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Western Civilization Chapter 24 Escalating Tensions, 1880 - 1914 By 1885, only 1/9 of the world’s land surface had been surveyed By 1900, each of the continents had been explored and measured Efforts were made to map territories and to standardize time However, there were disagreements about the need for standardization, especially with time zones Germany had 5 time zones in 1891 The U.S. had over 200 They couldn’t agree on the placement of the prime meridian. Countries were too busy expanding boundaries to fix them for a map. World Time Zones The New Imperialism Nations had always taken over other territory This was imperialism After 1870, acquisition of territories was on an intense scale, helped by all the new inventions in transportation, communication, and weapons Europe began concentrating on taking over “undeveloped” lands A competition for colonies developed among European nations, especially among England, France, and Germany The Technology of Empire Steam, iron, and electricity were all-important to Europe’s imperial expansion in the 19th century Steam was used in factories and in transportation They could then transport more people and cargo more quickly Iron ships were more durable, lighter, water-tight, faster, and more fuel-efficient than wooden vessels Iron steamships allowed Europeans to maintain closer contact with their colonies Europeans could also go upriver in the new ships helping them learn about the terrain, natural beauty, and resources Technology allowed for the deepening of harbors and the creation of canals Two major ones were built: the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal Suez Canal was built by the French and bought by the British and was completed in 1869 opening a new trade route Panama Canal was started by the French and finished by the U.S., connecting the Atlantic to the Pacific Both canals shortened the distance of travel and made a shortcut Suez Canal The electric telegraph had revolutionized global communication by the end of the 19th century This enabled colonizing nations to keep in closer contact with their colonies There were new medicines allowing colonizers to venture inland in new territories Quinine – comes from the cinchona tree bark and combats malaria Panama Canal Panama Canal New types of firearms helped Europeans take over areas defended only by spears and blow guns There were machine guns and new rifles So the new technology allowed for the new imperialism and new European control worldwide Example: the sun never sets on the British Empire Motives for Empire Economic reasons New raw materials for industry New markets for manufactured goods Fortunes could be made or lost, depending on the risk Europeans had the desire to expand investment opportunities Not all new territories proved profitable The purpose of colonies was to enrich the Mother Country Geopolitical reasons Countries were encouraged to expand even into territories that probably weren’t economically valuable These areas could be used as fueling bases, a way to protect sea routes, or could offer a presence to help control an area This caused an increase in naval budgets and the size of naval fleets Britain had the largest navy, but were challenged by the U.S., Germany, and Japan to some extent by 1900 Each wished to dominate the seas Armies also grew to protect the newly acquired lands and the people in them: traders, missionaries, and government officials Between 1890 and 1914, military expenditures of Western nations grew greatly There was a buildup of new weapons, armies, and navies This also increased the influence of the military and naval leaders in foreign policy decisions Nationalism National prestige and national pride were at stake Keeping up with the other “great nations” of Europe so your nation could be great also A Great Nation is one with an industrialized economy and colonies This idea of prestige was helped along, popularized by newspapers Newspapers capitalized on national sentiment They used the imperialist passion of their people and their governments to sell papers Newspapers helped shape new public opinion This, in turn, helped shape foreign policy Newspapers were manipulated by government officials to get backing for whatever it was they wanted The idea of Jingoism emerged, a term phrased by J.A. Hobson It meant inverted patriotism, where the love of one’s country is transformed into hatred of another country, and into a fierce craving to destroy the individuals of that other nation Jingoism pressured governments to defend their national honor abroad by expanding their boundaries to keep up with other nations doing the same Jingoism European Search for Territory and Markets Two fundamentally different social structures governed life in non-industrialized regions that became targets for European imperialism In sub-Saharan Africa, tribal societies emphasizing communal rule dominated In Asia, societies were strictly organized hierarchically and under the power of distinct ruling elites European empire-builders used indirect rule in places like India where the ruling elite became puppets of the conquerors Tribes, Europeans believed, needed to be conquered and rules formally and directly All those who were taken over did show some resistance but didn’t have a chance against the new European weapons Scramble for Africa Europeans controlled only 10% of the African continent in the early 19th century By 1914, they dominated 90% They’d send in traders and missionaries Christian missionary activity was central to European expansion in Africa in the early 19th century This increased European knowledge of tribal cultures They also acquired land within tribal communities The need to protect these missionaries encouraged European governments to formally colonize African territories Africa 1900 This process increased greatly in the last 25 years of the 19th century creating that Scramble for Africa Traders also aided in the colonization process