Download Task 3

Reporting the research of others:
grammatical considerationsi
1. Verb patterns
There are three basic grammatical patterns that are associated with verbs of reference.
Pattern One: Verb + Noun
e.g. Mirvis and Lawler (1977) showed a correlation between morale and both
attendance at work and staff turnover.
Pattern Two: Verb + that + sentence
e.g. Mendelssohn (1974) argued that the great pyramids were built as a method of
creating an integrated human community the size of a state.
Pattern Three: Verb + "wh-" word + sentence
e.g. Freeman (1987) showed how stakeholders can affect the achievement of an
organization's purpose.
Task 1
This table shows the grammatical patterns that some reporting verbs can take.
Can you complete the table?
Verb
Verb+that+
sentence
Verb+"wh"
word+sentence
report
yes
yes
find
yes
no
yes
no
no
no
prove
yes
yes
state
yes
no
suggest
claim
conclude
show
identify
indicate
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declare
yes
no
contend
yes
no
say
yes
no
argue
yes
no
discuss
no
yes
examine
no
yes
Notice that in informal speech and writing we often leave out that in reporting sentences:
• He said (that) he was leaving.
• She promised (that) she would be here on time.
However, that is rarely left out in academic writing:
• Dolley (1933) found that stock prices increased on the stock split ex-date.
(not ...found stock prices increased...)
• Lakonishok and Lev (1987) demonstrate that stock distributions tend to occur
during periods of increasing earnings growth.
(not ...demonstrate stock distributions tend to.....)
Task 2
Correct these sentences if necessary.
1
Prior research by Ball and Brown indicates that announcements of unexpected
earnings increases are generally associated with increases in stock price.
2
Celsi and Olson (1988) reported the average interitem correlation was 0.85.
3
Johnson (1987) stated a correlation between the two variables.
4
Malhotra (1991) criticised that various aspects of the methodology used were
unsatisfactory.
5
Valle and Wallendorf (1977) have examined the effects of attributions on
complaining.
6
Knight (1921) defines that risk is “measurable certainty”.
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2. Choice of tense in the reporting verb: tense and focus combinations
The rules given below are a guide only. You will find that there is considerable variety in
the literature you read. However, if you use them to guide your own writing, you should
always be correct.
When the focus of your citation is on the INFORMATION i.e. there is no reference to
researcher activity, the present tense is normally used in the reporting verb. The present
tense is used when the information you are presenting is generally accepted as a fact.
a) The senior manager’s job tends to be a very hectic one, dealing with peers, outsiders
and subordinates (see, for example, Carlso, 1951; Mintzberg, 1975).
When the focus is on the RESEARCH AREA OF SEVERAL AUTHORS, the present
perfect tense is normally used.
b) Economists have suggested that in an uncertain environment firms cannot establish
the conditions that are necessary for achieving financial maxima (Simon, 1955; Cyert
and March, 1963).
The present perfect tense is also used in general statements that describe the LEVEL OF
RESEARCH ACTIVITY in an area. These statements are sometimes written without
specific reference being made to particular studies or authors.
c) Many writers have argued that objectives are not helpful unless they are capable of
being measured and achieved.
d) Little research has been done on the process of strategy formulation in organisations.
The simple past tense is used to report the findings of NAMED WRITERS.
e) Fairfield-Sonn (1987) constructed a three-stage, decision-based, strategic model for
guiding small firms in establishing a training and development program. Maurer and
Fay (1986) concentrated on the legal appropriateness of selection methods in small
businesses, whereas Holley and Wolters (1987) examined the employment-at-will
concept as an issue for small firms. Gatewood and Field (1987) surveyed 100 small
business owners' perception of their firm's personnel problems, finding that many
owners are not even aware of their own failures in dealing with personnel issues.
(Hornsby, J S and Kuratko, D F (1990) "Human Resource Management in Small
Business: Critical Issues for the 1990's". Journal of Small Business Management 28,
3: 10.)
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In general, we prefer the present simple if the research reported is close to the writer's
own opinion, close to the writer's own research, or close to the present state of
knowledge.
f) Jones (1987) found that illiteracy is correlated most closely with poverty.
The tense you choose in the reported findings shows your attitude towards the findings or
your interpretations of the source author's attitude towards the findings.
You may feel that:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
the findings of a particular study are generally accepted as fact;
the findings of a particular study are limited to that study but are not to be
accepted as true in all cases;
the author(s) of the study you are citing may themselves feel tentative about their
findings; or they may not be reporting findings at all but making suggestions or
proposals.
Depending on your attitude you may choose the present tense, the past tense or various
modal auxiliaries.
g) The Australian Consumers Association (1987) reported that Japan does not allow …
h) Webb's survey (1987) found that 90% of South Africans bought irradiated food.
i) Bruhn (1986) argued that marketing of irradiated food would be difficult.
Task 3
For these extracts, choose a suitable reporting verb and an appropriate tense.
1
Senker (1984) and Rolfe (1986) ________________ that one of the main aims of
British management is to improve productivity and short-term profits by deskilling labour and saving on wage and training costs.
2
Voss and Robinson, for example, __________ the adoption of Japanese Just-InTime management techniques (1987), and __________ that many UK firms were
giving positive consideration to the adoption of certain Japanese management
techniques.
3
In reality, of course, strategy develops as a combination of various strategic
changes which can involve the abandonment of certain alternatives as others are
developed. This more dynamic view of how strategy evolves _____________ as
zig-zagging.20
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4
A number of definitions of low pay __________ 5, but most of them converge on
a level of around 2/3 of median male earnings, or £132 per week in 1987.
5
Most empirical studies of the pricing behaviour of oligopolistic firms __________
that selling prices do not vary significantly with demand, but that they do respond
to changes in unit costs (see Coutts et al., 1978).
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Many researchers ______________ the view of accounting as a science.
3. 'Predicting' it, passive and 'reporting' noun structures
1.
A 'predicting' it or passive structure can be used to change the focus so that the
source is no longer at the beginning of the sentence. For example:
(i)
It is claimed that the more conventional consumers changed their attitude to food
irradiation after group discussion with an educated group leader (Bruhn et al ,
1986). [as opposed to ‘Bruhn claimed that …]
Notice that the clause begins with it where it refers forward or predicts the idea being
reported, and so answers the question "What is being claimed?" These 'predicting' it
clauses can only be used with verbs which can follow the grammatical structure: verb +
that + sentence. Examples are report, find, suggest, claim, conclude, show, indicate.
You can also use a passive construction to remove the focus from the source:
(ii)
More conventional consumers are claimed to have changed their attitude to food
irradiation after group discussion with an educated group leader (Bruhn et al,
1986).
Task 4
Rewrite the following sentences using a 'predicting' it or a passive structure. Focus
on the information rather than the source.
(iii)
Bruhn et al (1987) found that 'alternative' consumers increase their opposition to
food irradiation after education programmes.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iv)
Bruhn et al (1987) suggest that the provision of relevant and factual information
by the government may overcome consumer opposition to food irradiation.
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(Note: you will need to make grammatical and lexical changes to use the passive here.)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
It is also possible to use a noun in place of a verb in order to refer to a source.
This structure can also remove the focus from the source (but not always; see (ib))
(i)
Lambert (1975) suggests that the experiments are of an uncertain nature.
(ia)
The suggestion that the experiments are of an uncertain nature (Lambert,
1975)...
(ib)
Lambert's (1975) suggestion that the experiments are ...
As well as taking the focus away from the source, the process of turning verbs into nouns
allows us to pack more information into one sentence. For example:
(ii)
WHO (1985) claims that the practice of food irradiation is safe and
effective.
(iia)
The claim that food irradiation is safe and effective (WHO, 1985) has been
challenged by researchers (who...)
Task 5
Rewrite the following sentence pairs into one sentence using a noun group to express
the idea being reported.
(iii)
Webb (1983) estimated that 90% of South Africa's consumers would buy
irradiated food. This means that marketing of irradiated food in South Africa is
likely to be successful.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(iv)
Wills (1986) suggests that thousands of tons of wheat and approximately 100,000
tons of other foods are being processed each year in 13 countries. This shows that
the practice of food irradiation is becoming more widespread.
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Key
Task 1
suggest
yes
yes
claim
yes
no
show
yes
yes
indicate
yes
yes
Task2

