Description
Example
symbiosis
parasitism
commensalism
mutualism
15.Which category above includes the other three? Note that other texts may define this term more
narrowly.
16.Your text uses +/– symbols to indicate how interspecific interactions affect survival and
reproduction of the two species. Use this notation for each of these interactions.
Type of Interaction
+/+ , +/- , -/- , +/0
predation
commensalism
nutualism
parasitism
interspecific competition
herbivory
Concept 54.2 Dominant and keystone species exert strong controls on community structure
1. What is species diversity? What are its two components? Why is it important?
2. What does an ecologist summarize in a food web?
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3. Know the levels of trophic structure in food chains. Give a food chain here, including four links that
might be found in a prairie community, and tell the level for each organism.
4. Name every organism in the pictured food chain, and give the trophic level in the box.
5. According to the energetic hypothesis, why are food chains limited in length? How much energy is
typically transferred to each higher level?
6. What is a dominant species? For the area where you live, what would be considered a dominant
tree species?
7. How is a keystone species different from a dominant species?
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8. Name one keystone species, and explain the effect its removal has on the ecosystem.
9. Explain facilitator or foundation species and give an example.
10.You may omit bottom-up and top-down controls.
Concept 54.3 Disturbance influences species diversity and composition
1. What is the intermediate disturbance hypothesis? Give an example of a disturbance event, and
explain the effect it has on the community.
2. Ecological succession is the changes in species that occupy an area after a disturbance. What is
the difference between primary succession and secondary succession?
Concept 54.4 Biogeographic factors affect community biodiversity
1.Explain latitudinal gradients in terms of species richness. Where is species richness greatest?
2. There are probably two key factors in latitudinal gradients. List and explain both here, and put a
star next to the one that is probably the primary cause of the latitudinal difference in biodiversity.
3. Explain what is demonstrated by a species-area curve.
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4. Renowned American ecologists Robert MacArthur and E. O. Wilson developed a model of island
biogeography. While the model can be demonstrated with islands, any isolated habitat represents
an island. What are the two factors that determine the number of species on the island?
5. What two physical features of the island affect immigration and extinction rates?
6. Why do small islands have lower immigration rates? Higher extinction rates?
7. Closer islands have _____________ extinction rates and ______________ immigration rates.
8. What is the island equilibrium model?
9. Use this model to describe how an island’s size and distance from the mainland affect the island’s
species richness.
10.Label this figure to show immigration, extinction, island size, and equilibrium. Then explain what
each figure shows.
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Concept 54.5 Community ecology is useful for understanding pathogen life cycles and
controlling human disease
1. Let’s pull a couple of ideas from this section: What is a pathogen?
2. What is a zoonotic pathogen? List three examples.
3. What is a vector? List three examples.
2.d.2 Homeostatic mechanisms reflect both common ancestry and divergence due to
adaptation in different environments. 40.2, 40.3 56.1
Concept 56.1 Human activities threaten Earth’s biodiversity
In the overview at the beginning of the chapter, the author sets the stage for this final chapter of the
book. This chapter will deal with both conservation biology and restoration ecology. Let’s begin by
comparing and contrasting these two terms.
conservation biology
restoration ecology
1. Ecologists organize biodiversity on three levels. In the table below, explain the impact of
decreasing diversity in each division. Begin reading on page 1248, where the topic changes to
threats to biodiversity before answering this question.
Level of Biodiversity
Impact
Genetic diversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
2. Explain the difference between endangered species and threatened species.
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3. Use this table to organize your thoughts on how the following three threats affect biodiversity.
Threat to Biodiversity
How it reduces biodiversity
Habitat loss
Introduced species
Overexploitation
4. List five introduced species that present a serious threat to their new communities. Explain the
damage done by each introduced species. ***Include two introduced species that are a threat in
your own region of the country. Indicate these with an asterisk.
