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Chapter 45: pp. 839 - 864 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 10th Edition Sylvia S. Mader Community & Ecosystem Ecology BIOLOGY © B. Runk/S. Schoenberger/Grant Heilman Photography PowerPoint® Lecture Slides are prepared by Dr. Isaac Barjis, Biology Instructor Copyright © The McGraw Hill Companies Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display 1 Outline The Concept of the Community The Structure of Communities Composition and Diversity Habitat and Ecological Niche Competition Between Populations Predator-Prey Interactions Symbiotic Relationships Island Biogeography Community Development Ecological succession 2 Outline The Nature of Ecosystems Energy Flow Abiotic Components Autotrophs Heterotrophs Ecological Pyramids Biogeochemical Cycles Hydrologic Cycle Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Phosphorus Cycle 3 Community Concept A community is an assemblage of populations interacting with one another within the same environment. The species composition (also called species richness) of a community is a listing of various species in the community. Diversity includes both species richness and the abundance of different species. 4 Community Structure Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. squirrel moose snowshoe hare bear red fox wolf a. kinkajou monkey anteater jaguar tapir bat sloth b. a(Forest): © Charlie Ott/Photo Researchers, Inc.; a(Squirrel): © Stephen Dalton/Photo Researchers, Inc.; a(Wolf): © Renee Lynn/Photo Researchers, Inc.; b(Rain forest): © Michael Graybill and Jan Hodder/Biological Photo Service; b(Kinkajou): © Alan & Sandy Carey/Photo Researchers, Inc.; b(Sloth): © Studio Carlo Dani/Animals Animals Earth Scenes 5 Habitat and Ecological Niche Habitat The area where an organism lives and reproduces Ecological niche The role a species plays in its community Includes its habitat, and Its interactions with other organisms Fundamental niche - All conditions under which the organism can survive Realized niche - Set of conditions under which it exists in nature 6 Feeding Niches for Wading Birds Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Flamingos feed on small molluscs, crustaceans, and vegetable matter strained from mud pumped through their bills by their powerful tongues. Dabbling ducks feed by tipping, tail up, to reach aquatic plants, seeds, snails, and insects. Avocets feed on insects, small marine invertebrates, and seeds by sweeping their bills from side to side in shallow water. Oystercatchers pry open bivalve shells with their knifelike bills and probe sand for worms and crabs. Plovers dart around on beaches and grasslands hunting for insects and small invertebrates. 7 Community Structure Competition When two species compete, the abundance of both species is negatively impacted Predation (or parasitism) Expected to increase the abundance of the predator (or parasite) And reduce the abundance of the prey (or host) 8 Competition Between Populations Competition occurs when Members of different species require the same resource, and The supply of the resource is limited 9 Competition Between Two Laboratory Populations of Paramecium Population Density Population Density Population Density Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. P. aurelia grown separately P. caudatum grown separately Both species grown together Time 10 Competition Between Populations Competitive Exclusion Principle No two species can indefinitely occupy the same niche at the same time Resource Partitioning decreases competition between species Resource partitioning leads to niche specialization and less niche overlap between species Character Displacement Characteristics tend to become more divergent when populations belong to the same community than when they are isolated Competition and resource partitioning may lead to character displacement 11 Character Displacement in Finches on the Galápagos Islands Percent of Sample Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 50 Species coexist on Abingdon, Bindloe, James, and Jervis Islands 30 10 Percent of Sample Percent of Sample small medium Beak Depth large G. fortis exists alone on Daphne Island 50 30 10 small 50 medium Beak Depth large G. fuliginosa exists alone on Crossman Island 30 10 small G. fuliginosa medium Beak Depth G. fortis large G. magnirostris 12 Niche Specialization Among Five Species of Coexisting Warblers Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cape May warbler Black-throated green warbler Bay-breasted warbler Blackburnian warbler Yellow-rumped warbler 13 Competition Between Two Species of Barnacles Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. high tide Chthamalus area of competition Balanus low tide 14 Predator-Prey Interactions Predation One living organism, the predator, feeds on another, the prey Predator is larger Predator has lower reproductive rate Prey usually entirely consumed Presence of predators can decrease prey densities, and vice-versa 15 Predator-prey Interaction Between a Lynx and a Snowshoe Hare Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 140 Number (thousands) 120 hare lynx 100 a. 80 60 40 20 1845 b. 1855 1865 1875 1885 1895 1905 1915 1925 1935 © Alan Carey/Photo Researchers, Inc. 16 Prey Defenses Prey defenses Mechanisms that thwart the possibility of being eaten by a predator Heightened senses Speed Protective armor Protective spines or thorns Tails or appendages that break off Poisonous Chemicals Camouflage Warning Coloration Flocking Behavior 17 Anti-predator Defenses Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. eye false head a. Camouflage b. Warning colorization c. Fright a: © Gustav Verderber/Visuals Unlimited; b: © Zig Leszczynski/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; c: © National Audubon Society/A. Cosmos Blank/Photo Researchers, Inc. 18 Mimicry Mimicry One species resembles another species that possesses an overt antipredator defense Batesian Mimicry - Mimic lacks defense of the organism it resembles Müllerian Mimicry - Mimic shares a protective defense with other species 19 Mimicry Among Insects Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. a. Flower fly b. Longhorn beetle c. Bumblebee d. Yellow jacket a: © Edward S. Ross; b: © Edward S. Ross; c: © James H. Robinson/Photo Researchers, Inc.; d: © Edward S. Ross 20 Symbiotic Relationships Symbiosis An association between species in which at least one of the species is dependent on the other 21 Symbiotic Relationships 22 Symbiotic Relationships Parasitism Parasite derives nourishment from a host, and may use host as habitat and mode of transmission Endoparasites Ectoparasites 23 Heartworm Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Courtesy the University of Tennessee Parasitology Laboratory 24 Symbiotic Relationships Commensalism A symbiotic relationship in which one species benefits and the other is neither benefited nor harmed Shark and remora fish Many supposed examples may turn out to be mutualism or parasitism 25 Clownfish Among Sea Anemone’s Tentacles Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. © Dave B. Fleetham/Visuals Unlimited 26 Symbiotic Relationships Mutualism A symbiotic relationship in which both members of the association benefit Need not be equally beneficial to both species Cleaning Symbiosis Often help each other obtain food or avoid predation Bacteria in human intestinal tract 27 Cleaning Symbiosis Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. © Bill Wood/Bruce Coleman, Inc. 28 Island Biogeography Pertains to Biodiversity MacArthur and Wilson Developed a general model of island biogeography Explains and predicts how the community diversity of an island is affected by Distance from the mainland, and Size of the island The model of island biogeography suggests that the larger the conserved area, the better the chance of preserving more species. 29 Community Development Ecological Succession A change involving a series of species replacements following a disturbance Primary Succession occurs in areas where there is no soil formation Secondary Succession begins in areas where soil is present The first species to begin secondary succeession are called pioneer species 30 Secondary Succession Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. a. First year b. Second year c. Fifth year d. Tenth year e. Twentieth year © Breck P. Kent/Animals Animals/Earth Scene 31 Secondary Succession in a Forest Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. grass low shrub high shrub shrub-tree low tree high tree 32 Succession Models Facilitation Model Each stage facilitates invasion and replacement by organisms of the next stage Succession in a particular area will always lead to the same type of community, a climax community 33 Succession Models Inhibition Model Colonists remain and inhibit growth of other plants until the colonists are damaged or die Tolerance Model Different types of plants can colonize an area at the same time Chance determines which seeds arrive first 34