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ANALYSIS OF THE IMPLICATIONS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE LIVELIHOODS
OF SMALL PRODUCERS IN TANZANIA
PREPARED FOR LAND RIGHTS RESEARCH AND RESOURCES INSTITUTEHAKIARDHI
Elifuraha Laltaika, August 2013
PART ONE
1.1 BACKGROUND
In recent years, climate change-related impacts have severely affected the economic
performance and livelihoods of rural communities in Tanzania. Such impacts manifested
mainly as prolonged droughts and unprecedented floods resulting in death of livestock
and wildlife, and poor crop harvests. Small producers notably farmers, pastoralists and
hunter-gatherers have been disproportionally affected by the prolonged droughts and
unprecedented floods. This is because these communities depend on rain-fed crop
farming and pastoralism in order to get food and income. Accordingly, this
overdependence on rain-fed crop farming makes small producers in Tanzania more
vulnerable to climate change and its impacts hence calling for urgency in crafting
appropriate adaptation and mitigation measures.
In line with the background above, HAKIARDHI has commissioned a study on which
this report is based to undertake a critical analysis of the impacts of climate change on
the livelihoods of the small producers who largely depend on land and related resources
for their survival. In particular, the analysis intended to uncover the various initiatives
that stakeholders have undertaken over time to address the predicaments caused by
climate change that are confronting small producers. In addition, the analysis aimed to
explore the extent to which grassroots communities are aware of the climate change
effects and the strategies employed in addressing such effects. This analysis was
informed by the Institute’s objective, namely to ensure that small producers are availed
with reliable, easily accessible and concrete information on land rights and related
matters.
1.2 INTRODUCTION
This report is divided into four parts. Part one contains the research methodology. Part
two contains an overview of climate change related initiatives at the international level.
Part three contains a review and analysis of climate change initiatives at the country
level, including the extent to which incorporation of the climate change strategies have
been adopted and effected. Part four contains an analysis of climate change impacts
and responses in relation to land rights and natural resource management. Part five
contains recommendations for effective climate change adaptation and mitigation
strategies for policy lobbying and advocacy.
1.3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The study on which this report is based was a “desk review.” It involved a collection of
documents as well as a comprehensive review of the collected documents in light of
land related legislation. Literatures pertaining to climate change generally, as well as
land and natural resources rights in particular have also been very useful in this regard.
2
Based on the cross-sectoral nature of climate change and its impacts, many
stakeholders in Tanzania have undertaken a number of initiatives aimed to address it. In
one way or the other, such initiatives have addressed rights of small producers who
constitute the most vulnerable group. These stakeholders include the government of
Tanzania (both central and local levels), Development partners, Non Governmental
Organizations (NGOs), the private sector as well as the academia (universities and
research institutions).
Administering questionnaires and interviewing stakeholders is one of the most reliable
methods of exploring the extent to which grassroots communities are aware of the
climate change effects and the strategies employed in addressing such effects. This
review has relied on reports that employed this method. The next part focuses on the
international initiatives for combating climate change.
3
PART TWO
2.1EFFORTS TO CURB CLIMATE CHANGE AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL.
Climate change is one of the biggest challenges in the twenty first century. If not
addressed, it can force more people into abject poverty and consequently negating
most of the progress made specifically with a view to achieving millennium development
goals and in the area of economic development more generally. One of the notable
challenges of climate change is its “trans boundary nature,” meaning that climate
transcends national boundaries.
Accordingly, impacts of climate change in one part of the globe can cause damage in
the other part of the globe. In view of this reality, a need for international cooperation to
curb climate change on which this next part of this report focuses is inevitable. Although
there are numerous other ways in which Nations can cooperate such as through
bilateral technology transfer and bilateral financial support, this report highlights
international legal instruments.
2.1.1The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
The objective of the UNFCCC 1 to which Tanzania is a party is the “stabilization of
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic human induced interference with the climate system.” 2
Organs of the UNFCCC include the Conference of the Parties (COP) that comprises all
member states 3 , the secretariat 4 the Subsidiary body for implementation, 5 and the
Subsidiary Body on Scientific and Technological Advice (SUBSTA).6 The main function
of the SUBSTA is to provide the COP with scientific and technological information
related to the Convention.7
The UNFCCC is based on the principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and
respective capabilities.”8 Accordingly, the UNFCCC contends that while all countries of
the world have a shared responsibility to curb climate change and its impacts, greater
responsibility should be placed on industrialized countries 9 that have contributed
1
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, available at
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf
2
Article 2
3
Article 7
4
Article 8
5
Article 10
6
Article 10
7
Article 9(1)
8
Article 3(1)
9
The UNFCCC categorizes the industrialized countries into Annex 1. The list includes also countries in transition to
market economy such as Ukraine, Croatia, and Poland.
