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Chapter 11 – The Expanding Nation
The Jefferson Presidency
-In the election of 1800, Democratic-Republican candidate Thomas
Jefferson was elected as President and his party also won control of
Congress. The peaceful transition of power from one political party
to another in the United States was seen as a major achievement
and proof that the republican “experiment” of the United States
was working.
-In his inauguration speech, Jefferson urged the two political parties
to work together, and assured the American people he only wanted
what was best for the country. Jefferson told the people that he
wanted to follow the will of the majority promised to run the
government fairly.
-Jefferson and his administration set about reversing many
Federalist policies from the Washington and Adams presidencies.
He wanted to reduce government spending and the size of the
government overall, in accordance with the Democratic-Republican
belief in a smaller federal government with fewer responsibilities
and powers. Jefferson reduced the size of both the army and the
navy in order to save money and further pay down the national
debt (recall that John Adams had increased military spending during
his presidency, a move highly criticized by Jefferson and the
Democratic-Republicans). Jefferson also lowered taxes, especially
those that hurt farmers, like the tax on whiskey which had led to the
Whiskey Rebellion. And in accordance with these lower taxes, he
reduced the number of government agencies and people
responsible for tax collection. All of these measures were intended
to save money and reduce the power of the federal government.
However, he did keep some Federalist created institutions like the
Bank of the United States, and he kept some Federalists in
important federal positions in order to ease the transition of power
from one party to another. Some Democratic-Republicans criticized
Jefferson for keeping some Federalists and Federalist created
institutions like the Bank in existence. This would be typical of
Jefferson’s presidency. Instead of simply doing what his party
wanted him to do, or judging the power of the federal government
based upon strict interpretation of the Constitution, Jefferson often
thought of what was most practical for the government and the
country.
Marbury v. Madison
-One of the most important, and controversial, events of Jefferson’s
presidency came with the Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison.
Before leaving office, it is typical of an outgoing President to make last
minute appointments of judges and other federal officials. In his last
days as President, John Adams appointed a man named William
Marbury as a justice of the peace, or judge, to fill one of many new
judgeships created by Congress. It was up to Jefferson and his
secretary of state, James Madison, to ensure that Marbury received his
commission, or official approval, for this position. Without it, he could
not assume his position as a justice of the peace. Madison, acting on
orders from Jefferson, refused to deliver Marbury’s commission to him.
Marbury sued Madison in federal court, claiming the Judiciary Act of
1789 gave the Supreme Court the authority to issue a writ of
mandamus, or judicial order, forcing Madison to deliver Marbury’s
commission. This led to one of the most important landmark legal
decisions in the history of the United States.
-According to the United States Constitution, cases in which federal
officials (in this case Madison and by extension, Jefferson) are
defendants are heard directly by the US Supreme Court. The court at
this time was headed by Chief Justice John Marshall, who would
preside over the case. Marshall was appointed by John Adams during
his time as President, and Marshall generally voted on cases in ways
that upheld the power of the federal government. Before the case
ended, many expected the Marshall-run Supreme Court to vote in favor
of Marbury and against Madison and Jefferson.
-However, the Marshall court surprised everyone by ruling against
Marbury. The court asked, and answered, the following questions: 1)
Was Marbury wronged and treated unfairly? Yes, Marbury was treated
unfairly and deserving of his appointment as justice of the peace. 2) Did
the Judiciary Act of 1789 give the Supreme Court the authority to order
Madison to deliver Marbury’s commission? Yes, it did. 3) However, did
the Constitution give Congress the authority to grant such a power to
the Supreme Court of the United States? No, it did not. Therefore, such
a power was unconstitutional in the opinion of the Marshall court, and
therefore the Supreme Court could not force Madison to deliver
Marbury’s commission. The ultimate outcome of this case was to
establish the power of judicial review by the Supreme Court and
judiciary of the United States. In other words, Marshall said the
Constitution implied it was up to the judicial branch to determine if a
law or government action agreed with the rules of the Constitution,
and if such laws or actions did not, the courts could strike such a law
down.
The Louisiana Purchase
-After the French and Indian War ended in 1763, France ceded, or gave
up, the territory known as Louisiana to the Spain according to the terms
of the Treaty of Paris. In 1800, French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte
secretly negotiated a treaty with Spain in which France bought
Louisiana back from the Spanish. It was generally believed that
Napoleon wished to rebuild France’s colonial empire in North America.