Introduced Species
Damage
1
2
3
4
5
2.d.3 Biological systems are affected by disruptions to their dynamic homeostasis. 40.2, 40.3
56.1
2.d.4 Plants and animals have a variety of chemical defenses against infections that affect
dynamic homeostasis. 39.5, 43.1, 43.2, 43.3, 43.4
Concept 39.5 Plants respond to attacks by herbivores and pathogens
1. What are the two ways in which a plants combat excess herbivory?
2. Describe two examples of a plant producing chemicals to deal with herbivory.
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Concept 43.1 In innate immunity, recognition and response rely on shared traits of pathogens
Students consider this chapter to be a particularly challenging and important one. Expect to work your
way slowly through the first three concepts. Take particular care with Concepts 43.2 and 43.3. It is
rewarding, however, in Concept 43.4 to put your new knowledge to work and truly understand the
devastation caused by the destruction of helper T cells by HIV.
Overview: The immune responses of animals can be divided into innate immunity and acquired
immunity. As an overview, complete this figure indicating the divisions of both innate and acquired
immunity.
1. We first encountered phagocytosis in Concept 7.5, but it plays an important role in the immune
systems of both invertebrates and vertebrates. Review the process by briefly explaining the six
steps to ingestion and destruction of a microbe by a phagocytic cell.
2. Explain the role of the Toll receptor in producing antimicrobial peptides.
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3. List the three innate defenses vertebrates share with invertebrates and the two defenses unique to
vertebrates.
4. In the chart below, list five examples of barrier defenses and how they work.
Barrier Defense
How the Barrier Repels Pathogens
5. Explain how Toll-like receptors are used in cellular innate defenses, using TLR3 and TLR4 as
examples.
6. In the chart below, explain the role of the four phagocytic cells.
Phagocytic Cell Type
Role inInnate Defense
neutrophils
macrophages
eosinophils
dendritic cells
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7. In the figure below, trace the flow of lymph in four stages. For each stage, explain the role of the
lymphatic system in innate defense.
8. Explain the role of the following two antimicrobial compounds.
a. Interferon
b. Complement
9. Use the figure below to explain the three steps of an inflammatory response.
10.What role do natural killer cells play in the immune system?
11.It might seem like pathogens have little hope of mounting an infection, but do not forget that
pathogens are constantly evolving ways to circumvent our immune system. As examples, how do
the pathogens that cause pneumonia and tuberculosis avoid our immune responses?
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Concept 43.2 In acquired immunity, lymphocyte receptors provide pathogen-specific
recognition
1. From the first four paragraphs of this concept, summarize where T cells and B cells develop, and
give an overview of their functions. (Note that they are a type of white blood cell known as a
lymphocyte.)
2. What is immunological memory, and why is it important?
3. Explain how cytokines help coordinate the innate and acquired immune responses.
4. The following brief questions will serve as a primer for immune system recognition.
a. What is an antigen?
b. What is the relationship between an antigen receptor, an antibody, and an immunoglobin?
c. How is an epitope related to an antigen? (Look at Figure 43.10.)
5. In the figure of a B cell below, label the antigen-binding sites, light and heavy chains, variable and
constant regions, transmembrane region, and disulfide bridges.
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6. What forms the specific antigen-binding site? (Be sure to note that each B cell produces only one
type of antigen receptor. For any one cell, all antigen receptors or antibodies produced are
identical.)
7. In the figure of a T cell below, label the antigen-binding site, alpha and beta chain, variable and
constant regions, transmembrane region, and disulfide bridge.
8. T cells also display only one type of antigen receptor on the surface of the cell. Compare and
contrast a T cell with a B cell.
9. B-cell receptors recognize and bind to antigens whether they are free antigens (like a secreted
toxin) or on the surface of a pathogen. Explain the role of the major histocompatibility complex
(MHC) to T-cell receptor binding.
10.Explain how an infected host cell uses the MHC molecule to display an antigen.
11.Explain the differences between Class I and Class II MHC molecules, noting type of cells that
display the molecule, types of diseases involved with each molecule, and what type of T cell
recognizes the MHC molecules.
MHCV Class
Displayed by?
Diseases associated with
(cancer, viral or bacterial)?
Recognized by which
T cells?
Class I MHC
Class II MHC
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12.Using Figure 43.12 as a guide, label completely the figure below.
