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Annotated Bibliography October 11, 2009 Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu Adler, M. A. (1994). Male-Female power differences at work: A comparison of supervisor and policymakers. Sociological Inquiry, 64(1), 37-55. This article spoke of the positions of power between men and women, and how policymakers and supervisors distribute that power to men and women. In the work place, when considering for advancement, employers have undefined criteria such as personality characteristics and potential managerial qualities. These standards become the cause of inequality in authority and power at work place. Jobs that are available for women have low wages and also less authority. Similar research studies have shown parallel points, in that inequality is found at the workplace because of such gender based characteristics. Even though women were shown to be more educated, they do not accrue the same status. The researcher in this study used methodology to find these inequalities at the work place. The study consisted of four data points to test and used 531 women and 619 men for this data. The author collected data for power in wage labor, employment, sample characteristics and occupation by education. The results showed that men achieve higher positions and have a higher chance at a supervisory level and more authority than women. In the workplace, gender is a major part of determining positions of power. Also, it shows that education is more important to get supervisor positions, which is less effective for women. This study shows the inequality between men and women that makes men more prone to positions of power than women. The data and research clearly showed that women have substantially less access to positions of power and authority at work place than men, and that gender is the key factor in determining those positions. Policymakers and supervisors may indeed make regulations promoting equality but gender bias is still obviously exhibited. Avolio, B. J., Mhatre, K., Norman, S. M., & Lester, P. (2009). The moderating effect of gender on leadership intervention impact: An exploratory review. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 15(4), 325-341. In this article there are four research questions. The first research question was to evaluate the effect of leadership interventions directed towards developing certain leadership characteristics amidst study participants in leadership roles. The second research question was whether the effect of leadership interventions in laboratory versus field settings varied for male versus female participants in leadership positions. The third research question was based upon observing the effect of leadership interventions that were grounded on varied theories of leadership. The fourth research question had the goal of evaluating the effect of leadership interventions established upon the specific target of the intervention. A meta-analysis and a larger meta-analysis were conducted for this study. The team examined 18 databases using 124 search items to obtain appropriate studies. Many variables were used for coding, including Annotated Bibliography October 11, 2009 Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu leader gender and experimental setting. There were many components to the study, including gender categorization, experimental setting, criterion focus, leadership theory, and intervention type. Many statistics such as effect size (d) and outliers were obtained. On comparison of effect sizes for the effect of leadership interventions for the all-male and all-female groups, the effect size for the male group was almost equal to the female group. This may imply that leadership interventions have an equivalent and positive effect in both genders. This is only a preliminary study on leadership interventions and many more studies must be conducted. However, the study seems to imply that implementing leadership interventions after taking into account gender discrepancies may have a positive effect on leadership development for men and women. Carbonell, J.L., & Castro, Y. (2008). The impact of a leader model on high dominant women’s selfselectionfor leadership. Sex Roles ,58,776-783. This study had women observe a leader model of either gender model a task they would have to complete. The study looked at effects of gender role model in the decision of high dominant women to be leaders, given a masculine task to complete with a male co-worker. The hypothesis states that women would become leaders at a higher rate when a woman model is given rather than a male. The research took a total of 190 students: 95 women and 95 men. Each individual was given the California Psychological Inventory, measuring: impression, communality, and dominance. This study looked at dominance in particular. Only 15 pairs were exposed to women models. Masculine like task needed a leader to takeout bolts and follower to hold bolts for leader. The study observed 2 groups to support or reject their hypothesis. Focused groups: high dominant woman pared with a low dominant man with a female model, and high dominant woman paired with a low dominant man with a male model. A chi square analysis showed a correlation between leader model and leader emergence (x2 [1, N=35] = 5.6, p<.02). The results: 60% of women took the leader role when given a woman model compared to 20% in male model. The study concluded in the presence of a female model, high dominant individual would be the leader. The gender of the leader model did not affect leadership for males. This study shows importance of woman leader models in professional fields. The lack of exposure of woman leaders for women reduces the chances that they will take on leadership roles. Annotated Bibliography October 11, 2009 Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu Goktepe, J.R., & Craig, E.S. (1989). Role of sex, gender roles, and attraction in predicting emergent leaders. