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Šiška B. et al.: Environmental changes and adaptation strategies
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Earth Planet Climatography in the geological time scale
Jiří Nekovář, Pavel Kouba
Czech hydrometeorological Institute, Na Šabatce 17, 14306 Prague 4, Czech Republic
Abstract. After the formation of the Earth 4.56 billion years
ago by a number of unique circumstances and geological
processes transformed the planet capable of hosting life. The
oldest known forms of life appeared on Earth about 3.5
billion years ago. The story of human evolution begins
sometime before 7 million years and gives the scene a
number of species, of which our own, Homo sapiens is the
only one that survived. In short, is described by [1] the
creation of the atmosphere and oceans, plate tectonics and
life changing climate, oxygen isotopes, orbital cycles,
atmospheric composition, warm and cold periods, a large
current extinction of animals. The climate is evaluated in the
geological time scale [1]: archaikum, Cambrian, Ordovician,
Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic,
Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogene (Miocene,
Pliocene, Pleistocene and Holocene). Copyright
contribution is the evaluation of climate change for the
period of instrumental measurements of air temperature for
the past three centuries from 17 to 20th century.
Key words
climate change, geological formation, Earth.
Introduction
All weather [2] driven by energy from the sun, which warms
the air, land and sea. All moving air masses and currents,
which controls the wind and the rain. Weather occurs in the
troposphere, the layer closest to the Earth. Creating
ascending and descending air currents to move to give air
masses. Because Earth's axis is tilted, the heat from the sun is
not distributed evenly. Weather systems acting on the planet,
represent redistribution of heat between the equator and the
poles. Sun energy maintains the circulation in the
troposphere 5.6 quadrillion tons of air and 13 trillion tons of
water, mostly in the form of steam. All the 10 warmest years
occurred yet registered after 1990 and the global
temperature of 2005 is 0.6°C higher than in 1960. Weather
can be described as heating and cooling system of the Earth,
which is driven by the sun.
The troposphere is the lower edge of the atmosphere - the
thickest layer contains 80% of its weight. It starts at the
Earth's surface and the ends of about 8 km at the poles and
16 km at the equator. Height of troposphere [2] in the period
1979-1999 increased by about 200 ms largest increase at the
poles. The cause of the increasing buoyancy of hot air rising
from the surface of the planet due to global warming. 110
trillion tons of water annually falls on the Earth's surface in
rain and snow. It 70 trillion tons returns to the atmosphere by
direct evaporation and transpiration of plants. The
remaining water flows off the land into rivers and seas,
where it continues to evaporate from the surface of the water.
The sun is located about 150 million kilometers, to the
burning surface temperature is about 5500°C. Weather acts
as a central heating system. Sun adds fuel equatorial regions
of the Earth act as a boiler, a tropical oceans act as radiators,
pipes and poles, where snow and ice reflect some of the
sunlight back into space, such as safety valves. Earth's
climate functions as a continuous process attempts to strike a
balance between the hot and cold regions. Earth is tilted on
its axis by 23.5°, which causes the change of seasons.
Another factor is the natural greenhouse effect, the average
temperature of the Earth is about 15°C, which is about 33°C
higher than if the atmosphere did not exist. The temperature
in the troposphere decreases with height, decreases by about
1 ° C for every 150 m on top of the troposphere, the area
called the tropopause temperature is rarely higher than
-30° C.
Material and methods
The emergence of the atmosphere [1]: The current
atmosphere of high oxygen content is significantly different
from the original, which was made up of light gases
(hydrogen, helium) and other volatile components. The
initial atmosphere is created not long after the formation of
Earth, but it was in the later stages of the formation of the sun
torrents blow away the solar wind (constant stream of
electrically charged particles that are emitted by the sun).
During the further development of the Earth's body replaced
it stable secondary atmosphere. In turbulent volcanic
activity in the leaked huge amounts of volatile gases nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, ammonia, methane
and others that are present in lesser amounts. It is assumed
that oxygen is slowly increased due to photo-synthesizing
microorganisms which reshaped carbon dioxide. Cloud of
water vapor condense and rain water began to create the
surface water and the first oceans. Water ultraviolet
radiation digested hydrogen, oxygen and ozone.