4
significantly more to the exacerbation of climate change because of their economic
development models.10
Despite the recognition of the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities that
developed (first world countries), should shoulder most of the responsibility of
anthropogenic climate change; the principle has largely remained an unspecified
rhetorical proviso, rather than a palpable policy stipulation. 11 Similarly, the UNFCCC
does not specify any practical, binding measures or time bound obligations for
developed countries within which to achieve the objective of the Convention stated
above. 12 It only “encourages” them to do so. 13 This notwithstanding, the UNFCCC
remains an important international body because it provides for a forum for diplomatic
negotiations, it plays a role of coordinating scientific research, and it provides for
“technological and financial assistance for mitigation, adaptation, information exchange,
and capacity building.”14
2.1.2The Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(the protocol) 15 is a legal instrument linked to, and with the same objectives as the
UNFCCC. It was negotiated during the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the
UNFCCC held in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. However, it took close to 10 years before this
legal instrument entered into force in 2005.16 Unlike the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol is
based on binding commitments, as it “commits” rather than “encourages” Annex 1
countries to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC within a specified time frame.17 The
protocol also specifies levels of reductions expected of all Annex 1 countries as being
5% below the baseline level of 1990.18 In view of this, the Kyoto Protocol compliance
mechanism has been described as “one of the most comprehensive and rigorous
among all [Multilateral Environmental Agreements] MEAs”19
10
Article 3(1)
See Marry J. Botscheller; Equitable But Ineffective: How The Principle of Common But Differentiated
Responsibilities Bobbles The Global Fight Against Climate Change. Available at
http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1036&context=sdlp
12
Victoria Tauli Corpuz et al “Guide on Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples” 2nd edition. Available at
http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1036&context=sdlp
13
Ibid
14
Svitlana, Kravchenko, Right to Carbon or Right to Life: Human Rights Approaches to Climate Change UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change, Essential background, 9 Vermont Journal of Environmental Law (2008)
15
Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Dec. 10, 1997, 37 I.L.M 22
(1998) available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf
16
Despite being a state party to the UNFCCC, The United States of America remains the only industrialized country
that is yet to sign on to the Kyoto Protocol that would constitute a legally binding commitment to curb greenhouse
emissions.
17
The reduction target were to be achieved by the year 2012 which is the commitment period for the Protocol
(2008-2012)
18
Victoria Tauli Corpuz et al “Guide on Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples” 2 nd edition. Available at
http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1036&context=sdlp
19
Svitlana, Kravchenko, Right to Carbon or Right to Life: Human Rights Approaches to Climate Change UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change, Essential background, 9 Vermont Journal of Environmental Law (2008)
11
5
The Kyoto Protocol contains innovative strategies by which industrialized countries can
reduce greenhouse gas emissions among which include Joint Implementation, 20
Emission Reductions, 21 and Clean Development mechanism. 22 Figures indicate
however that African countries have not benefited from these three market based
mechanisms.23 In Tanzania for example, only one project has been approved under the
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) namely the Mtoni Dumping field in Mtoni
Temeke in Dar-Es-Salaam.24
In the on-going commitment period described above, however, the Kyoto protocol
excludes the preservation of forests from the list of project types eligible for emission
reduction credits. 25 This means that the Kyoto Protocol does not give an annex 1
country any credit for implementing projects that aim to preserve forests in developing
countries. This exclusion has significant implications for efforts to confront climate
change through the reduction of carbon and other greenhouse gas emissions as it
overlooks the detrimental effects of deforestation.26
This is because, deforestation has an enormous impact on the environment not only
because of the degradation it causes to the land, but because trees are an essential
source of carbon absorption.27 With no incentive in place for countries and corporations
to stop deforesting, deforestation in the developing countries continued with prevalence
– which only accelerated and exacerbated the negative impacts of climate change. 28
Fortunately, however, during the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC held
in Bali Indonesia in 2007, international climate change discussions were broadened to
include the need for using forests in developing countries to achieve sustainable
development objectives since forests have the potential to absorb 18% of all Global
GHG. Tanzania has embraced the use of forest for carbon absorption and economic
incentives known as REDD+ (Reducing emissions from Deforestation and forest
Degradation) as the main climate change mitigation option. This will also be discussed
in relation to land rights of small producers.