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(1), 165-167. This research attempts to answer a three part hypothesis: will sex influence choice of leader within a group, will gender influence emergent leader, will interpersonal attraction influence who people chose as a leader. A total of 122 Participants were enrolled in a personnel management/ business policy class 62 men, 60 women. Predictors were measured at the beginning and end of the course (sex influence, interpersonal attractiveness, gender role). Gender role was measured with self assessments using the Bemi Sex Role Inventory. Each member rated group members for interpersonal attractiveness using Byrne’s interpersonal Judgment Scale. Each individual was to write the name/gender of the group leader without consulting other members. Results show that there was no bias with in differences in sex of emergent leaders within groups. Leaders were rated higher on the interpersonal attractiveness (F(1, 27 = 6.22 p<.025). Masculine gender characteristics emerged as leaders more times than those with feminine gender characteristics. The study concluded that there was no predictor of between sexes of who would emerge a leader. Interpersonal attractiveness and sex role orientation are associated with the emergent leader. The importance of this study is to better understand group dynamics and group performance. It is important to understand what influences the emergence of a leader and note any difference between genders. Jaffee, D. (1989). Gender inequality in workplace autonomy and authority. Social Science Quarterly, 70(2), 375-390. This article is about the inequality of authority and autonomy between men and women. Women are considered to be less significant than men in holding higher positions, even if they are more educated. Researchers show that women are disproportionally represented in the lower income occupations, and also that men have a greater opportunity to get a promotion than women. Human capital theory segregates women from men by saying that women are more engaged in family affairs and house hold labor, rather than working for themselves in a place of industry. The data for this study was based on telephonic interview, and three hypotheses. Researchers used two-stages of a cluster sample of telephone numbers in the United States. The total sample is based on 1,760 adults who are establishment owners, were self-employed and who were working thirty hours a week, of which 78 percent responded. The results showed that women have unlikely chances of having authority or making decisions. Further research tells us that sex composition of the occupation creates differences in genders. According to the study, autonomy and authority function with educational and occupational status, there is no explanation of gender discrimination. Human capital theory suggests that Annotated Bibliography October 11, 2009 Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu women have created the issue that women are not capable of working like men. Women are considered less competent at making decisions and have negative effects on autonomy while it is not as important for men. Overall, gender differences in autonomy and authority will not be reduced to variations in human capital, unless we take women into account as equal to men and give jobs based on experience and education. Katz, D. (1987). Sex discrimination in hiring: The influence of organizational climate and need for approval on decision making behavior. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11(1), 11-20. Previous studies have elicited the idea that equally competent men and women are assessed unequally when applying for jobs. The present study observes the influence from different organizational climates or “the quality of an organization’s internal environment” and society’s need for approval on the notion of biased personnel decisions. The study sought out three main hypotheses, if a discriminatory organizational climate would influence personnel to hire a male applicant over an identical female applicant. Second, that in a discriminatory climate a male applicant would be ranked as a better fit and more likely to stay with the company longer than a female applicant. And third, that those subjects with a high need of approval would match more to the demands of climate on the hire and salary assessments than lower approval motivation applicants. The study included 161 male undergrads enrolled in a business class. The subjects were given a booklet which contained experimental materials necessary in controlling organizational climate. They were also given either a female or male completed application and asked for their judgments on an applicant’s suitability for the position. Randomly assigned climate and applicant sex conditions were also in effect. Results from the experiment showed that as initially expected, males were favored over females in the discriminatory climate. The results also showed that in the discriminatory climate males were chosen as fitting significantly better than females, and that men were also offered higher salaries in the same conditions. The implications of this study can ascertain that the organizational climate of a workplace can deeply influence the decisions of hiring personnel and lead to gender bias. Annotated Bibliography October 11, 2009 Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu Koch, S. C., Luft, R., & Kruse, L. (2005). Women and leadership - 20 years later: A semantic connotation study. Social Science Information, 44(1), 9-39. The major research question that this study attempted to answer was, “To what extent have people’s attitudes towards gender and leadership issues adjusted over the past 20 years as observed in connotations on semantic differentials?” This research study built off a former related study. That study showed that women and leadership did not go hand in hand. For their sample, the idea of woman contained characteristics such as soft, warm, and so on, while the idea of man held characteristics such as hard, cold, and so on. Their study showed that 1) women in leadership positions are believed to have manlike qualities 2) female stereotypes and female leadership are in conflict and 3) the woman leader was perceived differently than both male leaders and other women. One hundred and one participants, including 54 women and 47 men, primarily students from the University of Heidelberg or professionals from that location participated in the study. The independent variables were sex of participants, professional title of participants. The dependent variables were the 25 traits from Osgood’s semantic differential. The questionnaire contained four parts: 1) demographic data 2) semantic differentials 3) gender typicality scale (GTS) 4) attitudes towards women scale. Based on the results (a) men tend to be neutral on issues and b) the professional ideas of leadership, manager, and businesswoman show more strong polarities than do the mainly gender-based concepts of man and woman. The conclusion of the study was that from a main grouping of man, leadership, and manager the grouping went on to also contain leadership, manager, and businesswoman. This shows that we have headed into a more gender equal realm from twenty years ago. McTavish, D., & Miller, K. (2009). Gender balance in leadership? Reform and modernization in the UK further education sector. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 37(3), 350-365. The research question that this article attempted to answer was “Why are few women advancing into leadership positions despite a large number of women being employed into the further education (FE) sector?” The article attempts to provide hypotheses about this gender disproportion. Colleges were appointed at random to make sure of a varied population in terms of geography, students, staff, and curriculum balance. The research contained secondary data analysis and qualitative and quantitative methodologies. The only major difference between male and female academics was that female academics were twice as given to apply for promotion if supported by their line manager and male academics were twice as given to apply if there was an opportunity to influence college governance. Also female academics were twice as likely to apply if they were obtained feedback via their staff appraisal. There are many conclusions that were drawn from this study. Reform and structural change have definitely led Annotated Bibliography October 11, 2009 Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu to a larger number of possibilities for women. This has occurred through feminization of student and staff populations and changing of the male manufacturing vocationally grounded realm of study. Changes in organizational policy have led to a friendlier environment for females. For example, maternity/paternity leave has been implemented along flexible working. On the flip side there are paradoxes. Women have to adjust to masculine managerial styles, i.e. competitiveness. In addition, even though it appears that the reforms are creating gender balance, in reality; women are still going to their stereotypical roles such as teaching and lecturing. Roos, P. A. (1981). Sex stratification in the workplace: Male-Female differences in economic returns to occupation. Social Science Research, 10(3), 195-224. The study elicits the idea that there is a large earning gap between men and women. Gender differences in earning are important because it focuses on the gender-based inequalities of power at the workplace. The author of the study used a literature review to explain the gender gap in earning, and it showed that sex segregated characteristics still remain at the occupational level. The study shows that women work at low paying jobs and they are less likely to exercise authority in those jobs. The main reason why there are sex differences in earnings is the belief of human capital theory, and it has a huge concern with the supply side of the market. The researcher used a non-institutionalized English speaking population to explain the data for gender influenced gap in earning. The sample included 959 men and 670 women. The results showed that women are paid low wages, and are in positions of low responsibility. Even when a women reaches a higher level job, their earning is much lower than that of men. The results also show that women’s low income is mainly because of their job characteristics, in that men and women are distributed differently across jobs. Men earn more than women, mainly because women are not considered employers. The study showed that the characteristics of the workers create inequality at the workplace; this is also a reason for why there is a large gap in earning between genders. Human capital theory discourages women from working and it presents women as low rent employees. They have less understanding of the mean of production. The characteristics of this research show improvement in the earnings of men and women. Annotated Bibliography October 11, 2009 Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu Shore, T. H. (1992). Subtle gender bias in the assessment of managerial potential. Sex Roles, 27(9-10), 499-515. Existing studies have portrayed a definitive pro-male bias in personnel selection and evaluations of work performance. The authors of the present study show that although there has been significant advancement in the way society perceives gender in managerial potential, there is still a subtle bias. The authors compared judgments of the potential for both men and women employees to successfully execute the title of manager. They also researched the effects of gender on judgments of managerial potential within the context of a corporate assessment center program. The experiment included a total of 436 (375 men and 61 women) employees, who participated in a wide array of group and individual exercises and also underwent several paper and pencil tests of cognitive ability. Once the data had been collected, the candidates were evaluated by some assessors, the program administrator, and two staff psychologists, of which composed the assessment committee. Results from the experiment showed that despite women’s superior performance on the performance-style dimensions, they did not receive superior ratings on overall management potential as well as not advancing at a faster rate when compared to men. These results point to an indication of subtle gender bias that has contributed to the findings. Previous research has shown that males were more likely to be offered high level positions. The present study shows that although subtle gender bias had been exhibited in women’s superior ratings, women were promoted at a rate comparable to that of men. Tougas, F., & Beaton, A.M. (1993). Affirmative action in the work place: for better or for worse. International Association of Applied psychology, 42(3), 253-264. The study is trying to find out what attitudes and perceptions men and women have of a firm with a history