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Gleitman • Gross • Reisberg
Psychology
EIGHTH EDITION
Chapter 7
Learning
©2011 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Chapter Pretest
• What are Learning Theories?
• What is Classical Conditioning?
• Please be able to define the terms in
Classical Conditioning.
• What is Instrumental (or Operant)
Conditioning?
• Please be able to define the terms in
Operant Conditioning.
Chapter Pretest
• How will you use Classical and Operant
Conditioning in your own life?
• What is Observational Learning in Social
Learning Theory?
• The Neural Basis for Learning
• Summary
Learning Theory
• Empiricist philosophers argued that
learning involves the forming of simple
associations.
• More complex learning simply involves many
associations, layered upon each other.
• All learning depends on the same
mechanisms and should be governed by the
same principles.
Learning Theory
Theories that address how and why an
animal learns something.
We will look at the this from the point of a
Behaviorist.
These include Classical Conditioning,
Operant Conditioning, Social Learning
Theory, and the GOMS model.
Behaviorism
A Behaviorist: Someone who is concerned
with explaining behavior (or looking at how
we learn) primarily through seeing what is
observable and measureable.
The emphasis is on changes seen in
behavior that occur as a result of a
stimulus-response association made.
Behaviorism
Behaviors can be learned or unlearned.
Behaviors are seen as learned habits.
Thoughts are considered behaviors.
Terms
 Stimulus: Anything that is detectable
through your senses. These influence
behavior, and can vary in intensity, and
amount.
Response: The response directly after the
stimulus.
Example stimulus-response connection
with Klaus.
Classical Conditioning
Let’s start with a very simple way we, and
other animals, make and keep stimulusresponse connections.
We make many. These form our
behaviors.
Classical Conditioning
• In classical conditioning, animals learn
about the association between one
stimulus and another. This is very basic.
• Before conditioning:
• an unconditioned stimulus (US, such as food)
• elicits an unconditioned response (UR, such as
salivation)
Classical Conditioning
• After conditioning:
• If the US follows a conditioned stimulus (CS,
such as a buzzer) many times,
• this CS on its own will soon
• evoke the conditioned response (CR; here again,
salivation).
• https://youtu.be/qy_mIEnnlF4
• https://youtu.be/_NSeYRanbbU?list=PLGCFrUiQw
dG-XSO5oULXTeNLpjMoidcGf
Klaus
Let’s use Classical Conditioning to teach
Klaus to form stimulus response
connections.
We start with a US and UR. We train this
connection first.
We make the US the CS with CR.
We pair the CS with a Neutral Stimulus.
Now the NS becomes a CS.
Extinction: the gradual
weakening in the CR
• Second-order conditioning
• When a CS-US relationship is well
established, the CS can be preceded by a
second, neutral stimulus.
• Trials in which the CS is presented without
the US lead to extinction,
• but spontaneous recovery shows that the CR
is only masked by extinction.
Extinction
Gradual Decay: Conditioning likely needs
continual stimulus-response practice or
connection. If not, it can decay over time
or the stimulus can lose the “spark” over
time.
The stimulus can become predictable.
Desensitization where the effect of the
stimulus is dulled by over conditioning.
This happens when the S-CR is presented
several times. The S-CR is gradual for
slightly intense to very intense.
Klaus
Demonstration of Extinction.
Extinction
Inoculation: The animal is presented with
weakened form of the CS-CR relationship
so the person or animal finds it very easy
to not get upset or caught up in the anxiety
of the CS presentation.
The purpose of inoculation is to attempt to
make it so when the person is truly
presented with the CS they remember how
easy it was to resist the urges to react.
Generalization
• Because of stimulus generalization, the
CR can also be elicited by stimuli that are
similar to the CS.
• To train the animal to discriminate among
stimuli (to stop generalization)
• one stimulus (CS+) is presented with the US,
• while another (CS–) is presented without the
US.
Habituation
• Habituation
• Decrease of behavior in response to stimuli
after several presentations of the stimuli.
• The stimuli becomes familiar through
repeated exposure.
• Examples: tuning out a noise, decreasing a
fear, being around a familiar scent, what else?
• This can generalize to similar stimuli.
Dishabituation
A previously predictable stimulus changes,
causing the organism to renew its attention to
the stimulus. This is known as a spontaneous
recovery.
To reach habituation the stimulus must be
presented long enough.
Demonstrate with Klaus.
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner.
Deals with operants and respondents.
A method of learning that occurs through
reinforcements and punishments of
behaviors (very simple explanation).
https://youtu.be/H6LEcM0E0io
https://youtu.be/JA96Fba-WHk
Contingency Relationship
Respondents are behaviors that are not in
conscious control.
