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Lecture Chapter 2
All living systems are in labelled in a hierarchical order.
Components:
 Atoms –all things are made up of atoms
 Elements- are the same type of atom working
together
 Compounds- a combination of different types of
atoms working together
 Cells- The smallest structural unit of an organism
that is capable of independent functioning,
consisting of one or more nuclei, cytoplasm, and
various organelles, all surrounded by a
semipermeable cell membrane.(dictionary.com)
 Tissues-similar type cells working together for a
common purpose
 Organs-tissues that are working together to create a
structure
 Systems- a series of organs that work together for a
common function
Fundamental unit of all living things; smallest structure of
body that has all properties of being alive:
• responds to stimuli
• engages in metabolic activities
• reproduces itself
• Tissues and organs in body are composed of cells
• Individual cells perform functions for body such as
reproduction, hormone secretion, energy production, and
excretion
• Special cells carry out specific functions, such as
contraction by muscle cells and electrical impulse
transmission by nerve cells
Cytology - Study of cells and their functions
All cells have:
• nucleus– contains DNA
• cytoplasm–watery internal environment of cell
• cell membrane– outermost boundary of cell
Histology - Study of tissue
• Tissue formed when like cells grouped together and
function together to perform specific activity
• Body has four types of tissue:
muscle tissue
connective tissue
epithelial tissue
nervous tissue
Muscle Tissue - Produces movement through contraction, or
shortening in length.
Composed of individual muscle cells called muscle fibers
• Three basic types of muscles:
skeletal muscle (attached to bone)
smooth muscle (in internal organs such as
intestines, uterus, and blood vessels)
cardiac muscle (only in heart)
Epithelial Tissue - Also called epithelium
• Found throughout body
• Composed of close-packed cells that form covering
for and lining of body structures
• Examples: top layer of skin and lining of stomach
• May be specialized:
absorb substances such as nutrients from intestines)
secrete substances such as sweat glands)
excrete wastes such as kidney tubules)
Connective Tissue
• Supporting and protecting tissue
• Performs many different functions depending on
location
• Appears in many different forms so that each is able
perform task required at that location
bone - structural support for whole body)
cartilage - shock absorber in joints
tendons – connects skeletal muscles to bones
adipose - protective padding
Nervous Tissue
 Composed of cells called neurons
• Forms brain, spinal cord, and network of nerves
throughout entire body
• Allows for conduction of electrical impulses to send
information between brain and rest of body
to
Organs
• Composed of several different types of tissue that work
as a unit to perform special functions
Example:
Stomach contains smooth muscle tissue,
nervous tissue, and epithelial tissue that allow it to contract
to mix food with digestive juices
Systems:
Composed of several organs working in coordinated manner
to perform complex function or functions
Body System
Organs/parts
involved
Specialty
Integumentary
skin, hair, nails,
sweat and oil
glands
muscles
Bones
Joints
Oral Cavity
Salivary Glands
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Intestines
Rectum
Anus
Gallbladder
Liver
Pancreas
Heart
Arteries
Veins
Plasma
erythrocytes
leukocytes
thrombocytes
lymph nodes
lymphatic vessels
spleen
thymus gland
tonsils
Nasal Cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Lungs
Kidneys
Bladder
Ureter
Urethra
dermatologist
musculoskeletal
Digestive
Gastrointestinal
Alimentary
Cardiac
Blood
Lymphatic
Respiratory
Urinary
orthopedist
Internist
gastroenterologist
proctologist
Cardiologist
Hematologist
Immunologist
Pulmonologist
otorhinolaryngologist
laryngologist
Urologist
Nephrologist
Female
Reproductive
Male Reproductive
Endocrine
Nervous
Ovary
Fallopian tubes
Uterus
Vagina
Vulva
Breasts
Testes
Epididymis
Vas deferens
Penis
Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Bulbourethral
gland
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovaries
Testes
Brain
Spinal Cord
Nerves
Gynecologist
Obstetrician
Urologist
Endocrinologist
Neurologist
Anatomical position
Is used when describing positions and relationships of structure in human body.
The anatomical position is when the body is standing erect with arms at side of
body, palms of hands facing forward, and eyes looking straight ahead; legs are
parallel with feet and toes pointing forward
Body planes:
Terminology for body planes used to assist medical
personnel in describing body and its parts
Sagittal plane or median plane - vertical plane that
runs lengthwise from front to back;
divides body or any of its parts into right and left
portions; right and left sides
Frontal plane or coronal plane- vertical plane that runs
lengthwise from side to side; divides body
into front
and back portions
Transverse plane or horizontal plane- divides body or its
parts into upper and lower portions
Longitudinal section—view produced by lengthwise slice
along long axis of structure
Cross-section—view produced by slice perpendicular to
long axis of structure
Regions of the body
Body is divided into large regions that can easily be identified externally:
• Cephalic region—entire head
• Cervical region—neck
• Trunk—torso
• Thoracic (pectoral) region—chest
• Abdominal (celiac) region
• Pelvic region
• Pubic region—genital region
• Dorsum—back
• Vertebral region
• Gluteal region—buttocks
• Upper extremities or brachial region—arms
• Lower extremities or crural regions—legs
Terms Describing Body Positions
Term
superior or
cephalad
Definition
toward the head, or above another structure
Example: The adrenal glands are superior to the kidneys.
inferior or
caudad
toward feet or tail, or below another structure
Example: The intestine is inferior to the heart.
anterior or
ventral
toward front or belly-side of body
Example: The navel is located on the anterior surface of
the body.
posterior or
dorsal
toward back or spinal cord side of body
Example: The posterior wall of the right kidney was
excised.
medial
middle or near middle of body or structure
Example: The heart is medially located in the chest
cavity.
lateral
Refers to side
Example: The ovaries are located lateral to the uterus.
apex
Tip or summit of organ
Example: We hear the heart beat by listening over the
apex of the heart.
base
Bottom or lower part of organ
Example: On the X-ray, a fracture was noted at the base
of the skull.
proximal
Located nearer to the point of attachment to body
Example: In the anatomical position, the elbow is
proximal to the hand.
distal
Located farther away from point of attachment to body
Example: The hand is distal to the elbow.
superficial
More toward surface of body
Example: The cut was superficial.
deep
Further away from surface of body
Example: An incision into an abdominal organ is a deep
incision.
