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Advanced Placement Psychology Mrs. K. Arnold - Hennen Psychological Research Correlational i Methods The Scientific Method Ethics and APA Guidelines The Scientifi~ Method: The basic steps in the sCientific method are: ~tate the problem. Gather information. Form a hypothesis. Test the hypothesis. Record and analyze data. Repeat the work. Key Concepts/ Terms: Hindsight bias Hypothesis Case study False consensus effect Naturalistic observation Illusory correlation Experimental condition Independent variable Standard deviation APA's 4 Ethical Principles Subjects Correlational research Observer bias . Variance critical thinkilng operational qefinition survey i random sample . correlation coefficient double blind procedure control condJtion dependent Variable statistical significance correlation Vi. causation representative sample confounding variables researcher bias normal curve i theory replication population scatterplot experiment placebo effect random assignment meanT median, mode range culture descriptive research extraneous variables normal distribution skewed SUPPLEMENT 1.2 .---------------------~====-=-=-=--.------------- SCHOOlS OF PSYCHOLOGY (Handout) STRUCTURALISM-Wnhe~ Wundt (Germany, 1879) Other psychologists: . Edward Titchener i To specify the stru~ of conscious experience Goal: Experimental intrqspection Method: "'Pure scientific research": spurred development of psychological laboratories Application: FUNcrIONALlSM-WilIiam James (United States, 189(5) Other psychologists: Goal: Method: Application: . . ." James McKeen CatJeIl, E. L Thorndike, John Dewey To study how the mind works to allow an organism to adapt to its environment Naturalistic obsenration of animal and human behavior Child psychology, educational and industrial psychology, study of individual differe~s BEHAVIORISM-John B. Watson (United:States, 1910s) Other psychologists: Goal: Method: Application: B. F. Skinner To study only ob~rvable behavior and explain behavior via learning Observation of tihe relationship between environmental stimuli and behaviula.l responses Learning theory, environmental emphasis, development of language to make psychological information more explicit and communicable GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY-Max Wertheimer (Germany, 1910s) Other psychologists: Goal: Method: Application: . Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler To describe organization of mental processes. "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." . Phenomenology <e.g. phi phenomenon} Perception: some grpundwork for cognitive psychology PSYCHOANALYSIS-Sigmund Freud Other psychologists: Goal: Method: Application: <Ge~ny, early 19005) Carl Jung, Alfred Adler To explain personality and behavior and develop techniques for treating mental illness Free association under guidance of analyst; clinical insight Development of pSiYchotherapy, emphasis on childhood as important in later . personality . Copyright e Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. / , ______~C~QGN~TDJVEESYCHOLQGY=_{~UHnllit~e~d~Sllta~t~e~s.~1~9~6nus~)____~__________________________________ Goal: To explore the mental prqcesses involved in judgment, decision making, and other aspects of complex tJ;\ought HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY-Abraham MaslQw (United States, 19605) Other psychologists: Goal: Carl Rogers To ensure mental healthiness· of individuals and develop therapeutic: ..techniques . , Copyright e Houghton Mitftin Company. All rights reserved. Advanced Placement Psychology Mrs. Kerri Hennen Review Guide P eon.1e: Wundt Wertheimer · Titchner James I Watson i Freud i ! Milgram Broca i Wernike Pavlov Thorndike ! Skinner ! Tolman · Bandura i Ebbinghaus • Chomsky •\Vhorf Washoe, Sara, • Koko i .Tung Horney Erickson Adler Piaget Rogers I Albert Ellis ! Abraham Maslow i Sheldon • Binet Eysenck Harlow · Lorenz Phineus Gage Aaron Beck • Murray Allport Cattell Kelley "Father of Psychology"; introspection Gestalt psychology Structuralism Functionalism Behaviorism; "Little Albert Study"; aversion therapy Psychoanalytic; dream analysis; free association; structure of personality; stages of development; defense mechanisms Obedience; Ethics; 6:;% Left frontal lobe; if Brocas i~ broken, no words are spoken Left temporal lobe; receptive language Classical conditioning; dogs (bells) Instrumental learning; cats; law ofeffect Operant conditioning; rats and pigeons; behaviorist Latent learning; cognitive maps Observational learning; Boho dolls; social-cognitive theory Forgetting; decay model Native theorist; inherent exiistence ofsets ofcognitive structures Linguistic relativity hypothe;sis i Ape language studies Collective unconscious; archetypeS; psychoanalytic Basic childhood anxiety; psychoanalytic I-bun, 2-shoe, etc. psycho-social development Inferiority complex, psycho$1alytic Stages of cognitive development; cognitive theorist Client-centered; unconditional positive regard; transactional analysis Rational emotive therapy; q:>gnitive theorist Hierarchy of needs; humani~tic Somatotyping; endomorph, mesomorph, ectomorph I.Q. Biological model ofpersonality; trait-type hierarchy Monkey studies; attachment; contact comfort "survival ofthe fittest" and iI11printing Railroad spike; damaged limbic sys, emotions/motivational control center Cognitive therapy treating depression Need to achieve; TAT .. Trait approach; cardinal, ce~tral, secondary Crystallized fluid intelligenc.;e Personal construct theory Advanced Placement Psychology Mrs. KerriHennen i Mishel Gilligan Social-learning theory; people arc not consistent (look at past perfonllance) Examined