13.List three properties of the acquired immune system.
14.One of the early problems in immunology was trying to understand how an organism with a limited
number of genes (for humans, about 20,500) could produce a million different B-cell protein
receptors and 10 million different T-cell protein receptors! The answer resulted in a Nobel Prize and
a startling exception to the notion that all cells have exactly the same DNA. Use the figure below to
label and explain the four steps involved in producing genetically unique B-cell receptors.
15.Explain how the body develops self-tolerance in the immune system.
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16.Define the following terms.
a. Effector cells
b. Memory cells
c. Clonal selection
17.Using the blue text in the margin of Figure 43.14, explain the four key events to clonal selection.
18.Graphs similar to the one below have been seen on several AP Biology exams. It depicts the
primary and secondary immune response. The first arrow shows exposure to antigen A. The
second arrow shows exposure to antigen A again, and also antigen B. Label this graph and then
use it to explain the difference between a primary and secondary immune response.
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Concept 43.3 Acquired immunity defends against infection of body cells and fluids
1. Explain fully the function of the two divisions of acquired immunity.
a. Humoral immune response
b. Cell-mediated immune response
2. Helper T cells play a critical role in activation of both T cells and B cells. In full detail, label and
explain the three steps involved using Figure 43.17. This is an important step!
3. Explain the role of dendritic cells and macrophages in starting a primary and secondary immune
response.
4. _________________________________________ are the effector cells in cell-mediated immunity.
5. What must occur for a cytotoxic T cell to become activated?
6. Completely label the diagram below. Then carefully explain the three primary steps that occur as a
cytotoxic T cell destroys a target cell.
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7. How is B-cell antigen presentation unique?
8. Completely label the diagram below. Then carefully explain the three primary steps that occur in
B cell activation.
9. What is the difference between plasma cells and memory cells produced from the activation of B
cells?
10.Explain how monoclonal antibodies are used in home pregnancy kits.
11.Why is the antibody response to a microbial infection polyclonal?
12.Explain these three ways antibodies can dispose of antigens.
a. Viral neutralization
b. Opsonization
c. Activation of complement
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13.Using examples, explain the difference between active and passive immunity.
14.Describe how immunizations can serve as an example of active immunity.
15.Why is immune rejection an example of a healthy immune system?
16.Briefly describe the following features of immune rejection.
a. Explain how antibodies against blood types are present.
b. What is the role of MHC in tissue and organ transplants?
c. Why are bone marrow transplants medically unique?
Concept 43.4 Disruptions in immune system function can elicit or exacerbate disease
1. What are allergies?
2. Label Figure 43.23 and then use it to explain a typical allergic response.
3. Explain what happens if a person experiences anaphylactic shock.
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4. Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system turns against particular molecules of the
body. Describe the cause and symptoms of the following autoimmune diseases.
a. Lupus
b. Rheumatoid arthritis
c. Type 1 diabetes mellitus
d. Multiple sclerosis
5. Explain how immunodeficiency diseases are different from autoimmune diseases.
6. Just as our immune system has evolved to thwart pathogens, pathogens have evolved to thwart
our immune system. Describe the following pathogen strategies.
a. Antigenic variation
b. Latency
c. Attack on the immune system: HIV
7. Explain how the high mutation rate in surface antigen genes in HIV has hampered development of
a vaccine for AIDS. (You might take note that HIV—human immunodeficiency virus—is the virus
that causes the disease AIDS—acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. These acronyms are often
used incorrectly.)
2.e.1 Timing and coordination of specific events are necessary for the normal development of
an organism, and these events are regulated by a variety of mechanisms. 18.2, 18.3, 18.4, 38.1
Concept 18.2 Eukaryotic gene expression can be regulated at any stage
1. Even though all cells of an organism have the same genes, there is differential gene expression.
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2. What does this mean?
3. What percentage of the genes of a typical human cell is expressed at any given time?
4. What is the common control point of gene expression for all organisms?
5. Gene expression can be regulated by modifications of the chromatin. Distinguish between
heterochromatin and euchromatin as to their structure and activity.
