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J. Cell Sci. 59, 61-70 (1983)
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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EXTRACELLULAR
FIBRILS ON THE ECTODERMAL LAYER IN
GASTRULAE OF FIVE AMPHIBIAN SPECIES
NORIO NAKATSUJI AND KURT E. JOHNSON
Department of Anatomy, The George Washington University Medical Center,
Washington, D.C. 20037, U.SA.
SUMMARY
Previous studies have shown the presence of a network of extracellular fibrils on the inner surface
of the ectodermal layer of the Ambysloma maculatum gastrulae. The alignment of the network along
the blastopore-animal pole axis has suggested that the network of fibrils guides the migrating
mesodermal cells in gastrulae by contact guidance. We have also shown that these fibrils can be
deposited on substrata by explanted embryonic fragments and that substrata conditioned in this
manner support directed cell migration. In this study, we found that the appearance of the fibrils
in the embryos coincides with the start of cell migration towards the animal pole. Gastrulae of three
urodele species examined (A. maculatum, A. mexicanum and Cynops pyrrhogaster) have similar
dense networks of fibrils. Xenopus laevis gastrulae also have similar fibrils but fewer fibrils compared to urodele embryos. Rana pipiens gastrulae have very few extracellular fibrils. The scarcity
of the fibrils in anuran species may be related to the differences in arrangement of mesodermal cells
during migration.
INTRODUCTION
Gastrulation is the first major morphogenetic event to occur during vertebrate
development. For example, in amphibia, a hollow ball of cells is converted into a
much more complex structure where the primary germ layers have been formed. Also,
a primitive gut cavity as well as a recognizable cranial and caudal end of the embryo
have all been established. Gastrulation involves movement of groups of cells, spreading of cell sheets, and invagination. One intriguing and perplexing scientific problem
currently unresolved is how the specific cell movements are controlled and directed
once they are initiated. We now think we have strong evidence to support the notion
that contact guidance of cell movement contributes to specific cell movement during
gastrulation.
The inner surface of the ectodermal layer that makes the roof of the blastocoel
serves as the substratum for cell migration during gastrulation in amphibian embryos
(Nakatsuji, 1975a,b, 1976; Keller &Schoenwolf, 1977; Nakatsuji, Gould & Johnson,
1982). A scanning electron microscopic study using Ambystoma maculatum embryos
has shown the presence of a network of extracellular fibrils on this natural substratum
(Nakatsuji et al. 1982). The migrating presumptive mesodermal cells seem to attach
to and move on the network of fibrils. There are no such fibrils on the surface of the
migrating mesodermal cells. The finding of a significant alignment of the fibril
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N. Nakatsuji and K. E. Johnson
network parallel to the blastopore-animal pole axis (Nakatsuji et al. 1982) suggests
the hypothesis that the aligned fibrils guide the directional cell migration by contact
guidance. This hypothesis has been supported by an in vitro study in which the
dissociated mesodermal cells show oriented movement on the network of fibrils that
have been transferred onto the coverslip surface by explanted fragments of the roof
of the blastocoel (Nakatsuji & Johnson, 1983).
In this study, we have tried to answer two questions. (1) When do the fibrils appear
during early development of embryos? That is, does their appearance coincide with
the start of gastrulation? (2) Do similar fibrils exist in embryos of many amphibian
species? The answer to the first question is that the fibrils appear just before the start
of gastrulation distributed along the inner aspect of the roof of the blastocoel. The
answer to the second question is that large numbers of fibrils exist in three different
urodele species, but are markedly less abundant or even very sparse in two anuran
species.
MATERIALS
AND
METHODS
Embryos
A. maculatum eggs were collected in North Carolina and Virginia as described in detail elsewhere
(Nakatsuji & Johnson, 1983). We used the developmental stages described by Harrison (1969).
