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Date
Ancient Rome: Events and Developments
Monarchical Rome
753
BC
The Foundation myth is the Romulus & Remus story - abandoned twins suckled by a she-wolf and brought up by
shepherds. When grown they decide to found a city among 7 hills by the Tiber; quarrel over which to build on,
Palatine or Aventine, & Romulus ends up killing Remus. It becomes a haven for asylum seekers; needing more
women, Romulus treacherously abducts women from a neighbouring Sabine territory. The City is at the southern end
of Etruria and an increasingly autocratic Etruscan-dominated monarchy rules until Tarquin Superbus is overthrown in
509 – apparently after the rape of an important Roman matron, Lucretia.
The Roman Republic
509
460 400
Hatred of the concept of ‘kings’ defines the Romans thereafter. A bunch of families – the Patricians - draw up a
constitution for a Republic. It contains many checks and balances – high office only held for a year and always 2 post
holders under the advice of a council of the ‘old’ (the Senate). Mostly the power goes to Patricians, but the next class
down, Equestrians (they had been cavalrymen), plays a role in the overthrow and does get some routes to power.
A series of defensive and aggressive conflicts with neighbours establishes Rome as a major player in central Italy.
390
Gauls invade northern Italy eventually sacking Rome. In the aftermath Plebeians (the ordinary Roman citizenry) press
for more power using strikes. Their power increases quite significantly over the century, but they don’t often exert it.
279
Inflicting heavy losses on a Greek force lead by Pyrrhus (a ‘pyrrhic’ victory for the Greeks) it realises that Greece –
long a significant power in the Mediterranean - is not fully capable of properly defending its many colonies and also
that Etruria is not the power it was: over the next decade Rome becomes the power in both north & central Italy.
264
200
Roman involvement in the Greek part of Sicily leads to conflict with Carthage, the Med’s superpower. This lands
Hannibal upon them, running rampage around Italy for years, but Rome learns from him and eventually is the victor.
~150
– 30
Rome now becomes very aggressive, destroying the cities of Carthage and Corinth, and expanding its hegemony in
all directions. At first it just extracts simple tributes, but eventually it turns to taxation, collected by privatised ‘tax
farming’ enterprises. Long foreign campaigns put a huge strain on the citizen soldiers whose farms back home suffer
and often succumb, falling to large Patrician estates and creating a dispossessed urban poor. Gracchus, a military
hero, attempts to get some land reform, but is beaten to death by opponents; his brother tries later but again failure.
~130
-70
Long standing ‘class’ struggles increase and soon there is also much unrest over civil rights in the rest of Italy. Rome
was reluctant to grant full citizenship to other population centres unless they could be sure they had ‘civitas’ – i.e.
were capable of running a sophisticated city in which central institutions were in place and participated in by most
people, with the rich contributing publically. They believed Greek cities had long had civitas (albeit in a culture too
‘exotic’ for Republican gravitas) but felt Rome was somewhat of a lone outpost of civitas in much of the west.
Political factions develop: Populares (P) wanting more power for Plebeians, & Optimates (O) representing traditional
Patrician power. By the 1st Century BCE we have two military figures dominating like warlords – Marius (P) and
Sulla (O) - waging what are in effect civil wars. Sulla eventually comes out on top and takes his army to Rome,
getting himself elected ‘Dictator’. A reformer but very ruthless in method, ‘proscribing’ many opponents, he
eventually retires back into normal Patrician life - the Republican spirit still surviving.
~70 50
New warlords arise, Pompey (O) & Caesar (P). Pompey has rid the Med of pirates who’d become a great scourge of
the vast wealth now being transported to Rome. Caesar runs rampant over Gaul generating huge wealth in the form of
a million Gaulish slaves. Excursions to southern Britain are possibly just to stabilise his Gaul frontier. Caesar,
Pompey and Crassus - Rome’s richest man - form an unofficial ‘Triumvirate’ ostensibly to sort out the Republic’s
problems. But Caesar and Pompey don’t get on & it breaks up when Crassus dies fighting the Parthians.