-However, Napoleon quickly realized that maintaining Louisiana under
French control would be difficult. France had been at war with other
major European powers such as Britain in the Napoleonic Wars, which
began originally as the French Revolutionary Wars. France also had
trouble maintaining its other colonies, especially in the Caribbean.
Haitian slaves under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture, himself a
former slave, successfully revolted against the French and established
the independent republic of Haiti in the Caribbean. Napoleon intended
to use Haiti as a supply base to rebuild his North American empire.
Now that this was no longer possible, Napoleon, in need to money and
wishing to focus on the war in Europe, decided to sell the territory of
Louisiana to the United States in 1803. He also felt that helping
America expand and increase its power would harm France’s primary
enemy, Great Britain.
-US President Thomas Jefferson sent Robert Livingston to France
initially to only negotiate the purchase of the port city of New Orleans.
Livingston was surprised when Napoleon offered to sell the whole of
Louisiana, which extended all the way north to Canada, to the United
States. Livingston negotiated a final sales price of $15 million, a small
sum for such a vast territory. With the Louisiana Purchase, finalized in
1803, the size of the territory of the United States nearly doubled.
-Some doubted Thomas Jefferson’s authority under the Constitution to
make such a purchase. Again, this shows Jefferson’s willingness to
abandon his strict constructionist views of the Constitution to do what
he felt was best or most practical for the United States. The purchase
of Louisiana fit in with Jefferson’s view of the future of the United
States: a vast country of lush, fertile land perfect for agriculture and
the settlement of the free American farmer. Jefferson said the
purchase of Louisiana expanded America’s “empire of liberty”.
-To explore this vast new territory, Jefferson sent Captain Meriwether
Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark on a mission of exploration of the
Louisiana Purchase. The Lewis and Clark “Corps of Discovery” was to
make detailed observations and notes of Louisiana’s geography,
climate, wildlife, people, and resources.
The Lewis and Clark Expedition
-Thomas Jefferson chose Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to lead
an expedition west to explore the Louisiana Purchase and beyond,
recording their experiences, observations, etc. Lewis and Clark were to
also establish relationships with the native Americans living in Louisiana
and explore potential trade opportunities, as well as to inform the
natives that the land was now the property of the United States.
-The Corps of Discovery, as the expedition was known, started out
from the city of St. Louis on the Mississippi River, and headed west,
following the Missouri River and other natural geographical features.
Lewis and Clark used various native Americans as their guides on their
journey, including a Shoshone interpreter and guide named Sacajawea.
Sacajawea was married to a French fur trader and knew European
languages and customs, making her an ideal guide.
-Lewis and Clark recorded detailed descriptions of the geography,
people, wildlife, climate, and other important facts as they explored the
vast territory of Louisiana. Their journey was filled with danger,
including hostile encounters with natives as well as deadly diseases and
bad weather. Yet, they pressed west.
-Eventually, they came to the Rocky Mountains, which were far more
imposing than the Appalachians back east. Sacajawea’s brother acted
as a guide, helping Lewis and Clark find a pass that would take them
through the Rockies and on to the Pacific Ocean. After nearly two
years, Lewis and Clark reached the Pacific Ocean in what today is the
state of Washington.
-Lewis and Clark returned to St. Louis in 1806, after three years of
exploration. They were hailed as heroes upon their return, and their
detailed journals revealed their discoveries to the American
government and people.
-Another important mission of exploration was undertaken by Zebulon
Pike, who explored what today is Colorado, Texas, and the modern day
American Southwest. Pike is credited with discovering and scaling the
highest peak in the 48 contiguous states today, located in Colorado and
named Pike’s Peak in his honor. Pike explored south, into Texas and
eventually Spanish territory and Mexico, where he was arrested as a
spy. Eventually he was released and returned to America to report
what he discovered during his journies.
Coming of War
-Overseas, the United States had many pressing foreign policy issues. To begin
with, North African corsairs (pirates) known as the Barbary Pirates (from the
Barbary Coast of North Africa, modern day Algeria) were attacking and holding
American merchant vessels in the Caribbean hostage. These pirates demanded
tribute from the United States, and other European states such as Britain and
France in order for the Barbary States to cease the attacks. At first, the United
States paid these tributes, but over time it became clear that these Barbary
Pirates had no intention of stopping their attacks. President Jefferson sent a
fleet of ships and US Marines to North Africa to put an end to these pirate
attacks and were successful in doing so. It was the first major overseas military
operation in American history, and sent the message that the United States
would protect its interests around the world.