6. What occurs in histone acetylation? How does it affect gene expression?
7. What is DNA methylation? What role may it play in gene expression?
8. The inactive mammalian X chromosome is heavily methylated. What is the result of this
methylation?
9. What is genomic imprinting, and how is it maintained? Give an example discussed earlier in human
genetics.
10.Explain what is meant by epigenetic inheritance, and give an example of epigenetic changes
discussed in the text or in class.
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11.Use the sketch below to explain how enhancers and activators interact with transcription factors to
affect gene expression. Label the following elements: TATA box, promoter, gene, enhancer,
activators, transcription factors, transcription initiation complex, RNA polymerase II, and DNA. Then
place your explanation to the right of the figure.
EXPLANATION
12.In prokaryotes, functionally related genes are usually clustered in a single operon. What has been
found to be the case in eukaryotes?
13.Operons have not been found in eukaryotic cells, and the genes coding for the enzymes of a
particular metabolic pathway are often scattered over different chromosomes. What is a plausible
mechanism for the coordination of gene expression?
14.How can alternative RNA splicing result in different proteins derived from the same initial RNA
transcript?
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15.Post transcriptional control includes regulation of mRNA degradation. Explain how this affects
translation.
16.How can proteins be activated, processed, and degraded? Give an example or describe each
process.
17.An article in Scientific American about proteasomes was entitled “Little Chamber of Horrors.”
Explain how proteins are targeted for degradation, and give a specific example of when this might
occur.
18.How do these “little chambers of horrors” function? Annotate the sketch below to describe their
action. Then explain their role in regulation of gene expression.
Concept 18.3 Noncoding RNAs play multiple roles in controlling gene expression
1. It is now known that much of the RNA that is transcribed is not translated into protein. these RNAs
are called noncoding RNAs. Read carefully to discern a crucial role played by these RNAs. What is
this role?
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2. One of the noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression is microRNA. On the sketch below,
follow an RNA loop, called a “hairpin,” from its creation. Explain the two modes of action of
microRNAs.
Be sure to label the location of hydrogen bonds and Dicer.
Concept 18.4 A program of differential gene expression leads to the different cell types in a
multicellular organism
This concept deals with the regulation of gene expression in development. Animal development is
also discussed in Chapter 47.
1. What three processes lead to the transformation of a zygote into the organism?
2. Explain what occurs in cell differentiation and morphogenesis.
3. Differential gene expression results from different activators in different cells. How do different sets
of activators come to be present in two cells? Explain how each of these occurs:
a. distribution of cytoplasmic determinants
b. different inductive signals
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4. What is meant by determination? Explain what this means within an embryonic cell.
5. What process ensures that all the tissues and organs of an organism are in their characteristic
places? Where do the molecular cues that control this process arise?
6. What is controlled by homeotic genes?
Concept 38.1 Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits are unique features of the angiosperm
life cycle
This may be a good time for you to go back to Chapter 29 and review alternation of generation and
the terms associated with it. Figure 29.5 would be a good starting point. Then, review Concepts 30.1
and 30.3 on angiosperm life cycles. The angiosperm life cycle has three unique features, all of which
start with the letter F, a good memory aid: Flowers, Fruits, and double Fertilization. You will want to
remember these!
1. On this sketch of a flower, label all floral parts and give the function of each. Label also the stamen
and carpel. Then, circle the flower parts that are essential for reproduction.
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2. What is another name for the microsporangia?
3. Each microspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to form four haploid ____________________.
4. Each microspore undergoes mitosis to produce the male ____________________________.
5. The male gametophyte is composed of only two cells. Name each cell, and tell what will come from
each of them.
Male Gametophyte Cells
What does cell produce?
6. What makes up a pollen grain?
7. Label these parts: anther, pollen sac, microspores, male gametophyte, pollen grain, generative cell,
tube cell, megasporangium, megaspore mother cell, embryo sac, surviving megaspore, polar
nuclei, synergids, and egg.
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8. Meiosis in the female part of the plant produces four megaspores. How many
survive?