20
Article of the Convention
Victoria Tauli Corpuz et al “Guide on Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples” 2 nd edition. Available at
http://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1036&context=sdlp
22
This arrangement allows developing countries to invest on “Clean Technology” and earn carbon credits as
compliance to Kyoto Protocol
23
Cadman, T and Tek Maraseni: “The governance of REDD+: An Institutional Analysis in the Pacific Region and
Beyond”
24
Lyamuya, S “Energy Sector Development in Tanzania,” The Business times, available at
http://www.businesstimes.co.tz/index.php
25
Michael Jenkins ‘Linking Communities, Forests and Carbon’ in Brainard, L et al “Climate Change and Global
Poverty: A Million Lives in The Balance?” Brookings Institutions Press, 2009 p. 87
26
In Tanzania for example that the main driver of deforestation is subsistence farming which can be substantially
avoided by provision of equally profitable schemes.
27
See the Stern Review on the Economy of Climate Change available at http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk
28
Ibid
21
6
PART THREE
3.1EFFORTS TO CURB CLIMATE CHANGE AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL
Tanzania has no comprehensive legislation dedicated to curbing climate change.
However, the Environmental Management Act touches on aspects of climate change.
In addition the country has put in place policy and institutional framework geared
towards tackling climate change. This part discusses on these initiatives in relation to
the land and natural resources rights of the small producers.
3.1.1The National Environmental Policy
This policy was promulgated in December 1997. Its main objective is to provide a
framework for mainstreaming environmental considerations into the decision-making
processes in Tanzania. The policy brings forward primary environmental issues that
would be addressed by climate change adaptation measures. In addition, it stresses the
need to undertake climate studies in order to come up with mitigation options.
In view of Tanzania’s vulnerability to climate variations, the policy provides that an
assessment of impacts of climate change and climate variations will be undertaken. In
particular, studies to be undertaken in the furtherance of the policy should come up with
strategies to ensure that options that are pursued in the course of curbing climate
change do not unduly sacrifice national development endeavours. This is in line with the
principle of sustainable development which entails that natural resources should be
used in a manner that takes into account the needs of both the current generation as
well as the generation yet to come.
Currently, forests occupy a central stage in the climate change discussions at the global
level. The NEP also acknowledges the link between climate change and other
phenomenon such as fresh water availability, biological diversity and deforestation as
depicted in the objective of the sub-sector which is “the development of sustainable
regimes for soil conservation and forest protection, taking into account the close
linkages between desertification, deforestation, freshwater availability, climate change,
and biological diversity.”
In view of the above, the NEP highlights in particular, the importance of integrating
environmental management in several sectoral programs and policies. A particularly
strong example of such integration is found in the agriculture sector that is undoubtedly
the most crucial for food security and for eradication of rural poverty in the country.
The NEP proposes for example for: “the improvement of land husbandry through soil
erosion control and soil fertility improvement; the minimization of encroachment in public
lands including forests, woodlands, wetlands, and pastures; the strengthening of
environmentally sound use, monitoring, registration and management of agrochemicals;
as well as the improvement in water use efficiency in irrigation”
3.1.2The National Environmental Management Act
7
The Environmental Management Act 29 is the framework environmental legislation
overriding other pieces of legislation related to environmental and natural resource
management including climate change in Tanzania. It was enacted to create the legal
and institutional framework for sustainable management of the environment. 30 The law
empowers the minister in charge of the environment, in consultation with other ministers
of relevant government ministries to take measures to address climate change and its
impacts, including adaptation.
In particular, the minister is required to issue guidelines to ministries and other
institutions in order to address climate change and its impacts as a result of global
warming. The minister is also required to ensure that government ministries and other
independent departments put in place strategies and action plans relating to dealing
with climate change. Advising schools and higher learning institutions to include matters
related to climate change in their curriculum as well as reviewing and approving any
measures undertaken to address climate change by any institution, firm, sector or
individuals are other functions of the minister in charge of the environment in relation to
climate change.
In the context of the provision referred to above, institutions may be foreign or local,
including those related to the use of land, water, forests, or any other ecosystem within
the United Republic of Tanzania to sequester greenhouse gases. The law also
designates the minister in charge of the environment to be the person in charge of
articulating the national positions at global level on how to deal with the problem of
climate change in the context of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change and its related protocols.