X
X
X

X
Prior research by Ball and Brown indicates that announcements of unexpected earnings increases are
generally associated with increases in stock price.
Celsi and Olson (1988) reported THAT the average interitem correlation was 0.85.
Johnson (1987) stated THAT THERE IS a correlation between the two variables.
or: Johnson (1987) FOUND THAT ...
Malhotra (1991) criticised ARGUED that various aspects of the methodology used were
unsatisfactory.
Valle and Wallendorf (1977) have examined the effects of attributions on complaining.
Knight (1921) defines that risk is AS A “measurable certainty”.
Task 3: Suggestions
1. stated 2. considered, reported 3. is defined 4. are given 5. agree 6. have questioned
Task 4
(iii)
It was found that ‘alternative’ consumers increase their opposition to food irradiation
after education programmes (Bruhn et al (1987)).
‘Alternative’ consumers were found to increase their opposition to food irradiation after
education programmes.
(iv)
It was suggested that the provision of relevant and factual information by the government
may overcome consumer opposition to food irradiation (Bruhn et al (1987)).
The provision of relevant and factual information by the government was suggested as a
possible way to overcome consumer opposition to food irradiation (Bruhn et al (1987)).
Task 5
(iii) Webb’s (1983) estimate that 90% of South Africa’s consumers would buy irradiated food
means that its marketing is likely to be successful.
(iv) Wills’ (1986) suggestion that thousands of tons of wheat and approximately 100,000 tons of
other foods are being processed each year in 13 countries shows that the practice of food
irradiation is becoming more widespread.
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OR: The suggestion that thousands of tons of wheat and approximately 100,000 tons of other
foods are being processed each year in 13 countries (Wills’ (1986)) shows that the practice of
food irradiation is becoming more widespread.
i
Key added by Els Van Geyte, 2009; last updated 2010, EVG.
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