9. What occurs in pollination? Annotate the figure to the right to explain pollination.
10. List five modes of pollination. For each mode, describe a feature of the flower that aids pollination.
Mode
Feature of Flower
11.Study the section in this concept under the heading “Double Fertilization” very carefully. Label the
figures below to show two sperm nuclei, pollen tube, female gametophyte, ovule, synergids, polar
nuclei, egg, and zygote. Describe what is happening in each sketch.
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12.Study the figure on the left above. You should be able to count a total of 7 cells and 8 nuclei.
Which of these are fertilized in double fertilization?
13.When the polar nuclei are fertilized, what is formed? _________________________________
14.The chromosome number of the zygote is (a) haploid, (b) diploid, or (c) triploid.
15.What is the role of the endosperm?
16.After double fertilization, what does each ovule become?
17.After double fertilization, what does each ovary become?
18.Let’s compare the seeds of eudicots and monocots. How many cotyledons does each type have?
19.What is the function of a seed coat?
20.What part of the embryo plant emerges first?
21.What are some mechanisms that maintain seed dormancy?
22.Below are sketches of a bean seed and a corn seed. Label them to show: monocot, eudicot,
cotyledons, radicle, hypocotyl, epicotyl, seed coat, and endosperm. You may use the same term
several times.
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23.What is imbibition?
24.To a botanist, a fruit is a ripe _______________________. It does not have to be sweet! A pea
pod is a fruit. A green pepper is a fruit.
25.An important function of the fruit is to aid in dispersal. What are three primary methods of
dispersal?
2.e.2 Timing and coordination of physiological events are regulated by multiple mechanisms.
38.1, 39.2, 39.3, 24.1, 11.1
Concept 39.2 Plant hormones help coordinate growth, development, and responses to stimuli
1. Both plants and animals have hormones. The definition of a hormone has three parts. What are
they?
2. Plant physiologists think the term hormone as defined above doesn’t quite fit plants. What term do
they use instead?
3. What is a tropism?
4. The sketch below describes early experiments on phototropism conducted by Charles and
Francis Darwin. What can be concluded from these experiments?
CONCLUSION
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5. Here is a sketch of the Boysen-Jensen experiment. What conclusions can be drawn from it
CONCLUSION
6. Boysen-Jensen’s work was published in 1913. In 1926, Frits Went modified the experiment using
agar cubes with a chemical from the coleoptile tips. Explain the results of this experiment.
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7. What name did Went give to this chemical messenger? What was its chemical structure found to
be?
8. In jest, we tell our students that when in doubt about which plant hormone causes which plant
response, just answer auxin. Auxin has so many functions, this answer often works. List and
describe four functions of auxin.
Auxin Functions
Description
9. Did you catch the discussion of auxins as herbicides? Perhaps you have used Weed-B-Gone to kill
dandelions in your lawn. Explain how this product kills dandelions without killing the
grass.
10.How did cytokinins get their name?
11.List and describe three functions of cytokinins.
Cytokinin Functions
Description
12.Gibberellins occur naturally in plants, and like the previous two hormones, they have several
effects. Describe three of them.
Gibberellin Functions
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Description
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13.Abscisic acid (ABA) is misnamed. Why?
14.Describe three effects of abscisic acid.
Abscisic Acid Functions
Description
15.Ethylene is the only hormone in our group that is a gas. Under what conditions is ethylene
produced?
16.The effects of ethylene are many and varied. Describe them here.
Ethylene Functions
Description
17.You have just finished a very complex look at plant hormones. Let’s try to summarize it by
completing the following chart.
Hormone
Action
leaf abscission
breaking seed dormancy
making internodes of grape bunches elongate to obtain larger fruit
gravitropism
drought tolerance
senescence
phototropism
cell elongation
increased cell division
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Concept 39.3 Responses to light are critical for plant success
1. Researchers have determined that plants have two major classes of light receptors. List each
class.
2. What wavelengths of light are absorbed by phytochromes?
3. What are three different responses initiated by blue light?
4. Read carefully the discussion of phytochromes and how they work. Pay attention to the two types
of red light. What is the wavelength of red light? ______________ Of far-red light ______________
5. Phytochromes are photoreceptors that have two isomer forms, Pr and Pfr. Sketch the conversion of
Pr to Pfr on this figure. Label all of the boxes, and also chromophore, phytochrome.