Body Cavities and Their Contents
1. Dorsal cavities
A. cranial cavity (contains brain)
B. spinal cavity (contains spinal cord)
2. Ventral cavities
A. thoracic cavity
B. abdominopelvic cavity
A. Thoracic cavity contains two lungs and central region
between them called:
mediastinum mēd-ē-ə-ˈstī-nəm
heart, aorta
esophagus
trachea
thymus gland
Diaphragm—physical wall between thoracic cavity and
abdominopelvic cavity; muscle used for breathing
B. Abdominopelvic cavity
superior abdominal cavity
inferior pelvic cavity
organs of digestive tract
excretory
reproductive systems
Organs within ventral cavities referred to as viscera. All
viscera are lined with a two layer membrane.
All Cavities lined by, two-layer membrane known as the:
pleura in thoracic cavity
peritoneum in abdominopelvic cavity
Outer layer that lines cavities called parietal layer
parietal pleura and parietal peritoneum
Inner layer that encases viscera called visceral layer
visceral pleura and visceral peritoneum
Within thoracic cavity, pleura is subdivided, forming pleural
cavity (contains lungs) and pericardial cavity (contains
heart)
Body Cavities and their Major Organs
Cavity
Dorsal cavities
Cranial cavity
Spinal cavity
Major Organs
Brain
Spinal cord
Ventral cavities
Thoracic cavity
Pleural cavity: lungs
Pericardial cavity: heart
Mediastinum: heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus gland, aorta
Abdominopelvic cavity
Abdominal cavity
Pelvic cavity
Stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder,
pancreas, and portions of the small intestines
and colon
Urinary bladder, ureters, urethra, and
portions of the small intestines and colon
Female: uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes,
vagina
Male: prostate gland, seminal vesicles,
portion of the vas deferens
The nine anatomical and four clinical divisions of the
abdomen
Abdominopelvic cavity usually subdivided into regions so
different areas can be precisely referred to.
anatomical divisions
clinical divisions
Subdivisions of the Abdominopelvic Cavity
Anatomical Divisions of the Abdomen
• Right hypochondriac: Right lateral region of upper row
beneath lower ribs
• Epigastric: Middle area of upper row above stomach
• Left hypochondriac: Left lateral region of upper row
beneath lower ribs
• Right lumbar: Right lateral region of middle row at
waist
• Umbilical: Central area over navel
• Left lumbar: Left lateral region of middle row at waist
• Right iliac: Right lateral region of lower row at groin
• Hypogastric: Middle region of lower row beneath navel
• Left iliac: Left lateral region of lower row at groin
Clinical Divisions of the Abdomen
• Right upper quadrant (RUQ): Contains majority of
liver, gallbladder, small portion of pancreas, right kidney,
small intestines, and colon
• Right lower quadrant (RLQ): Contains small intestines
and colon, right ovary and fallopian tube, appendix, and
right ureter
• Left upper quadrant (LUQ): Contains small portion of
liver, spleen, stomach, majority of pancreas, left kidney,
small intestines, and colon
• Left lower quadrant (LLQ): Contains small intestines
and colon, left ovary and fallopian tube, and left ureter
Combining
Medical
Form
Suffix
Term
abdomin/o
anter/o
brachi/o
caud/o
cephal/o
cervic/o
crani/o
crur/o
dist/o
dors/o
epitheli/o
glute/o
infer/o
later/o
medi/o
muscul/o
neur/o
organ/o
pelv/o
peritone/o
pleur/o
poster/o
proxim/o
pub/o
radi/o
spin/o
super/o
system/o
thorac/o
ventr/o
vertebr/o
viscer/o
-al
-ior
-al
-al
-ic
-al
-al
-al
-al
-al
-al
-al
-ior
-al
-al
-ar
-al
-ic
-ic
-al
-al
-ior
-al
-ic
-graph
-al
-ior
-ic
-ic
-al
-al
-al
abdominal
anterior
brachial
caudal
cephalic
cervical
cranial
crural
distal
dorsal
epithelial
gluteal
inferior
lateral
medial
muscular
neural
organic
pelvic
peritoneal
pleural
posterior
proximal
pubic
radiograph
spinal
superior
systemic
thoracic
ventral
vertebral
visceral
Definition
pertaining to abdomen
pertaining to front
pertaining to arm
pertaining to tail
pertaining to head
pertaining to neck
pertaining to skull
pertaining to leg
pertaining to away
pertaining to spinal cord
pertaining to epithelium
pertaining to buttocks
pertaining to below
pertaining to side
pertaining to middle
pertaining to muscles
pertaining to nerves
pertaining to organs
pertaining to pelvis
pertaining to peritoneum
pertaining to pleura
pertaining to back
pertaining to near
pertaining to genital region
instrument used to make x-rays
pertaining to spine
pertaining to above
pertaining to systems
pertaining to chest
pertaining to belly side
pertaining to vertebrae
pertaining to internal organs