Operants are those under conscious
control.
Contingency is “if this happens, then this
will”, i.e.the cause and effect. This
describes the relationships between the
stimuli and responses.
This relationship tells you learning has
occurred.
Operants
• Operants are voluntary responses,
strengthened by reinforcement.
• But acquiring them may call for some initial
shaping. Shaping is gradually molding or
training an animal perform a desired response
by reinforcing this animal when they respond
how you want.
• successive approximations: a series of rewards
that provide positive reinforcement for behavior
change.
Shaping
Moving your respondent toward the
behavior you want them to exhibit or show.
Any movement toward that behavior is
reinforced similar to Big Bang video.
Successive approximations: the series of
reinforcing toward shaping.
https://youtu.be/k2QMnNcDd5k?list=PLkD
4keehfWSsfKKk4E1K1Rbxu61ZTHfoAcquistion is the learning or development
of a skill.
Schedules of Reinforcement
How you will reinforce to strengthen or
weaken a desired behavior. This is not the
same as reward.
Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement.
Define. Continuous is done after every
introduction of the stimulus. Partial is done
after partially or sometimes (every 4th time,
every 5 minutes).
Which is stronger in the long-term?
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Types of Reinforcement Schedules.
• schedule of reinforcement
• in ratio schedules, reinforcement after a number of
responses; the ratio used may be fixed or variable
• in interval schedules, reinforcers for the first
response made after a given interval (or time
frame such as every 5 minutes) since the last
reinforcement; this interval can be fixed or variable
These schedules can be FIXED or VARIABLE.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement
In Action
https://youtu.be/JA96Fba-WHk
Klaus Demonstration.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura.
Synopsis: People learn through observing
other people’s behavior or what is
modelled.
Integration of behavioral learning theory
and a cognitive learning theory (different
processes in learning can be explained by
analyzing mental processed first).
Social Learning Theory
4 requirements for learning: observing,
retaining, reproducing, and motivation.
https://youtu.be/-_U-pSZwHy8?list=PLqr46jOSoOwYdAOJHUHS4bhuY6G08sub
Observational Learning
• Many animals can learn simply by
example.
• vicarious conditioning; imitation
• The impact of media violence reminds us
that imitation can be a source of undesired
behaviors as well as a source of new
skills.
Thursday
Extra Credit.
Bring in a news article showing Classical
or Operant Conditioning in action.
OR
Train a person or a pet and discuss or
show with a brief video.
Varieties of Learning
• Evidence suggests animals are
biologically prepared to learn certain
relations more readily than others.
• Similar effects occur in instrumental
conditioning.
• Some responses are more readily
strengthened by some reinforcers than others.
Learning
Review.
Class Assignment on Schedules of
Reinforcement.
Dishabituation
A previously predictable stimulus changes,
causing the organism to renew its attention to
the stimulus. This is known as a spontaneous
recovery.
To reach habituation the stimulus must be
presented long enough.
Lets first look at Classical Conditioning.
Neural Basis of Learning
• The neural bases for learning involve
diverse mechanisms, such as:
• Creation of new synaptic connections.
• The brain as experience-dependent.
• Learning is a growth mind-set. Your ability to
learn and use information is not fixed.
Final Thoughts
• Lessons of learning mechanisms can be
practically used.
• Connections to biological and cognitive
mechanisms are very important.
Concept Quiz
1) According to learning theorists, most learning
depends on the mechanism of:
a)
b)
c)
d)
punishment.
insight.
association.
reasoning.
Concept Quiz
2) Imagine a classical conditioning experiment in
which you have participants suck on a lemon
(which causes puckering and salivating)
immediately after you touch the participant’s
arm. After many trials, the participants make a
puckered face and salivate when you touch
them on the arm. In this experiment, what is the
unconditioned stimulus?
a)
b)
c)
d)
the lemon
puckering and salivating
touching the arm
the participant
Concept Quiz
3) What is the “law of effect” in instrumental
conditioning?
a) If a response is followed by a reward, that
response will be strengthened.
b) If two stimuli are presented at the same time, an
association between the two will be created.
c) If an individual (or animal) observes a behavior,
that individual (or animal) is likely to imitate the
behavior.
d) There are biological constraints on which
behaviors an individual (or animal) can learn.
Concept Quiz
4) The neural mechanism of learning that
increases the responsiveness of a neuron is
called:
a)
b)
c)
d)
activation formation.
long-term potentiation.
action potential.
cortical remapping.
Video Clips
This concludes the presentation
slides for Chapter 7
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