of failed attempts at reducing discrimination based on sex. The hypothesis the study predicts is that women express themselves negatively on past efforts and present situation in group. Women will evaluate preferential treatment more positively than men. Of the participants, 15,000 were employed in a Canadian firm. The firm created an equity office for the promotion of women. Researchers conducted a survey in which 600 men and 393 women were randomly selected to participate. The questionnaire had a return rate of 50% with 197 women and 290 men returning the survey. The survey was based on a 7 point Likert scale. Questions pertained to past measures, perceptions of unfair disparities, and evaluations of preferential treatment measures. A discriminant function analysis was performed comparing women and men’s responses to all dependent variables. Results indicated that men felt their careers were negatively affected by past measures. Both genders seemed equally satisfied with Annotated Bibliography October 11, 2009 Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu past measures on situation of women. Results also found women were more dissatisfied and believed they were not well represented in the category of professionals. The authors found that both men and women agree to do away with past barriers in regards to women. This study was important because it showed that there are still different opinions between men and women and preferential treatment in general. Effectiveness of any affirmative action program comes from the top down. Men are the majority on professionals. Discrimination according to sex cannot be stopped without the help of both genders. Trentham, S., & Larwood, L. (1998). Gender discrimination and the workplace: An examination of rational bias theory. Sex Roles, 38(1-2), 1-28. Preceding studies involving the theory of “rational bias” concerning workplace discrimination have been largely restricted to easily accessible student sample data. The rational bias theory suggests that there are occasions in which partaking in discrimination may seem acceptable to an employee‚ despite the fact that he or she may be conscious of regulations eliminating bias and may personally prefer to treat others equally. The authors of the current study employed an experimental-survey design wherein genuinely employed participants were questioned on both how others react to conditions that elicit rational discrimination, and how people conduct themselves within their own place of business. The experiment included a total of 306 (148 men and 158 women) business graduates, who were subjected to a questionnaire that contained rational bias cues. The questions make reference to several rational bias conditions that are projected to influence decision-making involving personnel issues: task significance, social signal, and position power. The questions elicited were vital in evaluating the background circumstances most likely to be connected with rational bias. Results from the study showed that business people were perceived to have a predilection that results in discrimination towards women; they also showed that the participants believe business people put less emphasis on their own preferences than those of the customer. However‚ the results suggest that respondents accept that a norm of discrimination continues within the business world in that the participant’s responses were significantly different from an ideal neutral stance. Annotated Bibliography October 11, 2009 Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu Group Contributions Rahul Ragu: Rahul provided his part of the assignment by annotating the Avolio, McTavish and Koch articles. Faiza Raza: Faiza provided her part of the assignment by annotating the Adler, Jaffee, and Roos articles. Carla Saldana: Carla provided her part of the assignment by annotating the Carbonell, Groktepe and Tougas articles. Christian Magallon: I provided my part of the assignment by annotating the Shore, Trentham and Katz articles as well as being the individual who compiled all the articles to compose one cohesive assignment submission. Annotated Bibliography Grading Rubric Excellent Satisfactory Poor Annotation of Articles (9-8 pts.) Annotations of articles are well-written, insightful, and thorough. They effectively address the key research question, the primary methodology, the results, and the implications. (7-6 pts.) Annotations of articles are straight-forward, but lack connections and insight. They somewhat address the key research question, the primary methodology, the results, and the implications. (5-4 pts.) Annotations of articles are poorly written and/or incomplete. They do not address the key research question, the primary methodology, the results, and the implications. APA Format (3 pts.) All sources cited are formatted accurately according to the APA standards. (2 pts.) Most sources cited are formatted accurately according to the APA standard. (1 pt.) Some sources cited are formatted accurately according to the APA standard. (2 pts.) Excellent grammar and usage. Usage of sophisticated sentence structures, appropriate word choice, and accurate punctuation. Spelling is highly accurate, little to no errors. (1.5 pts.) Appropriate grammar and usage, though not precise. Simple and some complex phrasing, some inaccurate word choice, and notable punctuation errors. Spelling has several errors, mainly contextual. (1 pt.) Poor grammar and usage, impeding overall understanding. Frequent syntax errors that impede meaning. Spelling with frequent errors that indicate a lack of care or significant struggle with language use. Grammar, Punctuation & Spelling Total 11 out of 14 possible points Hi Rahul, Carla, Faiza, and Christian, I found your Annotated Bibliography about the topic of gender bias in the workplace analytically insightful and systematically organized. There were many places where it could’ve benefited from closer editing. Good work overall! Annotated Bibliography October 11, 2009 Group #4 (Christian Magallon, Carla Saldana, Faiza Raza, and Rahul Ragu p.s. To facilitate a quicker turn-around time for grading this assignment, my comments are mostly focused on higher stakes issues (i.e. annotations/format), rather than lower ones (i.e. grammar, punction, spelling). Please let me know if you have any questions. -M. Truong