-Issues with Britain continued to persist. Britain, still at war with Napoleon and
France, continued to violate US neutrality in order to prevent trade with France,
attacking and taking American merchant ships, and the British continued the
practice of impressment, or forcing American sailors into the British navy.
These continued attacks angered the American people, many of who demanded
war with Britain.
-Jefferson knew that the United States would likely lose a war with Britain, and
therefore urged using economic embargoes to force the British to stop their
attacks. An embargo is a refusal to export goods to or import goods from a
foreign country in an effort to harm that country’s economy.
-In 1807, Congress passed the Embargo Act, which banned trade with foreign
countries including Britain and France. American politicians hoped this would
force European countries to respect US neutrality. However, this act mostly
harmed American merchants, especially in New England, who relied to trade
with Britain and France. Meanwhile, European countries had many trading
partners to turn to instead of the United States. This failed embargo led to a
temporary increase in the popularity of the Federalists and a decrease in
popularity of the Democratic-Republicans. The act also led to an increase in
illegal smuggling.
-In 1809, Congress replaced the Embargo Act with the Non-Intercourse Act,
which continued the embargo with Britain and France, but guaranteed that
trade would be reopened with the first country to stop its attacks on American
merchant vessels. However, attacks on American ships continued.
-These two laws, while ineffective in their goals, did have certain benefits to the
American economy, which were not apparent at the time. The inability to trade
with Britain or France forced Americans to purchase American made products
instead of foreign goods. This led to growth of the United States economy,
especially in New England where most manufacturing took place.
Conflict on the Frontier
-As the United States’ problems with Britain on the seas continued,
conflicts between American settlers and native Americans on the frontier
were on the rise once again. Many Americans rightfully believed that
Great Britain was assisting these natives with money, supplies, and
weapons as a way of keeping the United States occupied and weak. This
was another reason why many Americans demanded a declaration of
war against the British.
-In the Northwest Territory, another native confederation arose under
the command of Tecumseh, a chief of the Shawnee tribe. He urged his
followers to resist American settlement of native lands. Tecumseh also
actively sought an alliance with the British, seeing them as a useful ally
against the United States. Tecumseh was an excellent leader, and he
eventually hoped to unite the tribes of the Ohio River Valley, the South,
and Mississippi River Valley to fight American expansion into native
territory.
-At this time, the governor of the Northwest Territory was William Henry
Harrison, a well-respected Army officer. Harrison and Tecumseh met,
hoping to make peace. However, despite Harrison’s warning that native
hostility would be met with military force, Tecumseh would not back
down, stating that these lands belonged to his people, not America.
-in 1810, as Tecumseh travelled to gather new allies in the American
South, Harrison took advantage of his absence and led an army to attack
Tecumseh’s forces at Tippecanoe, Tecumseh’s “capital”. Tecumseh’s
brother, named Prophet, attacked Harrison’s army while they were
encamped. Harrison would not retreat, however, and ended up forcing
the natives to retreat at the Battle of Tippecanoe. Harrison then
ordered the village destroyed. Harrison would become a national hero
after this battle, and this would help launch his national political career.
-Again, many Americans believed that Tecumseh and his followers were
being actively supported by Great Britain in an effort to weaken the
United States economically and militarily. Combined with the British
refusal to recognize US neutrality, its seizure of American merchant
vessels, and its impressment of American sailors into the British navy,
British assistance of Tecumseh was the “final straw” for many Americans,
who demanded war with Britain. Many saw this coming conflict as a
“second American Revolution” or possibly the Revolution’s final
conclusion.
Support for War
-American support for war with Great Britain was rapidly growing.
Americans felt that Britain would never respect the United States as an
independent country and still treated America much like one of its
colonies.
-Many in the American government supported war as well. These
supporters of war were known as the War Hawks. (In general, those
who support war are known as “hawks” and those who support peace
are called “doves”.) The leading War Hawks were Senators Henry Clay of
Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. The War Hawks
demanded war with Britain, saying it was a matter of honor and integrity.
Support for the War Hawks was most prevalent in the West and the
South. In New England, the idea of war was met with great opposition.