Ambystoma mexicanum eggs were obtained from the axolotl colony at Indiana University. Developmental stages were determined according to Schreckenberg & Jacobson (1975). The jelly coats of
Ambystoma embryos were removed manually with fine Dumont no. 5 forceps. Cynops pyrrhogaster
adults were obtained, thanks to the generosity of Dr H. Y. Kubota, from a colony maintained at
Kyoto University in Japan. Females were induced to lay fertilized eggs in the laboratory by injection
of human chorionic gonadotropin (Kubota, 1981). The strong capsules surrounding the eggs were
removed manually by using iridectomy scissors. For Cynops, we used the developmental stages
described by Okada & Ichikawa (1947).
Xenopus laevis eggs were obtained from matings that were artificially induced by injecting human
chorionic gonadotropin into males and females (Gurdon, 1967). We used the stage series of Nieuwkoop & Faber (1967). The jelly coats were dissolved with 1 % sodium thioglycolate in 10 % modified
Stearns' solution (pH8-0) (Nakatsuji & Johnson, 1982). Rana pipiens adults were obtained from
Nasco (Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin). They were stored in plastic boxes at 4°C in tap water
supplemented with antibiotics and salts (R. P. Elinson, personal communication). Females were
ovulated by pituitary injection (Rugh, 1962). Fertilization was carried out by stripping eggs into
macerated testes in 10% modified Stearns' solution (pH7-4). Developmental stages were determined according to Shumway (1940). Jelly coats were removed manually with fine Dumont no. 5
forceps.
Scanning electron microscopy
After jelly coats were removed, embryos were immersed in a fixative solution of 2-5 % glutaraldehyde in 0-1 M-sodium cacodylate buffer (pH 7-2). The vitelline membranes were removed rapidly
with fine Dumont no. S forceps, and the blastocoelic roof was isolated by cutting the embryos along
the equatorial line with the fine forceps. The isolated roof of the blastocoel was then transferred into
a fresh Petri dish containing the same fixative solution and fixed for 1 day at room temperature.
Next, these fragments were post-fixed with 1 % OsO* in the same buffer for 1 h at room temperature, dehydrated through a graded ethanol series, and critical-point dried through liquid CO2.
The samples were mounted on aluminium stubs with the inner surface of the ectodermal layer facing
upwards. They were sputter-coated with gold/palladium to a thickness of approximately 20 nm, and
examined in a JEOL JSM-35 scanning electron microscope.
Extracellular fibrils in amphibian gastrulae
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RESULTS
A. maculatum
We found no extracellular fibrils on the inner surface of the ectodermal layer taken
from stage 8 early blastulae (Fig. 1A). The ectodermal cells form many filopodia at
boundaries between them, but the central part of the cell is smooth without any fibrils
similar to those extracellular fibrils observed in later developmental stages. The fibrils
first appear in small numbers on the inner aspect of the ectodermal layer of stage 9 late
blastulae (Fig. 1B). The density of fibrils at stage 9 is much less than the density seen
in stage 10 early gastrulae (Fig. lc). A dense network of fibrils is present on the inner
aspect of the roof of the blastocoel even in very early gastrulae (stage 10—). Cell
migration towards the animal pole has not yet started in stage 10— embryos. We did
not observe any regional differences, such as dorsoventral or animal pole—marginal
zone, in either the time of appearance or density of the fibrils. The fibrils are present
throughout the rest of gastrulation. They have an apparent thickness of about 0-1 ^m
and a granular substructure, and frequently are continuous across the border between
ectodermal cells (Fig. ID). These extracellular fibrils are lacking on migrating
mesodermal cells and endodermal cells.
A. mexicanum
We also observed a dense network of extracellular fibrils on the inner surface of the
gastrula ectodermal layer of this species (Fig. 2B). A. mexicanum is very closely
related to A maculatum and A. mexicanum has an embryo that looks very similar to
that of A. maculatum. Extracellular fibrils are absent in early blastulae of A.
mexicanum (Fig. 2A). AS in the case of A. maculatum, we observed no fibrils on the
surface of the migrating mesodermal cells and endodermal cells of A. mexicanum.