The emergence of the oceans [1]: the Earth is between the
planets of our solar system unique by the fact that on its
surface is water. There is always an exchange of water
masses between the atmosphere and the huge surface
reservoirs, which are oceans, seas and lakes. Exchange
between the oceans and the atmosphere is essential for
climate and preservation of life on earth. Origin and
evolution of the oceans began during the first half billion
years of the Earth, where the planet's surface cooled enough
to allow the water to keep the liquid state and create coherent
mass. Water in young oceans reacted with carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere to form calcium carbonate and magnesium
carbonate which consists of limestone. In the first
weathering of rocks on land were taken away into the oceans
also soluble salts. Salty sea water existed 3.5 billion years
ago (as stromatolites structures of algae and cyanobacteria in
findings in Australia). Undersea volcanic activity before 3.8
billion years ago is documented in western Greenland. Tidal
waves on the coast Razel young Earth at speeds up to 480
km / h. By studying fossilized coral Devonian age (before
Šiška B. et al.: Environmental changes and adaptation strategies
about 400 million years ago), it was found that the year had
in Devon about 410 days. Since the size of the orbit around
the Sun remains the same, had to be Devonian day shorter
(only about 21 hours) and then the Earth rotates faster [1].
Plate tectonics and life [1]: movements of the tectonic
plates significantly influenced the development and
extension of life. Convergent movements meant
convergence and mutual rivalry, divergent contrary,
separation and independent evolution of the species in
different conditions. A large continent Gondwana break-up
was Pannotia in the Cambrian 542-488 million years ago [1].
The changing climate [1] in the Earth's climate has changed
over time. The cold period, with extensive polar ice sheets
are, alternated with warm, almost the polar ice caps.
Long-term climate changes are probably caused by the
movement of continents, volcanic activity and changes in
ocean currents. Short-term changes may be related to
changes in the Earth's orbit around the sun and variations in
the content of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere [1].
Orbital cycles [1] Over time, reflected several factors that
affect the amount of solar energy falling on the earth's
surface and thus the climate. Seems to be changed at regular
intervals of Milankovic cycles. The shape of Earth's orbit
around the Sun varies by approximately circular for slightly
elliptical in cycles lasting about 90 to 120 thousand and 413
thousand years. The shape of the orbit is changing by the
gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn - it affects the
amount of solar radiation and the length of seasons. In
addition, the slope of the earth's axis between 21.8 to 24.40.
At maximum tilt of 24.40, the amount of solar energy falling
in the summer increases, while during the winter and reduces
cold. The Earth's axis also carries a circular (oscillatory)
motion called precession due to the gravitational effects of
the sun, the moon, Jupiter and Saturn. The cycle takes
26,000 years and change it insolation and the length of
seasons [1].
The composition of the atmosphere [1]: Milankovic
cycles are the external cause of climate change, but they can
also be caused by a variety of terrestrial factors. One of them
is the so-called greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide,
methane and water vapor; absorb the thermal infrared
radiation emitted by the Earth's surface, which can then
escape into space. With the increase in the content of the
atmosphere warms. Changes in the concentration of these
gases in the atmosphere are particularly influenced by
biological processes, volcanic activity and weathering of
rocks on the planet's surface. Living organisms produce and
consume carbon dioxide during respiration and
photosynthesis. A large amountof it is released into the air
during volcanic eruptions, while pumped by reaction with
water and rocks are formed when carbonate minerals.
Analyses of air bubbles enclosed in the ice of Antarctica
shows the close relationship between air temperature and
carbon dioxide levels for the last four glacial periods.
General circulation of the oceans distributes heat and
moisture in the atmosphere and affects climate. Surface
water tropical oceans heated by solar radiation is shifted
towards the poles at high altitudes geographic heats the
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mainland and from them it heats the air above them. Western
and Northern Europe is thus heated warm Gulf Stream. If
this current disappeared or changed its direction, then in
these areas there were much colder winters than it is today.