3.1.3The Strategy for Urgent Action to Mitigate against Land Degradation and Water
Catchments
In an effort to implement the Environmental Management Act generally and climate
change mitigation related provisions in particular, the government in 2006 formulated
the Strategy for Urgent Action to Mitigate against Land Degradation and Water
Catchments, known by its acronym as SUALDWCT. This strategy has outlawed the
use of resources that are critical for the survival of small producers, notably pastoralists
and their herds during the dry season.
Specifically, it is pursuant to the SUALDWCT that pastoralists from the Ihefu and
Usangu plains in Southwestern Tanzania were forcefully evicted in 2006 and 2007 on
the grounds that they would allegedly exhaust the water resources in the area. The
eviction exercise was carried out in a manner that caused a lot of criticism form actors in
land and natural resources both local and international. In addition, victims of the
eviction are yet to be compensated and findings of a commission of inquiry formed to
probe into the alleged human rights violations have not been made public to-date.
3.1.4The National Climate Change Strategy
29
30
Act No. 20 of 2004, available at http://polis.parliament.go.tz/PAMS/docs/20-2004.pdf
See the Long title to the Act, no. 20 of 2004.
8
In response to the growing concern of the negative impacts of climate change and
climate variability on the country’s social economic and physical environment, the
Government of Tanzania In 2012, came up with the National Climate Change Strategy
with the aim of enhancing the technical, institutional and individual capacity of the
country to address the impacts of climate change.
The strategy indicates that various stakeholders participated during its preparation and
they include the private sector, the academia, Civil Society organizations and key
government ministries and departments. Adaptation, mitigation and cross cutting
intervention that will enable Tanzania to benefit from opportunities available to
developing countries in their effort to tackle climate change are covered in the strategy.
These opportunities include technology transfer to developing countries under the
proposed Technology mechanism; opportunities offered under Reducing Emissions
from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) and financing for adaptation and
mitigation activities under “Fast start climate Funding.” All these opportunities were
unveiled in three international documents emanating from different conferences of the
parities to the UNFCCC and they include the Copenhagen Accord, Cancun agreement
and Durban Platform for Enhanced Actions.
For the purpose of implementing the strategy, various institutions have been established
including the National Climate Change Steering Committee (NCCSC), and the National
Climate Change Technical Committee (NCCTC).31 Unfortunately, all these institutions
are comprised exclusively of government agencies and their representatives that
problematically limit the potential for harnessing diverse ideas from Non Governmental
Organizations (in most cases representing ordinary citizens and marginalized
populations including small producers) and the academia. Although Tanzania is working
to establish the National REDD+ Trust Fund and the National Carbon Monitoring Centre
(NCMC), the composition of these agencies is not known yet.32
3.1.5The National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA)
This document was formulated in 2007 for the purpose of identifying and promoting
activities that address urgent and immediate needs for adapting to the impacts of
climate change. All parties to the UFCCC are required to formulate and submit similar
documents in their respective countries in order to identify adaptation strategies and
receive financial support in areas that require urgent actions.
The objectives of NAPA for Tanzania include the protection of life and livelihoods of
people, infrastructure, biodiversity and the environment; mainstreaming adaptation
activities into national and sectoral development policies and strategies and to increase
public awareness to climate change impacts and adaptation activities to communities,
civil society and government officials. Other objectives include enhancing the
communities’ use of natural resources in a friendly manner, to complement national and
community activities hampered by the impacts of climate change and to create a long31
32
See http://www.reddtz.org/
Ibid
9
term sustainable livelihood and development activities at both community and national
level in the context of climate change.
In relation to land and natural resources rights to small producers, the strategy lists the
need to establish “good land tenure system and facilitate sustainable human settlement”
as being one of the fourteen selected project activities. This calls for a need to keep an
eye on the land rights of small producers who have been victims of both historical and
contemporary initiatives such as the Strategy for Urgent Action to Mitigate against Land
Degradation and Water Catchments described above.
3.1.6Reducing Emissions From Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)
Tanzania has embraced REDD+ as the main climate change mitigation initiative in the
country. The government of Norway is the main financier of this initiative, having signed
a letter of intent with the government of Tanzania for $ 100 million pledge. If unchecked,
this initiative can have negative consequences on land rights of small producers. In oneway or the other, other donors including the World Bank finance this initiative as well.