They established posts in African regions They learned the languages and customs They built up a relationship with the people The British dominated world trade in the 1800s through their world markets, and they were expanding into Africa. Not to be left out, the Germans established market areas in Africa. By 1880s, they had annexed Togo, Cameroon, S.W. Africa, and German East Africa The formal taking of territories accelerated in the early 1880s because one nation wished to get a territory before another nation did Germany, France, and Britain vied for new territories in Central and West Africa Conflict arose when all 3 were trying to take the Congo This resulted in the calling of the Berlin Conference in 1884, resulting in the Berlin Act, 1885 They set up the game rules for colonizing – no guns for Africans A nation had to occupy territory before it could be annexed This only seemed to intensify rivalries. There was fierce rivalry concerning the headwaters of the Nile River This conflict brought French and British forces to the brink of war in 1898-1899 at Fashoda with French Captain Marchand vs. the British General Kitchener While they waited for orders about whether to fight each other or not, they would meet for evening cocktails There was talk of war in England and France, but problems back home in France made the French unwilling to get involved in a war and Marchand withdrew When the scramble for territory was over around 1914, the French claimed to have the most extensive African territories However, Britain and Germany weren’t far behind Imperialism in Asia India was the heart, the center, the “ jewel in the crown” for Britain It was of great importance because of its many riches Queen Victoria had herself crowned the Empress of India and appointed a viceroy to represent her there India was the center of Britain’s foreign policy British trading in India’s markets began in the 17th century Formal British rule dated only from 1861 after the Sepoy Mutiny British East Africa Company proved ineffective at ruling for the British government, so Britain began its formal rule of India Britain used, utilized much of the existing hierarchy already established in India – indirect rule They exported India’s goods: cotton, salt, opium In China, Britain first exchanged Indian cotton for tea, but Chinese demand for cotton waned So the British began trading India’s opium for tea which made a lot of money for the British as more Chinese became addicted This angered Chinese officials In 1729, 200 chests of opium were sold to the Chinese In 1838, that rose to 40,000 chests Opium became Britain’s most important crop In 1839, the Chinese government destroyed British opium in the port of Canton and touched off the Opium War, 1839-1842 The British blocked Chinese ports, took over the port of Canton, and occupied Shanghai - all to protect their trade in opium The war ended with the Treaty of Nanking Unequal treaty system set up Extraterritoriality Resumption of opium trade Special privileges for the British China had to pay for the war Opium War This treaty showed British arrogance toward the Chinese culture and their belief in white superiority Extraterritoriality meant the British in China did not have to follow Chinese laws; they only had to follow British laws in China Other European nations made incursions: Germans, French, and Japanese All had spheres of influence: their own chunks of China By 1912, over 50 major Chinese ports were in the hands of foreigners In 1900 the Chinese resentment of foreigners and Christian missionaries resulted in the Boxer Rebellion Named for a martial arts group They killed foreigners They took over consulates 16,000 well-armed Japanese, British, Russian, and American forces fought back to save their privileges in China They showed no mercy towards the Chinese They sacked Beijing Europeans then resumed operating through their spheres of influence Boxer Rebellion & Boxer Prisoners Europeans had interests in other parts of Asia British took Hong Kong in 1842, Burma in 1886, and Kowloon in 1898 Russians took the Maritime Provinces in 1858 French moved in on Indochina in 1884 taking Annam (Vietnam), Tonkin, Cambodia, and Laos European culture was spread through the establishment of colonies. Many from colonies like India went to England for schooling and some stayed. And Europeans moved to other places as well Between 16th and 18th centuries, 6 million left Europe Between 1870 and 1914, 55 million Europeans left for the Americas, Australia,, and New Zealand Emigration scattered people and spread cultures overseas, putting a European stamp on people and societies abroad influencing their economies, art, architecture, philosophy, and politics 19th Century Philosophies 1850 – the idea of Liberalism was strong in Europe By 1900 – there were other –isms to challenge liberalism Liberalism: generally for the expansion of civil rights for free trade upheld the right to private property for power in the hand of men wanted to ensure worker safety for public welfare Socialism: Marxist and non-Marxist wanted to gain support of workers by supporting their causes Some were in favor of reaching objectives gradually and peacefully Others wanted the violent overthrow of capitalist systems Different countries started their own Socialist parties: Britain – Independent Labour Party (1893) More popular was the Fabian Society (1884) that criticized Capitalism and believed factories should be owned by the state for the good of all. Germany began a Socialist Party in 1875 One German Socialist leader was Edward Bernstein who believed that through gradual democratic means, socialism could come about Another German Socialist leader was Karl Kautsky who believed only revolution would bring about socialism Anarchism: Said humans could be free only when the state had been abolished People of a stateless society would automatically join together in communes and share what they had Some felt they could educate people about their goal and, it