The region depended on trade with the British, and the New England
Federalists wanted to find a peaceful resolution to the issues with Britain.
The Federalists argued that the United States was too weak militarily to
fight against the British; many, at least, wanted to be better prepared
before considering a declaration of war. With a small navy and an army
mostly composed of untrained militia, many felt that war with Britain
would be foolish and would end in disaster, if not the destruction of the
United States.
-Some War Hawks also saw war with Britain as a potential opportunity to
expand the territory of the United States. They felt that it would allow
the United States to expand north into Canada, which was defended by
poorly trained militia soldiers, not British regular army troops. Some saw
this as an easy opportunity too good to pass up.
-The country elected James Madison as President in 1808. Madison, a
Democratic-Republican, succeeded Thomas Jefferson. In an address to
Congress in 1812, Madison urged Congress to declare war. He pointed
out the continued British violations of American neutrality, the
impressment of American sailors into the British navy, and assistance to
native Americans in attacking American settlements on the frontier.
Other options, he said, had failed, and now the only option was the use
of military force. Led by the War Hawks, Congress agreed and declared
war on Britain in June of 1812. Again, the war had the most support in
the West and in the South. Northern states were mainly opposed to the
war.
The War of 1812 at Sea
-The War of 1812 was fought in many theaters, or areas of conflict. On land,
the major theaters included Canada, the Great Lakes, and the eastern and
southern coasts of the United States. The United States hoped that Britain
would be too occupied with the Napoleonic Wars to pay much attention to a
conflict in America. For the most part, the British would fight a defensive
campaign until 1814, when Napoleon was finally defeated and the British
could send more troops to America.
-At sea, battles were typically small engagements (battles) between
individual ships or small groups of ships. American naval vessels would
mainly focus on attacking individual ships of the British navy and lightly
armed merchant vessels. The United States lacked the naval power to truly
affect the British navy. At the outset of war, America had fewer than 20
warships, while the British had hundreds of powerful vessels. America
would somewhat offset this imbalance by hiring privateers to attack British
merchant vessels. Privateers would capture hundreds of merchant ships
throughout the war.
-One of the most famous naval battles of the entire war took place between
the USS Constitution and the British warship HMS Guerriere. The
Constitution was one of the frigates built during the French Revolutionary
Wars as part of the naval buildup ordered by then President John Adams.
The Constitution met the Guerriere in the Atlantic Ocean, and surprised the
British with its superior firepower and its thick, oak hull. The Guerriere’s
cannons could not penetrate the hull of the Constitution, with its
cannonballs literally bouncing off the sides of the American ship. After the
defeat of the Guerriere, the USS Constitution gained the nickname “Old
Ironsides”, as if the ships hull was made from iron. After this battle, the
British ordered its ships not to engage the Constitution or its sister frigates in
one-on-one battles, only to engage it in large groups. The victory of the
Constitution over the Guerriere became a national story, and gave America
confidence that it could win the War of 1812. After this battle, the British
ordered that British navy ships were not to engage the Constitution or its
“sister” ships if the British ships were alone on the open sea.
-Today, the USS Constitution is the oldest commissioned (still in service)
warship in the United States Navy. Although it is a museum ship, it still sails
occasionally.
-As the war went on, however, and the Napoleonic Wars in Europe came to
an end, the British would gradually send more and more naval vessels to
fight the United States. The superior size and quality of the British navy far
outclassed the small United States navy, which was limited to attacking
merchant vessels and smaller British warships. The British also blockaded
American ports, cutting off trade and supplies to the United States.
Canada, the Great Lakes, and Southeast
-Many American politicians saw the war as an opportunity to add Canada to
America’s growing empire. They felt that Canada, being defended only by militia
soldiers and not regular British army soldiers, would be easy pickings. American
leaders also hoped that residents of the French-Canadian province of Quebec
would welcome the Americans as liberators. American leaders also hoped that
by drawing attention to Canada, this would keep British troops out of the United
States in general.
-The plan to conquer Canada was ill-prepared and executed, however. In July of
1812 a British force allied with Tecumseh and his native confederation was able
to capture Fort Detroit on Lake Erie. The poorly trained American army was
forced to retreat when members of the militia refused to invade Canada itself.
This allowed the British to take control of the Great Lakes region.