The system of ocean currents is influenced by the placement
of continents and oceans on earth. Any change caused by the
movement of tectonic plates then constitutes interference
with the global climate [1].
Warm and cold periods: the geological history of the Earth
had many very warm "greenhouse" period and little or no
glaciers in both polar regions. For this period was [1]
characterized by an increased content of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere. Due to the warm climate in the polar regions
are also able to create large dry areas around the equator and
broad shallow sea. During the history of the Earth is
constantly repeated cold climatic fluctuations lasting
millions of years. In prekambium we have evidence of at
least two distinct cold periods in which glaciation reached
up to equatorial regions (the "Countries such as snowball").
The last ice age ended just before 11 thousand years ago.
Fossils show how quick and drastic climate changes
associated with ice ages influenced not only living
organisms, as well as sea level or the landscape [1].
Large extinctions [1]: Over the past 540 million years there
was at least five major extinction event. Among the most
significant are dying at the end of the Permian about 251
million years ago (96% of extinct marine species, 70% of
species of terrestrial vertebrates and 83% of insect species),
from which the life of recovering the next 100 million years.
The most famous extinction at the end of the Cretaceous (65
million years ago, dinosaurs became extinct, many
marine reptiles, flying lizards, pterosaurs, and many groups
of invertebrates) was probably caused by a meteorite (the
size of about 10 km with creating a crater 240 km in the Gulf
of Mexico) and intense volcanic activity. Volcanic gases
(mainly carbon dioxide) can cause short-term local warming,
acidification of rain in the medium term, the reduction of
ozone and long-term global warming. Other important
factors include changes in circulation in the oceans and
atmosphere, ice or impacts of extraterrestrial bodies. Even
older mass extinction at the end of the Ordovician occurred
due to significant fluctuations in sea levels, caused by the
growth and melting of polar ice caps [1].
The current extinction [1]: Since the end of the last ice age,
most of the large land animals disappeared, with the
exception of Africa. The changing climate has led to the
extinction of animals adapted to cold climates, such as
mammoths, rhinos and giant furry deer. However, it was
found that their extinction in many areas related to the
emergence of modern humans [1].
Archaikum represents [1] in the Earth's history, from 4 to
2.5 billion years before nowadays. At the beginning of this
eon the planet was subjected to numerous collisions, known
as "the great bombardment" by comets and asteroids. The
end of the Archaic on the other hand connected with a strong
oxygenation of the atmosphere that its fundamental nature
has changed forever. It is assumed that most of the Archaic
terrestrial atmosphere free of oxygen in its composition
prevailing nitrogen, methane and carbon dioxide. The sun
Šiška B. et al.: Environmental changes and adaptation strategies
was at that time much weaker and came out of him on earth
less radiation. Were it not for greenhouse gases, the Earth
would be a frozen ball of rock. In the early Archaic times
because of these greenhouse gases created by warm global
climate, air temperature so they can move up in the range of
55-80° C. This could also correspond to high water
temperatures in the oceans. The only living organisms that
have managed in such a warm and salty environment to
survive, the thermophilic anaerobic bacteria and Archaea.
Although it appears that the former climate was very warm,
while about 2.9 billion years ago there was a short-term,
however, a drastic drop in temperature, and the country is so
spread first iceberg. The geological evidence shows that in
the last few hundred million years of the Archaic
temperatures returned to baseline values high. Volcanoes,
including submarine, releasing quantities of hot gases that
have shaped the Earth's atmosphere [1].