1
49
44
30
27
BC
Feeling that the Republic is broken Caesar seizes power by bringing a Legion across the river Rubicon (a capital
offence if you’re not a Consul). He instigates many reforms, not least that of the calendar. He’s generous with his
wealth and a popular figure among many ordinary citizens. However, when he gets himself declared ‘Dictator for
Life’ this is a step too far for the Optimate faction and he is assassinated within weeks, falling at Pompey’s statue.
Many are angry at what is seen as an attempt by a bunch of aristocrats to prevent reform and immediately give Caesar
an ‘Apotheosis’ (turn him into a God). Mark Antony forms a second Triumvirate with another general Lepidus and
Caesar’s nephew (& adopted son) Octavian, and they pursue the assassins. They then divide up territory amongst
themselves with Mark Antony getting the East. Eventually this breaks up - Lepidus becomes demanding and
Octavian exiles him; Mark Antony antagonises everyone by doing badly against the Parthians, and by acquiring
lavish and exotic ‘oriental ways’. Octavian defeats Antony who commits suicide. Octavian now inherits all Julius’s
wealth and has almost total military power; he is thus in a unique position to take control and ‘fix’ things.
The Empire: Phase I – The Principate
Augustus & the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
Octavian is as convinced as Julius was that the Republic is broken and that only monarch-like power can control it;
but he is much more subtle than Julius. He quietly takes complete control and produces a new settlement of the
constitution aiming ‘to repair’ the Republic. He assumes the military title Imperator (generals who’ve had a
resounding victory) and the ‘cognomen ‘Augustus’ - but claims only to be ‘Princeps: primus inter pares’ {first citizen,
but first among equals}. He sheds all pomp and is very respectful of the Senate etc, but ensures his hand gets on all
the levers of power. He reforms the currency and makes sure army veterans are well cared for. Whilst introducing
more eastern grandeur,{promoting Virgil’s Aeneid popularising a grander version of the founding myth} & building
grander buildings in Rome itself “I found it in brick and left it in marble” – he insists he simply embodies the old
Republican virtues of a down-to-earth man with gravitas and strong family values (somewhat let down by his family).
Augustus doesn’t like war and sets about creating the Pax Romana – an orderly and peaceful society in which it
would come to be said that a woman could walk unmolested from the Atlantic to the Black Sea. It will last for over
250 years and will do wonders for trade and infrastructure, gradually creating a widespread bond in which many
come to see ‘Empire’ as a project they all benefit from. Wealth can now increase not just by the robbery-withviolence tool of the warlords, but by internal economic development. This is his greatest legacy.
His destruction of Republican democracy with its checks and balances, and his implied dynastic succession, lays the
Empire open to some despotic and tyrannical rulers, such as Caligula in his own Julio-Claudian dynasty; but many of
Augustus’ reforms are robust enough to survive these deprivations for some considerable time.
14
AD
43
68
In Augustus’ time expansion slows, priority going to the establishment of the Pax Romana, but his successor Tiberius,
a very competent general, expands the Empire significantly, though not into Britain (thought to be not worthwhile?).
After a curious venture to the Channel by Caligula, (who starts well but becomes tyrannical and decides he’s a living
God), we get the invasion at Claudius’s behest and southern Britain is taken into the Empire. The Julio-Claudian
dynasty of Augustus ends with the suicide of that strange and increasingly despotic character, Nero in 68CE. Civil
war follows and we get the “Year of 4 Emperors”.
The Flavians
69
7981
8196
Vespasian, a member of the Flavian family who had ‘risen’ from the Equestrian class during the Julio-Claudians is
Emperor at the end of this. He’d been Legate (general) of the II Augusta Legion in the Claudian invasion of Britannia
and he now sends Agricola there to expand the area of Roman control. He starts construction of the largest
amphitheatre – the Coliseum - finished by his son Titus, who’s short but exemplary reign gets much praise for
providing relief to victims of the eruption of Vesuvius, and for getting rid of the practice of ‘treason trials’ and the
network of ‘informers’ [who’d been used during these show trials to remove troublesome senators especially].
His brother Domitian , effective but autocratic, expands the Empire, getting Agricola to attempt to take over
Caledonia. He strengthens the economy and the Pax Romana, but is more totalitarian and not being subtle is
eventually assassinated. The Senate (for the first time) actually elect an Emperor, his wise old advisor Nerva.