-The US renewed its efforts to take Canada again in 1813. General William
Henry Harrison ordered the British Canadian capital of York burned to the
ground, something the British would not forget.
-Oliver Hazard Perry, an admiral in the American navy, was given the task of
defeating the British and driving them from the Great Lakes. Perry built a fleet
of ships specifically for this task. In the Battle of Lake Erie in September of 1813,
Perry and his fleet defeated the British after a long and bloody battle. This
would allow America to retake control of the Great Lakes region, opening the
way for another attempt at invasion of Canada. Victory at Lake Erie made Perry
a national hero and gave America hope that it could win the war.
-General Harrison, in charge of the war effort in the Great Lakes region, pursued
the British and their native allies into Canada, hoping to capitalize on the
American victory at Lake Erie. At the Battle of the Thames, fought along the
Thames River in Canada, Harrison defeated the British, and Tecumseh was killed
in the battle. The death of Tecumseh would lead to a weakening of the Britishnative alliance. The victory also guaranteed the security of the AmericanCanadian border, and allowed Harrison to retake Fort Detroit. However, the
United States could never fully control or conquer Canada; the defeat of the
American invasion is remembered with pride in Canada today.
-Recall that Tecumseh also recruited many tribes to his confederation in the
Mississippi River Valley and American South in 1811. One such tribe, the Creek
Indians of Tennessee, led by a chief named Red Eagle, raided and destroyed Fort
Mims in Alabama. An army made up of mostly militia troops led by General
Andrew Jackson defeated the Creek Indians in the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.
This battle was part of the Creek War, which was seen as a small but significant
part of the overall war of 1812 and the end of the conflicts that began years
earlier under Tecumseh’s leadership. This victory over the Creek would open
the way for American settlement of native lands in the southeastern United
States, and would make Jackson a nationally prominent figure. Jackson was then
given command of the American troops that defended the important Gulf Coast
port of New Orleans.
The End of the War
-In 1814, Napoleon was defeated in Europe. The British now focused their
attention on invasions of the east and southern coasts of the United States. The
British also sent more ships to America in order to strengthen its blockade of
American ports.
-One British invasion force sailed into Chesapeake Bay near Washington, DC.
This army of British regular troops, many of whom were veterans of the
Napoleonic Wars, easily defeated the inexperienced American troops defending
the city, who fled in the face of the British advance. The British, remembering
the American destruction of the Canadian capital of York, burned Washington in
revenge. The British then tried to capture Baltimore, Maryland, but were
defeated when they could not capture Fort McHenry, which guarded
Baltimore’s harbor. The Battle of Fort McHenry inspired Francis Scott Key’s
famous poem, entitled The Star Spangled Banner, which would become
America’s national anthem in 1931.
-The British also attempted an invasion of the Gulf Coast of the United States by
attacking the city of New Orleans, which would allow them to control the
Mississippi River. However, the city was heavily defended by an army led by
Andrew Jackson. At the Battle of New Orleans in January of 1815, Jackson’s
troops, hidden behind extensive fortifications, easily defeated the British, who
were forced to march over open ground in their assault on the city. Jackson,
noted for his hatred for the British going back to the American Revolution,
inspired his men to fight hard. The British lost over 2,000 men in the battle,
compared to American losses totaling fewer than 100. It was to be the last
major battle of the war. In fact, the war was technically over when the Battle of
New Orleans occurred, as a peace treaty had been signed weeks earlier, but
word had not yet reached Jackson yet. The victory would make Jackson one of
America’s most popular figures.
-Growing increasingly frustrated with the war, the Federalist Party, which had
opposed the war from the start, organized the Hartford Convention, where the
Federalists, mostly from New England states, proposed strategies to end the
conflict. Some Federalists proposed that New England pursue its own peace
treaty with Britain. Others suggested that New England secede from the United
States entirely. Many Americans saw this as treason and the popularity of the
Federalists practically disappeared.
-The War of 1812 officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, signed
in Belgium. It returned the US and Britain to the status quo ante-bellum, or the
state of things before the war. Both countries pledged to form a better
relationship and address the problems that led to war in the first place.
-The War of 1812 was seen as the “conclusion” of the American Revolution in
America and a significant victory over a world power. In Canada, it was seen as
a war of independence from American domination, and in Britain, it was seen as
a minor conflict in the overall context of the Napoleonic Wars, hardly
remembered there today.