By way of background, Conrad Kevin, MBA graduate of Columbia University and
founder of the Coalition of Rain Forest Nations, originated the idea of REDD in the form
of a need to reward “avoided deforestation”. 33 His ideas later received intellectual
backing from both the Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) as well as the Stern Review.34 The much-publicized Stern Review concluded:
“curbing deforestation is a highly effective way of reducing emissions and has the
potential to offer significant reduction fairly quickly.” 35
Accordingly, Parties to the UNFCCC in 2007 considered a program for the inclusion of
forest conservation to mitigate impacts of climate change. This program is contained in
the Bali Action Plan36 and is now referred to as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation
and forest degradation in Developing countries (REDD without +). Toward COP 15 in
Copenhagen, the acronym was changed to REDD+ to reflect the need to consider
multiple benefits of forests in addition to carbon absorption potentials. 37
In effect, the Bali Action Plan provides that countries should be compensated for their
nation-wide reduced emissions resulting from efforts at curbing deforestation and forest
degradation (REDD+); and that a new mechanism should be created for that purpose.
Since the agreement was reached, a number of institutions have demonstrated interest
and support. For example, the World Bank launched the Forest Carbon Partnership
Facility (FCPF) for the purpose of building REDD+ capacities in developing countries as
well as financing pilot projects to test the viability of REDD+, also known as “REDD+
readiness.”38
33
http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1841778_1841779,00.html
Ibid
35
Ibid
36
Available at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2007/cop13/eng/06a01.pdf
37
See “What is REDD+” http://redd-net.org/themes/redd-backgrounder-what-is-redd
38
See the Forest Carbon partnership Facility http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/
34
10
In addition, three United Nations (UN) agencies, namely the Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO), the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the United
Nations Development Program (UNDP) launched the United Nations Collaborative
Program on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (UNREDD Program) for similar reasons.39
At the bilateral level, the Government of Norway announced its pledge of $ 100 million
to finance avoided deforestation in Tanzania.40 Similarly, the Government of Australia
announced its Forest Carbon Initiative aimed at sponsoring REDD pilot projects in
Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.41
The key actors in the REDD+ implementation in Tanzania can be placed into three
broad categories: the government, local communities (including Tanzanian NGOs) and
international development Partners. This part focuses on development partners and the
next part discusses institutional framework as well as the involvement of local
communities through NGOs.
The main development partners in the REDD+ industry in Tanzania include the
Government of Norway, the United Nations REDD Program (UN-REDD Program) and
the Forest Carbon partnership facility of the World Bank (FCPF). As indicated above,
the Government of Norway is the main donor, having signed a letter of intent with the
Government of Tanzania (GoT) to provide $ 100 Million.42
The FCPF provides funding and financial support for preparing Monitoring, Reporting
and Verification (MRV) by way of building the country’s capacity to participate in the
carbon market for sustainable development. 43 Tanzania appears in the FCPF list of
“REDD country participants”44 and it has submitted its Readiness Preparation Proposal
(R-PP) detailing activities envisioned to be undertaken as well as the budgetary
estimates for the same.45
On its part, the UN-REDD Program supports the implementation of the UN-REDD
National Program as well as offering “contemporary support to national REDD+ action
through common approaches, analyses, methodologies, tools, data, and best practices
39
See the UN REDD Program Official Website http://www.un-redd.org/
The “letter of intent” is available at
http://www.reddtz.org/other_docs/Letter_of_Intent_ClimateChangePartnership.pdf
41
See Papua New Guinea- Australia Forest Carbon Partnership Agreement available at
http://www.ausaid.gov.au/countries/pacific/png/Documents/forest-carbon-partnership-signed.pdf
42
The “letter of intent” is available at
http://www.reddtz.org/other_docs/Letter_of_Intent_ClimateChangePartnership.pdf
43
See http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/
44
See http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp
45
See
http://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/sites/forestcarbonpartnership.org/files/Documents/PDF/Oct2010/REVIS
ED_FINAL_Tanzania.R-PP_main_document.V12__7.10.2010%5B1%5D.pdf
40
11
developed through UN-REDD Global Program.” 46 Tanzania appears in the list of 46
partner countries across Africa, Asia-Pacific and Latin America and Caribbean.47
With regards to REDD+ implementation in particular, the key institution is the National
REDD+ taskforce (NRTF). This body is comprised of members from the Vice presidents
Office, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism and other key government
ministries.48 The Institute of Resource Assessment of the University of Dar-Es-Salam is
the secretariat to the REDD+ taskforce. Local communities are involved through NGOs
but not at the level of planning and decision-making but rather as members of shortterm technical working groups aimed at providing imputes for the development of the
National REDD+ Taskforce.