2
96 –
180
The Golden Age of Emperors
Nerva is an old man without offspring and he ushers in a period during which four successive Emperors will adopt a
successful man as son and successor. This results in the period being known as that of the Five Good Emperors.
After much thought Nerva adopts the young and successful general Trajan.
98
Trajan expands the Empire significantly, going well beyond the Danube in Europe and well into Parthian territory in
the Middle East [the Parthians - and the later Sassanid Persian dynasty are usually a match for the Romans – Anatolia
is continually changing hands between them - a sort of litmus for who’s on top]. Under Trajan the Empire reaches its
greatest extent. He also builds extensively in the grand centre of Rome – his column celebrating his exploits is still a
tourist attraction. He further intrudes on some of the few tasks left to the Senate, but has some of Augustan touch –
he’s carefully deferent whilst taking more power. His wife Pompeia Plotina may have much to do with many general
improvements in society and the life of the poor. The Senate labels him ‘optimus princeps’.
117
Hadrian travels throughout the Empire promoting it as a joint exercise rather than simple Roman Hegemony, allowing
towns in the Provinces to develop their own organisation rather than having to strictly copy Roman civitas rules. He
decides that Trajan’s expansion has gone too far and withdraws to sustainable borders, he improves the fortifications
of these ‘Limes’ – hence his Wall in Britain, & forts along the Rhine & Danube. North Africa is the exception – there
he expands the Limes Tripolitania. He has the army do more drills and war games, coining the phrase “strength
through peace”. He also promotes many infrastructure improvements and codifies Roman Law for the first time.
138
161
Antoninus Pius reigns over what is probably the most peaceful time in the whole Pax Romana. One exception is that
the Brigantes ‘rebel’ and he has to defeat them, and then goes on to build the Antonine Wall. He is a great
administrator, introducing a number of legal reforms (e.g. that there should be no assumption of guilt before trial) and
makes things a bit easier for slaves and makes manumission easier (gaining ‘freedman’ status).
Marcus Aurelius was a brilliant Stoic philosopher and reluctant Emperor, and accepted the post only on condition his
adopted brother Verus was ‘co-Emperor’! Once there, he saw his stoic duty to do the job with respect for all. Verus
dies after a few years & Marcus faces growing migratory pressures on the borders. He is not at all pompous and
allows more free speech than any other Emperor. Unfortunately he has a son, Commodus, whom he feels obliged to
make his successor, so the adoptive succession comes to an end. Commodus has few of his father’s qualities and so
the Golden Age of Emperors ends with Marcus Aurelius.
Descent to Crisis
180
192
Commodus takes over becoming increasingly dictatorial and eventually megalomaniacal. He gets himself declared a
God (it has become somewhat routine for this to happen after an Emperor’s death, and over the years this has spread
to his family and sometimes useful friends, but I think only Caligula had proclaimed it whilst still alive till then). He
is eventually assassinated.
193
We then get 5 Emperors in the same year ending with the first African Emperor, Septimus Severus. He expands the
Empire again. He re-organises Britannia into two Superior (south) and Inferior (north – capital York). He tries to take
Caledonia – reaching its north coast, but guerrilla tactics by the Caledonians render holding it untenable.
198
When Septimus dies in York we get his son, the awful Caracalla. This is supposedly jointly with his brother Geta, but
he kills him and pronounces a ‘damnatio’ on him – which means all references to Geta must be removed - examples
of this removal can be seen in Caer Leon & elsewhere. We then get a series of Emperors, mostly from the Severan
family, and things are generally deteriorating. It is becoming clear that the Army {which since the Hadrianic settling
within borders, has effectively become a bunch of separate armies residing in a given region and developing local
loyalties} is increasingly the powerbroker in Emperor selection and hence a force of geographical fragmentation.
222
The last of the Severan Emperors, Alexander, brings some prosperity during a relatively peaceful time in his reign,
but later on the rise of the Sassanid Persians in Mesopotamia forces him he to spend lots of time in the East. Yet more
increases migratory pressure are arising from Germanic peoples [Goths, Vandals, Alamanni] and when he goes there
and appears to simply buy off the people who’ve killed so many Legionaries, the army is incensed and kills him. This
marks the start of a 50 year crisis that will alter the Empire forever!