Neogen started [1] 23,030,000 years ago; divided into
Miocene (before 23.03 to 5,332 million years), followed by
Pliocene to 2,588,000 years and Pleistocene to 0,011,700
years. Before the Holocene began 11,700 years ago [1]. In
the older Neogene already under way flow of the Antarctic
circumpolar current which isolated the cold region of the
continent. Cooling seawater is also reflected in the
composition of the sediments, calcareous because they are
replaced by silica. 12 to 14 million years before the global
temperature dropped and East Antarctic glaciation expanded
further. Temperature of the ocean waters has decreased in
the polar region while at lower latitudes remained around
22-24 ° C. 15 million years ago evolved in low latitudes arid
savannah vegetation. At the end of the Miocene polar cap
increased and its area was larger than today. About 5.2 and
4.8 million years occurred two significant glaciation periods
lasting about 15,000 years. In the North Pole, the ice still did
not create the year. In colder periods decreasing sea level
due to the fact that more water was trapped in polar ice. In
the older Pliocene, the climate warmed for a short time, but
then again colder and began to create glaciation in the
Northern Hemisphere. A decrease in sea levels before 5.7
million years there has been isolation of the Mediterranean
Sea, which partially dried up, leaving a powerful salt deposit.
5 million years ago opened the Strait of Gibraltar. Core
samples of ice in the polar caps and the deep sea sediments
provide evidence of paleoclimate. Despite a changing
climate, the content of CO2 in the atmosphere Neogene
relatively stable [1].
Results and disscussion
Fig. 1 represents [1] percentage of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere during the history of the planet. [1] The highest
levels were found in the Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian,
the lowest in younger Carboniferous and Permian. Even
though the content of the gas and air temperature on Earth
has a very significant correlation, it is important to realize
that the "greenhouse" parameter is more. The production of
methane from the depths of the sea, eventually of permafrost,
eruptive emissions from volcanic activity, supported or vice
versa restrictions against vital signs biodiversity of the seas
and oceans are also very important. People contribute to the
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production of CFCs, which luckily managed to limit, as well
as production of gas from the land transport and destruction
of the biosphere leakage of oil spills, controlled exclusively
by the laws of the global market acts of destruction and the
destruction of the natural environment - sick restrictions
against nature then has indeed lost its defensive
mechanisms.
Figure1. Carbondioxide
formations
share
during
geological
Fig. 2 documents [1] great significance of the relationship
between carbon dioxide and the ambient temperature. The
temperature is shown in the blue line, a red gas content.
Changes in the content of the gas can be determined by
analysis of the air bubbles enclosed in ice. The chart was
compiled from the values obtained from the drilling cores in
Antarctica. Listed are four glacial period in the last 420,000
years [1]. It can be observed that the trend towards global
warming in all cases was stronger and the temperature drop
slowly.
Figure2. Relationship between carbondioxide (red line)
and temperature (blue line)
Earth's climate has always been in a state of movement,
whether due to short-term changes in the duration of months
or years, or longer-term cycles. Serbian mathematician
Milutin Milanković formulated in 1920 glacial cycle. Over
about 100,000 years the Earth's orbit gradually changes from
circular to slightly elliptical and back, and tilt the Earth's
axis will change in about 41,000 years. The axis also
wobbles with a period of about every 21,000 years.
During the last Ice Age Mediterranean was wet and cold, the
Sahara was covered in lush vegetation and tropical were
colder and drier than today. On earth was bound in ice water
so that the sea level dropped about 120 to 140 meters. Great
Britain and Ireland were linked with Europe dry land, as well
as Asia, North America territories, which today form the
Bering Strait. Ice Age ended about 12,000 years ago, when
the Earth warmed and the ice melted. Climate rapidly passed
from extreme cold to extreme heat. At one stage, the average
temperature in southern Greenland for nearly 50 years has
increased by 7 oC. About eight to six thousand years the
climate has allowed the development of agriculture in the
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Middle East and its spread to southern Europe and Asia.
In the early 14th century, the climate was suddenly colder
and wetter it. Little Ice Age lasted about 500 years. The
average temperature in the northern hemisphere dropped by
about 1°C, which led to a process of glaciers, disease and
migration. In the second half of the 19th century was still
milder climate, but even wetter. Obvious warming occurred
between the years 1895 to 1940, followed by cooling of the
1940 and 1970s. Then the climate is warmer, especially
since the mid-eighties of the 20th century.