would naturally be achieved Others were for a more violent approach like attacking existing authority: Example- Michael Bakunin of Russia fought against the Tsar and other authoritarian governments in Europe in 1848, feeling all governments were oppressive From 1894 – 1901, anarchists killed the president of France, the prime minister of Spain, the empress of Austria, the king of Italy, and the president of the U.S., William McKinley These assassinations made people view anarchism as violent and not improving people’s lives Many workers were more for unionization and direct action This was called Syndicalism: Workers should join unions Workers should call general strikes This would cripple capitalism Popular in Mediterranean area Opponents to Liberalism and Socialism were the Conservatives on the political right They were for: keeping the existing order nationalism racist ideologies that were common in the 19th century – Ethnocentrism They tried to back up their racism with twisted science. Anti-Semitism was the result of this racist thinking Originally, hatred of the Jews was based in religion Later, pseudo-scientists said Jewish blood was different and inferior They were unworthy of the same rights others shared in a democratic society Jobs were restricted Neighborhoods were separate Emancipation of the Jews began with the French Revolution and then spread to Germany and Austria by the 1860s. New opportunities came to Jews Some did not like this new equal standing in society Resentment followed saying Jews were dangerous and wicked All misfortunes were blamed on them Those professing anti-Semitism were elected to political offices Russia organized pogroms or massacres and those who weren’t killed left Russia in 1905 2 million left mostly for the U.S. Pogrom Many Jews started to believe they would only be safe in their own nation Zionist Movement was started by an Austrian Jewish journalist, Theodor Herzl advocated establishing a Jewish state in Israel Israel was finally created in 1948 1880s was characterized by irrationality and uncertainty with the spotlight on instinct and emotion rather than on rational thinking Friedrich Nietzsche: said reason could not solve human problems said “God is dead” without a God, we are free to live as we please Sigmund Freud founded psychoanalysis as a way to treat psychic disorders explored the unconscious felt people are guided by unconscious feelings and emotions there are unresolved inner conflicts said irrational forces play a significant role in human behavior Gaetano Mosca political scientist said an elite minority rules over the majority desire to dominate is part of human nature surface appearances are deceptive elite minority manipulates the people The Arts Avante Garde French for “forefront” broke society’s taboos and conventions created new forms of expression the art of this era did not have a clear message they wanted to show mood, nightmares, violence, and horror Questioning There was a decline in church attendance and in the practice of Christian rituals Some became attracted to Buddhism and Hinduism Scientists questioned long-held beliefs 1905, Albert Einstein proposed his theory of relativity that changed fundamental ideas about time and space End of 19th Century By the end of the 19th century, political systems of Europe were shaky In democracies, more were voting and that changed who was in power Traditional members of Parliament had to be responsive to the new electorate or get booted out Ireland: was a problem for England wanted British out finally got Home Rule in 1914 but World War I broke out and it was up in the air again England: 1906 brought in a Liberal government that worked toward social reform had old-age pension funded by a tax on landed wealth liberal government had some difficulties brawling in Parliament Women’s Suffrage Movement At end of 19th century, women began organizing to get the right to vote Had little success at first In 1906 they became more militant Led by Emmeline Pankhurst and her 2 daughters They would disturb Parliament They threatened to kill the Prime Minister and the King They went on hunger strikes and were force fed They were attacked by male thugs There was widespread force shown in many areas of life France 1870, had their Third Republic that was unstable There was a series of crises and scandals They had no strong leadership Example: The Dreyfus Affair Alfred Dreyfus was a captain in the French army in 1894 and was accused of giving French secrets to Germany There was no proof, but he was a Jew and an officer, hence untrustworthy They forged evidence against him He was sentenced to life in prison on Devil’s Island off the coast of South America 1896, the French found that Major Esterhazy was the real spy, but they would not reopen the case because that would mean the French army was mistaken 1897, the French public found out and the affair became controversial 1899, there was a retrial and Dreyfus was still found guilty, but he could be pardoned 1906, Dreyfus was exonerated, and he ended his days as a general People were angry at the Catholic Church for having backed the courts against Dreyfus Some stormed the churches There were labor strikes Traditional life in France seemed to be breaking down Italy Had parliamentary system Unification came in 1860, but true unity was elusive The vote was given to those who owned property, about 3% of the population Government tried to bring reforms to improve the general standard of living, but they weren’t successful There was rapid population growth, from 25 to 35 million 1870-1890 Country had limited moneys There were wealthy landowners who owned latifundia or plantations Most people were poor and landless Industry paid low wages There were protests Protests were put down brutally by the government Autocracies in Europe were in crisis. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire faced grave problems by the end of the 19th century. Demands for democracy were growing and the opponents used any means they could, including violence, to put down protests. Violence was met with violence Germany Had a parliament that answered to the Kaiser, not the people Kaiser Wilhelm II (r. 1888-1918) wanted to rule as well as reign but wasn’t fit to govern Wilhelm II had a crippled hand but overcompensated for his deformity by being forceful and brutal He had a poor self-image He wanted Germany to be a world power with colonies, a navy, and world influence (Weltpolitik = world politics) Other European countries saw Germany as aggressive Weltpolitik was supported at home because it created jobs Kaiser Wilhelm II There was also opposition to the Kaiser’s autocratic way of governing, and he was seen as irresponsible 1912, 1/3 of Germans voted for a socialist candidate dedicated to the downfall of capitalism and autocracy 1912, 1 million workers went on strike, and more and more Germans pressed for Parliamentary government Kaiser Wilhelm II couldn’t take criticism and wanted the army to crush any opposition to him Things were coming to a head Austria-Hungary Plagued by crises Was a multi-national empire with many ethnic groups Ruled by Franz Joseph (r. 1848-1916) Hard to control the empire, with Hungarian and Austrian sides Habsburg government introduced universal male suffrage in 1907 This seemed to make the empire more difficult to govern There were 30 ethnically based political parties in Parliament Debates became explosive 1914, the emperor dissolved the Parliament The empire was falling apart Ottoman Empire Seen as the bridge between Europe and Asia Was also falling apart by 1914 Had been on a downward slide since 1700 There were secessionist movements from within There was European aggression from without Empire ruled by Sultan Abdul Hamid II (r. 1876-1908) He was a dictator called the “Great Assassin” He brutally put down any uprisings Social unrest continued They were nearing bankruptcy There were different ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups within that wanted self-rule, independence Abdul Hamid was overthrown in a coup in July 1908 by young, Western-educated Turks who despised one-man rule They set up representative government that tried to stop the loss of territory through strong central government Those in outlying areas like Macedonia, Albania, and Armenia did not like this “Turkification” and rebelled Many were killed like the Armenians Other nations felt this was good time to take down this weakened empire Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia formed the Balkan League and attacked the Ottomans successfully in 1912 The empire lost, as a result, most of its European possessions Russia Attempts were made to industrialize the country in the 1860s Serfs were freed and given land they later discovered they had to pay for By “giving” them land, the Tsar hoped the peasants would produce more and he could make more money to use for industry Universities increased in number as did the number of students This intelligentsia then worked to bring down the Tsar Repression increased Tsar Alexander II was assassinated in March 1881 as he was about to sign a decree that might have given them a parliament Alexander II, Tsar of Russia Alexander III took over for his father Alexander III thought his father had been too lenient and upheld his autocracy There would be no self rule and no parliament He died in 1894 and his son Nicholas II took over as Tsar He, too, was an autocrat but was not forceful Nicholas wanted his people to like him He did not know how to delegate duties Instability followed Life was restricted There was not enough food for an increasing population There was some industry but with bad conditions and unrest Nicholas II 1898, the Russian Social Democratic Party formed 1903, it split into Menshevik and Bolshevik factions Bolsheviks were led by Vladimir Lenin 1904-1905, Russia vs. Japan over control of North Korea; Japan won January 1905- there were demonstrations at one of the Tsar’s palaces where people were asking for bread and an 8-hour day; the military opened fire and massacred the demonstrators This was known as Bloody Sunday Demonstrations spread Tsar Nicholas II promised the people a Duma, a parliament, freedom of religion, speech, assembly, and association to get his country back under his control The Duma never had any power although it met There was increased population and famine There was a workers’ strike in 1912 where 725,000 took part; that numbered doubled by 1914 The authoritarian states in Europe and the democratic ones were being challenged by a restive public by the start of 1914 Even though no European nation wanted a war, their policies said otherwise By 1914 there were 2 major alliances in Europe The Triple Alliance – Italy, Germany, & Austria-Hungary The Triple Entente - Great Britain, France, & Russia There were international rivalries, military build-up with weapons and ships, imperialism, alliances, and nationalism that led to World War I 4 Main Causes of World War I: Militarism Alliances Imperialism Nationalism The Trigger: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia by Gavrilo Princep of the Black Hand on 28 June 1914 It was an ideal pretext for war against Serbia that protected nationalist student groups from Austria-Hungary The Arrest The Great War, The War to End All Wars, World War I 28 June 1914– assassination of Austria-Hungary’s Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophia, in Sarajevo, Bosnia by Gavrilo Princip of the Black Hand 23 July 1914 – ultimatum sent from Austria-Hungary to Serbia (unreasonable demands and a time limit for retribution) 28 July 1914 – Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia ( only with German backing) 30 July 1914 – Russia declared war on both AustriaHungary and Germany By 4 August 1914 – Germany declared war on Russia and France and marched through neutral Belgium to surprise France France declared war on Germany Britain declared war on Germany after it had violated Belgian neutrality