C. pyrrhogaster
This urodele is not closely related toAmbystoma phylogenetically. The embryos are
also quite different in their appearance. Nevertheless, gastrulae of this species have
dense networks of extracellular fibrils on the inner aspect of the roof of the blastocoel,
similar in morphology and distribution to the fibrils observed in two species of Ambystoma, as described above. An example of the extracellular fibrils in C. pyrrhogaster
gastrula roof of the blastocoel is shown in Fig. 2D. These structures are absent from
the inner roof of the blastocoel in blastula stages of this embryo (Fig. 2c). These fibrils
are also restricted to the inner aspect of the roof of the blastocoel, being absent on the
surface of both migrating mesodermal cells and endodermal cells.
A', laevis
We found a network of fibrils in A', laevis gastrulae (Fig. 3c), but the density of the
fibrils is much lower than in any of urodele embryos described above. These fibrils
were observed only on the surface of the ectodermal layer, not on the mesodermal and
endodermal cells. The fibrils are absent in stage 8 middle blastulae, and start to appear
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N. Nakatsuji and K. E. Johnson
Fig. 1. Scanning electron micrographs of the inner surface of the ectodermal layer of A.
maculatum embryos. Bars, 5 Jim. A. Stage 8 early blastula; B, stage 9 late blastula; c and
D, stage 10 early gastrula.
Extracellular fibrils in amphibian gastrulae
Fig. 2. Scanning electron micrographs of the inner surface of the ectodermal layer. Bars,
5/im. A. Stage 8 early blastula of A. mexicanum; B, stage 10 early gastrula of A. mexicanum; c, stage 8-9 early blastula of C. pyrrhogaster; D, stage 11 early gastrula of C.
pyrrhogasler.
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N. Nakatsuji and K. E. Johnson
Fig. 3. Scanning electron micrographs of the inner surface of the ectodermal layer. Bars,
5/an. A-C. A*, laevis embryos at stages 9, 10 and 11, respectively; one fibril is visible in
A (arrow); D, stage 11 gastrula of Rana pipiens.
Extracellular fibrils in amphibian gastrulae
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in very small numbers in stage 9 late blastulae (Fig. 3A), then increase in number in
stage 10 early gastrulae (Fig. 3B) and stage 11 middle gastrulae (Fig. 3c), but never
reach the large numbers seen in urodele embryos. To illustrate the increase in numbers of fibrils at different developmental stages, we measured the total length of all
the fibrils that appear in scanning electron micrographs taken at the same magnification. We used five photographs from stages 9, 10 and 11. Fig. 4 shows the result of
this work, illustrating that there is a quantitative increase in length of the fibrils from
stage 9 to stage 11.
R. pipiens
We found very few fibrils in gastrulae of this species. We observed many filopodia
projecting from the margin of cells and smooth ectodermal cell surfaces (Fig. 3D) , but
150 T
11
Developmental stages
Fig. 4. Increase of the fibrils on the inner surface of the ectodermal layer of X. laevis
embryos from stage 9 to stage 11. The mean and standard deviation are shown. The
ordinate gives the total length of all the fibrils that appeared in each scanning electron
micrograph at a magnification of 5400, which represents actual area of 315 ^m 2 . We
measured the length on five photographs of each developmental stage, by using a
calibrated curvimeter.
only occasional fibrils that look like the extracellular fibrils found in urodeles and X.
laevis. We looked extensively for such fibrils in many different specimens prepared
by exactly the same methods as used for other species. We were surprised that fibrils
were absent from R. pipiens, but we are confident that this species lacks the prominent
fibrils seen in urodeles.
DISCUSSION
This study showed that the extracellular fibrils on the inner surface of the ectodermal layer appear just before cell migration starts in early gastrulae. Their appearance
prior to migration is consistent with the hypothesis that the fibrillar network serves
as a contact-guidance system to guide cell migration toward the animal pole (Nakatsuji
etal. 1982; Nakatsuji & Johnson, 1983). Similar dense networks of fibrils are present
in gastrulae of all three urodele species examined in this study. The presence of fibrils
in three different urodeles also suggests the importance of these structures.