235
3
The Third Century Crisis
235284
285
The Augustan Settlement had no objective rules of succession and we get a chaotic 50 years with at least 26 different
Emperors – 14 of which are by military coup - ‘Barracks’ Emperors. By the middle of the period the Empire has split
into 3: the Palmyrene Empire under Queen Zenobia, the ‘Rome’ Empire, and the Gallic Empire (capital Trier) which
includes Britain. This disrupts trade right across the whole Empire and the Empire-wide attitude fostered by the Pax
Romana shrinks. We now get economies becoming very locally focussed, in many places this starts to resemble the
‘manorial’ system that medieval Europe is later reduced to (one might say Medieval Europe has its start here).
Eventually Aurelian conquers the Gallic and Palmyrene Empires and re-unites things. He reforms the currency, and
promotes a ‘uniting’, overarching religion in the form of Sol Invictus. He wages war on corruption but a forged
document saying that he’s about to accuse his own guards causes his assassination before he can fully sort the crisis.
It’s another 10 years & 6 Emperors before Diocletion brings the Crisis, and indeed the Principate, to an end!
Empire Phase II: The Dominate
Diocletion divides the Empire into East and West; each has an Emperor, an ‘Augustus’, and a ‘Caesar’, a deputy who
is next in line. East is the senior (Diocletion) – reflecting the view that it is a better long-term prospect; he gives
Maximian the West. He sees Rome itself as moribund and puts the western capital at Milan! Republican spirit is
almost vanished – he is now addressed as ‘Dominus’ {Lord and Master} and all courtiers must be obeisant before
him. Portrayals become much more stylised and god-like. As in the Principate, there are still consuls etc, but no
pretence of Senate selection and only 6 month terms. The ‘spin’ that all Dominate Emperors are “Working to restore
the Republic” grows in inverse proportion to the reality.
305
312
325
Surprisingly Diocletion and Maximian do retire after a 20 year term and their respective Caesars take over, with nondynastic new Caesars as deputies. However dynasticism bites back: when the new Western Emperor Constantius dies
at York, his son Constantine (who isn’t Caesar) decides whole thing is up for grabs. After much complication and
fighting ending in a final battle in Italy against Maxentius (Maximian’s son –also passed over for Caesar) wherein the
soldiers paint chi-rho symbols on their shields, Constantine is undisputed senior Emperor.
Constantine reforms the Empire in many ways, but two stand out:- He decides his mother’s religion, Christianity,
offers an opportunity to re-unify the spirit of Empire, but asks its leaders to agree on just one form of it {& make it
compatible with Sol Invictus where possible}. At the Council of Nicea, by which time he is sole Emperor,
Trinitarism wins a hard fought-battle over Arianism. He finalises the division of the Empire into two and carefully
chooses a strategic site (the Greek town of Byzantium) to build a ‘New Rome’ – Constantinople. His mother helps
both projects by filling Constantinople’s rapidly built churches with holy relics she obtains from across the Empire.
Decline and Collapse
337
360
On Constantine’s death we get a succession of Emperors of very mixed quality. Migratory pressures further increase
and we get religious strife as these migrants are often Arian not Trinitarian. Emperor Julian, tries to re-habilitate the
traditional Roman religion but comes a cropper with another ill-advised invasion of Persian territory.
382
The West continues to decline amid much corruption, and when Britain is invaded jointly by Irish, Picts, and Saxons,
there is complete collapse and it takes a year for the Theodosius to retake the province. One of his officers, Magnus
Maximus, will later be persuaded by his troops in Britain to take the western Emperorship by force which he does, but
after a few years he is assassinated in Italy.
410
Troops are gradually being withdrawn towards Italy and a request for help under another invasion, Britain receives a
polite ‘You’re on your own’ from Western Emperor Honorius: Britain leaves the Empire!
476
After a lot more Emperors, the Western Empire finally collapses less than 70 years later.
535
{In the 6th Century the great Eastern Emperor & Empress, Justinian and Theodora, will take over parts they are
interested in, (possibly ensuring the survival of Trinitarianism in the West), but this doesn’t include Britain.}
367
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