It appears however, that the unsatisfactory and insufficient inclusion of non-state actors
including small producers to the above organs is a result of the lack of a legal
framework created by the Parliament whereby all the institutions have been formed
through ministerial arrangements within the executive arm of the government. 49 A
creature of an Act of Parliament is debated upon and subjected to the procedure of
public hearing before it is adopted hence minimizing chances of exclusionary
tendencies.
46
See http://www.un-redd.org/AboutUN-REDDProgramme/tabid/102613/Default.aspx
See http://www.un-redd.org/UNREDDProgramme/CountryActions/Tanzania/tabid/1028/language/enUS/Default.aspx
48
ibid
49
The National environmental Advisory Committee attests to this. This body is a creation of Section 11(1) of the
Environmental Management Act No. 20 of 2004. The committee comprises of 3 (out of 25) members from non-state
actors namely the academia, Civil Society and the Private Sector.
47
12
PART FOUR
4.1IMPACTS AND RESPONSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE
The NAPA lists impacts of climate change in Tanzania as a result of frequent and
severe droughts. They include severe food shortages, food insecurity, water scarcity,
hunger and acute shortage of power. Efforts to stabilize or mitigate these impacts lead
to negative consequences on the livelihoods as well as the land and natural resources
rights of small producers. There are several ways in which this happens, one is through
formulation of laws, policies and strategies that locks out small producers or that justify
their evictions as elaborated above.
Another example is the recent trend to grow crops that can be used to make biofuels. At
the global level, this practice that is aimed at encouraging low carbon economy has
caused devastating effects relating to food insecurity and starvation. In particular, the
food crisis as a result of land grabbing to grow biofuel crops forced 50 million people
into hunger in 2007 alone.
Tanzania has embraced this practice without prior preparation at the legal or policy
level. This means that there is currently no comprehensive law or policy on biofuel in
Tanzania. Consequently, land conflicts involving foreign direct investors on the one
hand and small producers on the other hand in places such as Rufiji and Kisarawe
districts have become the norm rather than the exception.
Among pastoralist, climate change in the form of prolonged droughts has essentially
reduced the amount of forage available and thereby leading to the death of livestock
through lack of pastures and drinking water. By weakening livestock, drought has
increased their vulnerability to a range of animal diseases, both during the dry phase
and also during a succeeding recovery phase when internal parasites may flourish in
newly rainy conditions.
In relation to land rights, the shrinking of grazing land has pushed pastoralists into
grazing in farmlands hence causing resource conflicts involving pastoralists and crop
growers. These conflicts have lead to loss of human life. Pastoralists living in wildlifeprotected areas have also found themselves in difficult situation. Whereas wild animals
from national parks could freely graze with livestock in villages and share water sources
with livestock, the same mechanism is not available to pastoralists, meaning the law
forbids them from grazing in the national parks even during emergency situations of
acute drought to save livestock from death.
Prior to the incidence of drought/climate change, the ecological situation among
pastoralists could be characterized as a balanced resource base. This means that both
browsers and grazers were assured of grass and water near homesteads. Similarly,
there were no as many livestock diseases as there are now. A good ecology is the one
13
that is free from undue stress, conflicts and uncontrollable diseases. Prolonged
droughts have unfortunately brought about all these vices.
14
PART FIVE
5.CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This study has shown that small-scale producers in Tanzania are especially vulnerable
to climate change and its impacts because of their livelihood options that are dependent
on rain-fed production. Accordingly, these communities have no resources to fall back
to when prolonged droughts or excessive floods hit them. Instead, these communities
have responded by selling livestock and land or by encroaching on other land users
hence causing land conflicts and sometimes loss of life. These options have been
described as exacerbating poverty and vulnerability to climate change and its impacts.
More importantly, this study has shown that efforts to stabilize or mitigate climate
change and its impacts lead to a wide range of negative consequences on the
livelihoods as well as the land and natural resources rights of small producers. This is
through formulation of laws, policies and strategies that locks small producers out of the
consultation process while simultaneously justifying their evictions from their ancestral
lands. In view of the above, the following recommendations are advanced for policy
lobbying and advocacy on effective climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies.
5.1 Legislation on Climate Change and REDD+
5.2 Keeping and eye on climate change mitigation measures
5.3 Lobbying for inclusive bodies dealing with climate change
5.4 Lobbying for the adoption of the right to the environment in the constitution
15