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Af. Nakatsuji and K. E. Johnson
Similar fibrils appear in A', laevis gastrulae, but in far smaller numbers than in
urodele embryos. There are almost no fibrils mR.pipiens gastrulae. Karfunkel (1977)
observed similar fibrils in the flank region of neurulae of several different species. He
also observed that there are many fewer fibrils in R. palustris embryos than in A.
maculatum embryos. Johnson, Silver & Kelley (1979) also failed to observe discrete
fibrillar structures on the inner aspect of the roof of the blastocoel of Rana pipiens
embryos and the interspecific arrested hybrid embryos formed by fertilizing eggs of
R. pipiens with the sperm of Rana catesbeiana. Early gastrulae lack extracellular
fibrils. Late gastrulae, however, did have an amorphous layer of extracellular
materials coating the inner aspect of the roof of the blastocoel. The scarcity of fibrils
inXenopus and the lack of them in Rana, can be interpreted in three ways. (1) They
are present in intact gastrulae, but optimal conditions for fixation are different from
those of urodele fibrils. (2) Equivalent molecules that support attachment and movement of the migrating mesodermal cells are present, but they have lower tendency to
aggregate into fibrillar structures that are recognizable in scanning electron
micrographs. (3) No equivalent molecules exist for cell attachment and locomotion
in some species of anurans. We do not feel that it is reasonable to evoke fixation
artifacts to account for lack of fibrils in R. pipiens and decreased numbers of fibrils in
A', laevis. Our fixation techniques gave excellent preservation of fibrils in urodeles.
In anurans, cell surfaces did not have large number of holes in them; and many
filopodia and lamellipodia, both delicate structures like fibrils, were well preserved.
Fibrils were not observed in R. pipiens or R. pipiens X R. catesbeiana embryos that
were given a long glutaraldehyde fixation before dissection (Johnson et al. 1979).
Rather, we feel confident that R. pipiens lacks fibrils seen in modest numbers in
Xenopus and in great abundance in urodeles.
We feel that the differences observed here may be related to differences in the mode
of mesodermal cell arrangement during migration. In urodeles, migrating mesodermal cells are loosely grouped with large intercellular spaces, and each cell has welloriented lamellipodia and filopodia (Nakatsuji, 19756; Nakatsuji et al. 1982). On the
other hand, the migrating cells in Rana embryos make a densely packed cell mass with
small intercellular spaces (Johnson, 1976; Nakatsuji, 1976). Xenopus embryos have
intermediate features (Nakatsuji, 1975a; Keller & Schoenwolf, 1977).
Histochemical studies using Toluidine Blue, Alcian Blue and lanthanum nitrate
staining have revealed extracellular matrix materials in gastrulae of A", laevis (Johnson, 1977a; Komazaki & Hirakow, 1982a,b) and of R. pipiens (Johnson, 19776).
Autoradiographic and biochemical studies have shown that these extracellular matrix
materials contain sugars such as galactose, glucosamine, fucose, glucose and mannose (Johnson, 1977c,d). A recent study (Komazaki & Hirakow, 1982a,fe) using
thin-sectioning of Alcian Blue-lanthanum nitrate-stained A', laevis embryos demonstrated extracellular matrix materials distributing on the inner surface of the ectodermal layer and between the migrating mesodermal cells and the ectodermal layer.
Their appearance at the start of gastrulation and their increase in amount during
gastrulation also coincides well with the extracellular fibrils observed in this study.
Komazaki (personal communication) also observed the presence of the extracellular
Extracellular fibrils in amphibian gastrulae
69
fibrils on the inner surface of the C. pyrrhogaster gastrula ectodermal layer, which had
been fixed in a solution containing formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde.
We would like to thank Dr Albert K. Harris for his help with collecting salamander eggs, and Dr
Hiroshi Y. Kubota for making the Japanese newts available to us. The staff of the Indiana University Axolotl Facility was also most helpful in obtaining Ambystoma mexicanum embryos. We would
also like to thank Dr Richard S. Snell for his continued support of our research efforts. This work
was supported by NIH grants HD11634and HD13419.
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