6. What is the active form of phytochrome, Pr or Pfr?
7. Look again at the effect of light exposure on lettuce seed germination. What determines the seed’s
response?
8. To make sense of all this, you will want to read carefully the “Phytochromes and Shade Avoidance”
section. Which type of red light is more common in a shaded area? Why?
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9. What is a circadian rhythm? Give one plant example and one human example.
10.What is the photoperiod?
11.Plants detect photoperiod, and in many species it affects their time of flowering. Explain each of
the following, and give an example of a plant that is in the group.
a. short-day plant
b. long-day plant
c. day-neutral plant
12.The plant in the sketch below is a short-day plant. Label R, FR, and critical dark period. For each
line, explain why flowering occurs or does not occur.
13.What is florigen?
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Concept 11.1 External signals are converted into responses within the cell
1. What is a signal transduction pathway?
2. How does yeast mating serve as an example of a signal transduction pathway?
3. Complete the chart of local chemical signaling in cell communication in animals.
Local Signaling Types
Specific Example
Paracrine
Synaptic
4. How does a hormone qualify as a long-distance signaling example?
5. A signal transduction pathway has three stages. Use Figure 11.6 to label the missing parts of the
preview figure below, and then explain each step.
a. Reception
b. Transduction
c. Response
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2.E.3: Timing and coordination of behavior are regulated by various mechanisms and are
important in natural selection. 51.1, 51.2, 39.2, 39.3, 54.1
Overview
How is behavior defined?
Concept 51.1 Discrete sensory inputs can stimulate both simple and complex behaviors
1. What is ethology?
2. What is the difference between proximate and ultimate causation?
3. Using red-crowned cranes, what is an example of a proximate causation question and an example
of an ultimate causation question?
4. Who are the three ethologists who shared in a Nobel Prize for their work in 1973? We will look at
work by each of them.
5. What is a fixed action pattern (FAP)? Give an example.
6. What is a sign stimulus? Give at least examples of sign stimuli.
7. Nicholas Tinbergen’s work with the stickleback fish is a classic
study. Explain what he found. Use the terms fixed action
pattern and sign stimulus in your response.
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8. Define these behavior terms:
Definition
Example
kinesis
taxis
9. Explain what is meant by a circadian clock and circadian rhythms. Identify two behaviors, either
plant or animal, that demonstrate a circadian rhythm. (You may need to refer to Chapter 49 or
Chapter 36 for examples.)
10.Discuss two navigational strategies used by birds to migrate.
11.Animals communicate in various ways. Discuss at least three specific examples using different
organisms.
12.Notice the pictures that show fruit fly courtship behavior (see AP Biology Lab 11B, “Reproductive
Behavior in Fruit Flies”). What different modes of communication are used by the fruit fly?
13.Karl von Frisch studied European honeybees. What are the two types of dances that a returning
worker bee does, and what information does each dance convey? Use a labeled sketch to describe
each dance.
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14.What are pheromones? Give three specific types of information that can be transmitted through
pheromones.
Concept 51.2 Learning establishes specific links between experience and behavior
1. What is the difference between innate and learned behavior? Give an example of each.
2. What is meant by fitness? How can habituation increase fitness?
3. Describe the process of imprinting, and explain what is meant by
sensitive or critical period.
4. Describe the classic study of parental imprinting done by Konrad
Lorenz.
5. What special challenges did researchers face in order to return whooping cranes to the wild? What
would you have to wear if you worked with hatchlings? Why?
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6. There are several types of learning. What occurs in spatial learning?
7. What are two types of associative learning? Which type did Ivan Pavlov use to get a dog to salivate
at the sound of a bell?
8. What occurs in operant conditioning?
9. What is cognition? Give three examples of cognition in animal species; include at least one bird
behavior.
10.Many bird songs are learned during a critical period. What will happen if a white-crowned sparrow
does not hear the song of its species during this time?
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