moral differences,between boys and girls based on social rules and on ethic ofcaring and responsibility Infant attachment styles Moral development (preconventional, conventional, postconventional) Conformity; people give obViously wrong answer Stages ofdeath (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance) Prison study; roles and role Conflict Changes in facial expression brings about emotion like changes in the body Discovered feature detectof$ "fake" psychiatric patient study Cognitive dev. based on zone ofproximal development Eyewitness testimony & constructive memory Ainsworth Kohlberg Asch Kubler-Ross Zimbardo Ekman Hubel &Wiesel Rosenhan Vygotsky Loftus Approaches: General: Behaviorism: environmental; learning; nurture Biological: physiology; genetics; nature Cognitive: mental processes Psychoanalytical: unconscious; childhood Humanistic: freewill; basic goodness Multicultural: sociocultural; role of strucmre Gestalt: emphasizes the organization pr<x+ss in behavior; focuses on problem of perception i • Personality: Psychoanalytic: people are driven by instiI1!Cts, largely sexual Behaviorist: behavior is personality; detenpined by history of reinforcement Humanistic: people are inherently good, society ruins them, people strive to satisfY a hierarchy of motives toward self-actualization Cognitive: people are rational and want to predict and control their world, personal ' constructs help in this process Biological: biological factors such as body:type or genetics Abnormal: Psychoanalytic: emerge from initial psychological conflicts that are unconscious, often arising from childhood trauma Biomedical: traceable to physical abnormalities, biochemistry, structural det'ixts Cognitive: results from unusual ways of thlnking, inappropriate belief system Behavioral: results from faulty contingencies of reinforcement contexts contribute to the development ofpsychological disorders Cultural: variables such as social class, gender, and rural-urban contexts contribute to the development of psychological disorders Humanistic/Existential Model: results from failure to fulfill ones potential Advanced Placement Psychology Mrs. Kerri 'Hennen Treatment: Biomedical a)ECT b) Psychosurgery; ablation c) Chemotherapy d) Intensive light therapy (S.A.D.) • Psychoanalytic Therapy - alleviate unconsCious conflicts a) Free association b) Dream analysis c) Transference d) Symptom substitution Behavior Therapy - application oflearning principles a) systematic desensitization . a. in vivo desensitization b. counter conditioning c. flooding (real event) d. implosive therapy (imagine the event) e. aversion therapy . Cognitive-Behavior Therapy - thoughts and behavior a) modeling and role play b) rational emotive therapy: forces a more realistic look in the evaluation circumstances c) stress inoculation therapy: retractors inappropriate thinking d) cognitive therapy: used for depression; requires the restructuring ofpersons invalid perceptions ofself, future, and the world or experience Humanistic focuses on getting the person to accept the responsibility for their improvement a) Roger' client centered therapy (unconditioned positive regard) b) Frankl's existential analysis tr~tment: help client gain sense ofpurpose and meaning c) Gestalt therapy: client comes into contact with the whole self Biomedical Treamlent - includes medical procedures and medication that can help alleviate symptoms ofpsychological disorders a) psycho-surgery (ablation) a. surgical destruction of ~nvolved brain tissues b. obsessive-compulsive disorder b) electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) a. major depression c) psychopharmacological treatment a. neuroleptics (antipsychotics) i.e. thorozine, haldol, clozeril b. antidepressants i.e. tricyclic compounds, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, prozac . c. lithium carbonate (bipOlar disorder) d. anxiolytics (anti anxiety) i.e. valium, benzodiazeopines Advanced Placement Psychology Mrs. KerriHennen The Experiment: I. Two variables are smdied for cau.cre and effect a) Independent variable - manipulated b) Dependent variable - the response; measu~ed c) Confounding variable - other variables that may influence results d) EArperiment group - exposed to manipulation ofindependent variable e) Control group - an unaffected comparison group f) Subject bias - a subjects behavior changes due to believed expectations ofexperiment (Demand characteristics) g) Researcher bias - expectations influence what is recorded h) Double-blind technique - control for bias by keeping placement ofsubject secret i) Placebo - inactive substance unknowingly given in place ofdrug j) Null hypothesis - negatively expressed hypothesis; X will not change Y Developmental Theories: Piagets Cognitive-Development Theory: Sensory Motor: schema assimilation and accommodation; circular reaction; object permanence Preoperational: egocentrism; animism; artiticialism Concrete: operational-reversibility; conservative problems Formal: operational-personal fable Kohlberg's Moral Judgment: Preconventional: good and bad; right and wrong Conventional: social rules; follow the law Postconventional: universal principles Erickson's Psychosocial Development: INFANCY trustvs. mistrust Autonomy vs. shame and doubt CHILDHOOD initiative vs. guilt Industry vs. territory ASOLESCENCE identityvs. role con]usion ADULTHOOD intimacyvs. isolation Generality vs. stagnation Ego integrity vs. despair Kubler-Ross' Stages of Death a) Denial b) Anger c) Bargaining d) Depression e) Acceptance Advanced Placement Psychology Mrs. Kern ,Hennen Theories: Weber's law: just noticeable difference Young-Helmholtz Color Theory: (trichromatic theory) color determined by the relative activity in red, blue, or green sensitive cones Opponent-Process Color Theory: color information is organized into 3 antagonistic pairs Place Theory: relates perceived pitch to region Frequency Theory: related pitch to the frequency of sound waves and frequency of neuron firing Facial Feedback Hypothesis: sensations from the face provide cues to the brain that help us determine what emotion we are feeling (Ekman') Statistical Significance: .05 chance accounts for results less than 5% of the time Template-Matching Theory: stored copies Prototype-Matching Theory: recognition involves comparison Feature-Analysis Theory: patterns are represented and recognized by distinctive features Restorative Theory: we sleep in order to replenish Adaptive Non-responding Theory: sleep and inactivity have survival value Activation-Synthesis hypothesis: dreams are product.') of spontaneous neural activity Thorndike's Law ofEffect: reward and punishment encourages and discourages responding Premack Principle: states that any high-probability behavior can be used as a reward for any low-probability behavior Continuity vs. Discontinuity: theories of development, nature vs. nurture Serial Position Phenomenon: sequence influences recall Primacy Effect: enhanced memory for items presented earlier Recency Effect: enhanced memory for items presented last Atkinson-Shiffrins 3 Stage Processing model of memory: sensory-STM-LTM Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: person's language determines and limits a persons experiences Hull's Drive-Reduction Model: motivation arises out of need Cognitive Consistency Theory: cognitive inconsi~encies create tension and thus motivate the organism Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory: reconcile cognitive discrepancies Arousal Theories: we all have optimal levels ofstiqllllation that we try to maintain Yerkes-Dodson Law: arousal will increase performances up to a point, then further increases will impair performance; inverted U function Incentive Theory: behavior is pulled rather then pushed James-Lange Theory: emotion is caused by bodily changes Cannon-Bard's Thalamic Theory: emotional expression caused by simultaneous changing , bodily events, thoughts, and feelings Schachter's Cognitive-Physiological Theory: bodHy changes, current stimuli, events, and memories combine to determine behavior- Schachter's 3-factors Advanced Placement Psychology Mrs. Kerri ,Hennen Attribution Theory: explains how people make inferences about the causes of behavior; personal or situational; self-serving bias Deindividuation: loss of self-restraint that occurs out ofanonymity Contact Theory: proposes that equal-status contact between antagonistic groups should lower tension and bring harmony Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome- (GAS) emergency reaction to stressful situations; alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion (ARE bad) Lazarus's Cognitive-Psychological Model: emphaSizes the process of appraisal (primary and secondary) as the primary determinant of stress Twin Studies: allows a researcher to test influence of heredity vs. environment Personal Construct Theory: unique system of reality Deinstitutionalization: occurred because of changes in political policy and development of new drug therapies Ainsworth's Strange Situation: looked at attachment in young children to their parents Social Psychology Studies: Zimbardds Standford Prison Study: effect of roles Hawthorne Effect: people change their behavior when they think that they're being observed Latane & Darley's Bystander Effect: diffusion of responsibility (Kitty Genovese ) Asche's Conformity Study: lines ofdifferent length; 33% l\1ilgram's Obedience Study: shocking the confederate (65% delivered full range) Sherif: Autokinetic Phenomenon; conformity studies Jane Elliot's Blue Eyed/Brown Eyed Experiment: development ofprejudice, scapegoating Social Pressure: Conformity: occurs when individuals adopt the attitudes or behavior ofothers because of real or imagined pressure Social Norms: shared standards ofbehavior Reciprocity Norm: people tend to treat others as they have been treated Compliance: to get along with a request made of you from a person who does not have authority over you, techniques include Foot in the door technique: if a small requ~t is made first, a larger request will be easier to fill later Door in the face technique: making a larger request first then making a smaller one which will seem more reasonable (high balling) Low balling: getting agreement first, then adding specifics later Norm of Reciprocity-give something small expect something bigger in return Obedience: compliance with someone who ha') authority Social Traps: behave in an unproductive way because offear others will Advanced Placem,ent Psychology Mrs. KerriHennen Altruism: self concern for others Bystander intervention: will individuals intervene in a harmful situation to another Bystander effect: people are less likely to help when several people witness an emergency due to diffusion ofresponsibility, thinking that someone else can be responsible Social facilitation: tendency to do better on well-learned tasks when another person is present Social loafing: reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups compared to by themselves Risky shift: groups often arrive at riskier decisions than do individuals Deindividuation: loss of identity as a result ofbeing part of a group Groupthink: members ofa cohesive group emphasize agreement at the expense ofcritical thinking Superordinate goals: task completed only with complete cooperation of both parties