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From its inception in the early 7th century up to the present day, women have played a vital
role in shaping Islamic history. However, their voices have often been left out of standard
historical narratives, silenced by a lack of primary sources as well as an assumed belief by
male historians that they were not part of the development of Islamic civilizations. Looking
past this bias, scholars may find many valuable sources to uncover the significant contributions
of women to Islamic history, revealing their work alongside men throughout the centuries.
Women in Early Islam
Indeed, biographies of the wives of the Muslim prophet Muhammad are an excellent example
of the significance of women in the development of Islamic history. Khadija, Muhammad’s first
wife, was the world’s first Muslim. She embraced the belief in one sole deity and the message
of the Qur’anic revelations in 610 CE, even before Muhammad understood himself to be a
prophet of God, making her the “mother of believers” in the Islamic faith. Her model as an
ideal wife, mother, and companion has made Khadija the most revered woman in Islamic
history.
Moreover, Muhammad’s wives who survived him (after his death in 632 CE), such as ’A’isha
and Umm Salama, became important transmitters of hadith, or traditions of the Prophet. The
hadith stand, second only to the Qur’an, as authoritative texts for Muslims searching for
answers to daily questions. Upon his death, the companions of Muhammad, including his
surviving wives, compiled stories of his saying and actions to assist Muslims in understanding
how to live pious lives in the model of the Prophet. Because of their unique access to him,
Muhammad’s wives became particularly important figures in hadith transmission, solidifying
their historic contribution to Islamic law.
Women such as Khadija and ’A’isha, as well as Muhammad’s daughter, Fatima, became key
public figures in the earliest years of Islamic history. However, within the context of Arabian
society, patriarchal social structures and attitudes continued to regard women as subordinate
to men in many realms of public life. For example, when ’A’isha challenged the fourth Caliph,
’Ali, for control of who would rule over the Islamic community at the Battle of the Camel in
656, the ensuing fitna—or crisis of Muslim fighting Muslim in warfare—led to a tradition that
women should not engage in politics. Although women continued to play supporting roles in
subsequent wars, the notion that a woman could lead or advise an army was discredited after
the Battle of the Camel.
Women in Later Islamic Empires
Nevertheless, women continued to play vital roles in political life in various Islamic empires as
the centuries wore on. For instance, royal Ayyubid women in 13th century Egypt and the
Levant were known as important public figures, using their wealth and position to endow
schools, hospitals, and other charitable institutions. Moreover, wife of the Ayyubid sultan Salah
al-Din, Shajarat al-Durr, became the cofounder of the Mamluk dynasty, albeit her reign as an
independent queen was a short one. Ottoman women in the harem of the Sultan in Istanbul
were also known for their political engagement. Even from within the walls of their home, the
women of the Ottoman harem chose to whom the sultan would marry and with whom he would
have children, maintaining the dynasty for nearly 700 years.
Women also became important figures in the mystical movements of Islam, known collectively
as Sufism. Indeed, one of the most important founders of Sufi thought was Rabi’a al’Adawiyya. This 8th-century woman from Basra is largely recognized as the first person to
express the now-standard Sufi belief in holy love. Her poems, dedicated to a mystical union
with God, alongside her model as saintly person, have made her one of the most revered Sufis
of history. Like al-’Adawiyya, countless women in Islamic history have turned to Sufism to give
them spiritual strength, as well as religious community and authority. Pilgrimages to Sufi
shrines became important journeys for women, particularly those unable to afford a pilgrimage
to Mecca.
Women in Islamic Society
However, the majority of women in the era of the great Islamic empires lived their lives
predominantly in the private sphere. Within the context of Islamic faith, women are esteemed
as wives and mothers, and it was as such that historical sources present most women.
Moreover, as the Muslims expanded out of Arabia, conquering societies with strong patriarchal
restrictions on women’s movement in public, such as the Safavid empire of Iran and the
Byzantine empire of the Levant, notions of veiling and seclusion became more widespread
among Muslims. Viewed as markers of high social class, these restrictions were most feasible
for families that did not need women’s labor or income.
In some eras of Islamic history, women’s positions appear quite subordinate to men’s. For
instance, the Abbasid period saw the disappearance of women from public records and events,
as the ideal of secluding women became more fashionable for men who wanted to demonstrate
their power. Concubinage and expansive harems became the rule for political leaders, and
women’s social value was viewed as lower than that of men by many in power. Women were
largely excluded from religious authority, despite the Qur’anic declaration that men and women
were equal in the eyes of God and the role of the female Companions in transmitting the
hadith. Patriarchal values became increasingly codified in the sharia, or Islamic law, as well as
in the daily life of Muslim women.
Although they became less apparent in the historical record as the Islamic conquests spread,
women in the Islamic empires continued to be vital members of society. Their responsibilities
of bearing and raising children, providing food and clothing for their families, and instilling
religious and social values within their households made them fundamental partners with men
in the development of Islamic civilizations. Moreover, women in Islamic history gained strength
from a legacy of strong and influential women in the founding years of their faith, as well as a
tradition that, although culturally patriarchal, granted them ultimate equality in the eyes of the
deity in which they believed.