Earth's climate over millions of years, the natural cycles of
freezing and thawing, but the prognosis of future climate we
unfortunately have to include a new phenomenon - the
influence of mankind. Because of pollution of air, soil, water
terrestrial surface and groundwater water seas and oceans is
the temperature change of environment (milieu). The
atmosphere was always present main gases - water vapor,
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The problem is
that people are uncoordinated produce excessive amounts,
thereby increasing the ability of the atmosphere to attract the
thermal energy.
The greenhouse effect is not the only factor influencing
climate of the Earth. Wide-ranging effect may cause a slight
change in the energy emitted by the Sun. Another factor is
the geological conditions of the planet. The slow movement
of the continents either přehrazuje ocean currents, or turn
stimulates the formation of new ones. Volcanic eruptions (eg
Thera-Santorini 1620 years BC, 79 AD Vesuvius,
Tambora-Indonesia 1815 StHelene 1980, Pinatubo 1991)
result in numerous short-term climate changes. Periodicals
extraordinary influence on the global climate phenomenon
El Niño in the Pacific, fluctuations in water temperatures in
the North Atlantic (Atlantic multi-cascade oscillations),
there is concern with the weakening of the Gulf Stream,
important for the climate of Europe.
The global temperature has risen since the sixties of the 19th
century by 0.6° C. The climate of the country is so finely
balanced, and that this increase destabilized conditions on
the planet. The Himalayas are shrinking 95% of the glaciers
in the Alps and the Caucasus all. In the Andes, a glacier Pio
Onze tends to grow, Perito Moreno is stable, but the vast
majority of others (eg Martial Glacier Ushuaia, Upsala at
Lago Argentina) are declining sharply. Larsen Glacier in
Antarctica disappears significantly from year to year. The
tendency of global warming is not evenly distributed around
the globe. Inuit in the Arctic observed in the darkest part of
the year across the horizon rainbow consisting of a thin strip
of blue, pink and red lights shortage caused by global
warming. Ice cover of the Arctic Ocean for thirty years
dwindled for three to two meters and annual decreases of
area about the size of the Netherlands. There is concern that
the rapid surge of cold fresh water from the melting ice could
stop the Gulf Stream and plunge Europe into northwestern
Arctic winters. The average temperature in the Arctic has
increased over the last 50 years by 3-4 ° C, the major
Canadian lakes by 2°C and the Antarctic Peninsula by 2.5°C.
There are receding glaciers and bare rocks are fitted in green
plants. Over the last 30 years extensive Self ice came area of
12500 km2. Almost all the 244 glaciers on the peninsula are
receding at an accelerating pace. Fortunately, in the middle
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of the Antarctic continent (South Pole) is the temperature
trend reversed.
Over the past 50 years, the world ocean level increased by
1.8 mm per year over the last 20 years, the pace accelerated
to about 3 mm per year. In the Pacific islands lying low over
the water begin to disappear under water and their
inhabitants call the alarm. Whale Skate Island in the
Hawaiian archipelago disappeared in 2004. Numerous
animals are rapidly changing environmental conditions and
for certain types of changes are liquidating. This varies
much diodiversity and food chains, including following the
person. Also moving species to areas with higher latitudes
and altitudes is often documented. The time shift of the onset
of spring in plants and animals is fenology frequently
recorded.
Conclusions
All recorded applies to the Central European region
including the Czech Republic. Shift the onset of spring
phenological phases virtually all monitored plants is
documented, among other things, in the recent atlas [5]
Czech phenological conditions and a number of other [3,4]
Central European and other works by authors from the
northern hemisphere. The same tendency is documented
including Bauer and Lipina [6] in zoocenologie birds.
Man and his activities are not the only cause of current
climate change, but this species could and should be able to
provide this addition of his (added value) by limiting their
destructive activities qualitatively and quantitatively. Causes
of terrestrial (movement of continents, volcanic activity) as
well as solar energy can not blame a man, but pollution of
the natural environment caused by the activities of many
unwise Homo sapiens yes. Disposing of a healthy milieu (air,
water, soil, underground, seas and oceans), not only for the
human environment, but also for other users of the globe is
undoubtedly reprehensible in every respect. Plundering of
natural wealth accumulated under the pretext of releasing
the invisible hand of the market chain would not only
backfired unfortunately this species.
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