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Final Exam Study Guide Chapter 11 Introduction to Genetics 11.1-11.3 Mendel and Genetics *Gregor Mendel & his pea plant experiments *Genes & Dominance (traits, hybrids, alleles, principle of dominance, segregation, independent assortment) *Punnett Squares & Probability (Homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype) *Independent Assortment and Mendel’s Principles *Beyond Dominance (Incomplete Dominance, Codominance, Multiple alleles, polygenic traits) 11.4 Meiosis *Chromosome number (homologous chromosomes, diploid number, haploid number) *Meiosis: reduction division that forms gametes *Phases of Meiosis 1 & 2 (tetrad, crossing over) *Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis *Knowing what it means for a gene to be “linked” to another (11.5) Chapter 12 DNA & RNA 12.1 DNA *Discovery of the DNA molecule: Griffith, Hershey and Chase, Chargaff, Franklin, Watson and Crick *Structure and location of DNA *Double helix made up of nucleotides *Nucleotide structure (sugar, phosphate, and one of 4 nitrogen bases) *Purines (Adenine and Guanine) *Pyrimidines (Thymine and Cytosine) *Base-pairing A~T and G~C *Hydrogen bonds hold nitrogen bases together 12.2 Chromosomes and DNA Replication *Forms of DNA: chromatin, nucleosome, and chromosome *DNA Replication: *Where in the cell? *Function of helicase and DNA polymerase *Semi-conservative process 12.3 DNA and Protein Synthesis *Transcription and Translation (where and what) *Functions of tRNA, mRNA, and rRNA *Difference between an intron and exon *Difference between a codon and an anticodon *Using the Genetic Code 12.4 Mutations *Types ~Gene (Point) Mutations: insertions, substitutions, deletions ~Chromosomal Mutations: deletion, duplication, inversion, and translocation Chapter 14 The Human Genome 14.1 Human Heredity *Karyotyping *Sex chromosomes vs Autosomes *Pedigree Charts *Blood Types and the ABO Blood Groups *Cystic Fibrosis and Sickle Cell Anemia 14.2 Human Chromosomes *Sex-linked genes *Colorblindness *Hemophilia *Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy *Chromosomal Disorders (result of non-disjunction) *Down Syndrome (trisomy 21) *Turner’s Syndrome and Klinefelter’s syndrome Chapter 15 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution 15.1 Puzzle of Life’s Diversity *Darwin, the H.M.S. Beagle, and the Galapagos Islands *Fossils and patterns of diversity evidence for evolution 15.2 Ideas that Shaped Darwin’s Thinking *Lamarck (tendency toward perfection, use and disuse, and inheritance of acquired traits) Hutton and Lyell (geology) Malthus (population growth), and Wallace (essay on evolution) 15.3 Darwin Presents His Case *Publication of On the Origin of Species *Inherited variation and artificial selection *Evolution by Natural Selection (struggle for existence, “fitness”, survival of the fittest, adaptations, decent with modification) *Evidence for Evolution (fossil record, geographic distribution of organisms, homologous structures, vestigial organs, embryology, and DNA similarities) Chapter 16 Evolution of Populations 16.1 Genes and Variation *Genes pools and gene frequency *Sources of genetic variation: mutations and gene shuffling 16.2 Evolution as Genetic Change *Genetic drift *Evolution vs Genetic Equilibrium: no random mating, large population, no immigration or emigration, no mutations, no natural selection 16.3 Process of Speciation *Speciation~ formation of new species *Isolating Mechanisms: Behavioral, Geographic, and Temporal Isolation Chapter 18 Classification 18.1 Finding Order in Diversity *Why classify (taxonomy) *Binomial Nomenclature *Linnaeus’s System of Classification: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species 18.3 Kingdoms and Domains *Six kingdoms: Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia *Three Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya Chapter 3 The Biosphere 3.1 What is Ecology *Levels of organization (Species, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere) *Ecological Methods (Observing, Experimenting, and Modeling) 3.2 Energy Flow *Producers (Autotrophs) *Photosynthesis vs chemosynthesis, *Consumers (heterotrophs): herbivores, omnivores, carnivores, detrivores, and decomposers *Feeing Relationships (trophic levels): Food Chains & Food Webs *Ecological Pyramids (Energy, Biomass, Numbers) 3.3 Cycles of Matter *Water cycle (evaporation and transpiration) *Nitrogen cycle (nitrogen fixation and denitrification) *Carbon cycle *Phosphorus cycle *Nutrient Limitation (primary productivity and limiting nutrients) Chapter 4 Ecosystems & Communities 4.2 What Shapes an Ecosystem *Biotic and Abiotic Factors *Habitat and Niche *Community Interactions: Competition, Predation, Symbiosis (Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism) *Ecological Succession: Primary succession, secondary succession Chapter 5 Population 5.1 How Populations Grow *Characteristics of Populations: population density, population growth (immigration and emigration), exponential growth, logistic growth (carrying capacity) 5.2 Limits to Growth *Limiting factors *Density Dependent Factors: competition, predation, parasitism and disease *Density Independent Factors: natural disasters, unusual weather, human activities