Download Outline three principles that define the cognitive level of analysis

Outline three principles that define the cognitive level of analysis and
explain how these principles may be demonstrated in research (that is,
theories and/or studies).
This paper will outline three principles of the cognitive level of analysis: That
mental representations guide behavior, that models of psychological processes can be
proposed, and that cognitive processes are influenced by cultural factors. It will then
explain each of these three with reference to research studies and theories.
1st Principle: “Mental Representations Guide Behavior”
There have been several theories that explain different mental representations
that guide behaviors, but the one that really stands out is by Piaget (1926) and his
schema theory. He first coined the term “schema” based on his research into how
children's thinking or ‘cognition’ developed. Piaget noted that all the babies were born
with similar biological ‘equipment’ or ‘structures’ (e.g. the brain, the senses & reflexes).
Since the infants are born with a set of reflexes (e.g. sucking and grasping) and innate
schema (e.g. recognition of faces), he called the psychological structures that contain
this knowledge ‘schemas’. An example of an innate schema would be a mental
representation of a human face presented by Fantz (1961) who proved that humans are
born with an innate ability to recognize faces, clearly demonstrating that mental
representations guide behavior. Piaget proposed that these ‘schemas’ developed
through the process of assimilation and accommodation. When new information fits
directly with knowledge in existing schemas, assimilation occurs, and when schemas
need to be modified and adapted based on new information, accommodation occurred.
There is a lot or experimental evidence to support schema theory, such as Bartlett’s
(1932) study on the influence of cultural schemas, and Loftus and Palmer’s (1974)
experiment on reconstructive memory. This research shows how memory is
reconstructive and based on schema processing. These mental representations shape
the way in which we interpret the world and they guide our behavior.
2nd Principle ‘Models of Psychological Processes can be Proposed’
Two influential models of memory have be developed by cognitive psychologists, based
on experimental research into this cognitive process. Below are two examples of models
of psychological processes proposed by the cognitive level of analysis.
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) created the Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM). They
proposed that external stimuli from the environment first enters the sensory memory
where they can be registered for very brief periods of time before decaying or being
passed on to the short term memory (STM). They believe that memory traces in the
STM are encoded in the form of sound (acoustic) and without rehearsal, the memory
becomes fragile and is lost within 30 seconds. However, material that is rehearsed is
passed on to long-term memory (LTM) where the material can remain for a lifetime. The
encoding of material in the LTM is assumed to be in terms of meaning (semantic). Each
of the three main areas within the multi-store model of memory, sensory memory, STM
and LTM, has their own encoding, capacity and duration. This model was based on
experimental research that has supported the idea that each main area had their
individual encoding, capacity and duration. Such as, Miller (1956) did an experiment on
chunking and the limited capacity of STM (7+/- 2 Chunks). Peterson and Peterson (1958)
did a laboratory experiment on the duration of STM, and found it limited to around 30
seconds when rehearsal is prevented. Furthermore Bahrick et al. (1975) did an
experiment on the duration of the Very Long Term Memory, investigating participants
recall of their high school classmates from their yearbook. All these studies have helped
to further strengthening the MSM. Even though this model does have its limitations, it
terms of it being too simplistic, and not offering a full explanation of the complexity of
memory. However, it clearly highlights the principle the above principle.
Moreover, Craik and Lockhart (1972) developed the Level of Processing (LOP) Model of
Memory. The model is separated into three levels of processing that determines the
strength of the memory trace and the length of time which the memory is retained. The
first level (structural) has the weakest memory trace and yields short term retention –
this level is basically when one recognizes the form of the stimuli. The second level
(acoustic) is what the stimuli sounds like – yielding a stronger memory trace compared
to structural memories, but not the strongest memory trace. The third and final stage
(semantic) is when one understands the meaning of the stimuli – leading to long-term
retention of the memory. Research that supports the LOP is Elias and Perfetti’s (1973)
which supported the idea of semantic memories being the strongest formed and
retained (compared to acoustic and structural). Hyde and Jenkins (1973) experiment
supports the idea that the intention to learn has no effect on memories retained or
learning that takes place, and that they also found that depth of processing determines
retention. However, there is conflicting research by Tyler et al (1979) who suggests that
effort is a factor in what memories are retained, and Palmere et al (1983) suggests
elaboration on certain information would cause an individual to be more likely to
remember.
Overall, this research into memory that has both supported and refuted both models of
memory has helped us in further understanding the complexity of the human condition
and behavior. Furthermore, it also clearly demonstrates a key principle of the cognitive
level of analysis, which is that models of psychological processes can be proposed.
3rd Principle ‘Cognitive Processes are influenced by Cultural Factors’
Herskovits (1948) defined culture as the human made part of the environment. A key
principle of the cognitive LOA is that culture influences cognitive process, and this will be
demonstrated in the research into memory. It is said that the ability to remember is
universal. Since most cognitive research is done in Western countries, it is biased. It
assumes universal laws that all humans all over the world, regardless of culture, would
perform the same cognitive tasks with the same results. Yet when researchers
performed test with participants in non-Western countries, the results were different
and they performed poorly. The tests were not valid when applied in other cultures. In
order for research to be truly representative of all humans, it is necessary to conduct
research on people of various cultures to fully understand how culture affects behavior.
Biased conclusions to cross cultural research have assumed that people of other
cultures are better in general due to results of a particular memory task. However, these
researches were not embedded or contextualized in the culture of the participants,
meaning they were unable to fully understand and participate properly.
Cole & Scribner (1978) carried out a cross cultural study aiming to investigate memory
strategies in different cultures. They compared recall of a series of words in the US and
the Kpelle children of Liberia. They did not use the same list of words in the two
countries, so they observed everyday cognitive activities in Liberia helping them to
develop memory experiments with relevant tasks. The words they used were familiar to
the participants. They first asked Liberian children from different age groups to recall as
many items as possible from four categories: Utensils, Clothes, Tools and Vegetables.
Then they varied the recall task so that the objects were now presented in a meaningful
way as part of narrative. Their findings showed striking cultural differences in the way
the Kpelle people remembered and solved the problems in the experiments.
The researchers found that children who attended school for several years recalled
more after practice just as rapidly as the US children, and they used a similar strategy
based on the similarity of the objects. The non-schooled children did not improve their
performance on free recall tasks after the age of 10. They remembered around 10 items
and only remembered two more after 15 trials. Their analysis is that illiterate children
did not use strategies such as chunking or rehearsal. However, in the second study, they
found that the illiterate children recalled the objects easily and actually chunked them
according to the roles they played in the story.
Cole and Scribner concluded that memory is influenced by the cultural context in which
people live. We can say that the ability to remember is universal but the strategies in
different cultures used in everyday lives to remember are not. Formal schooling helps
children in organizing information while traditional societies like the Kpelle or Mayan
have a different way of handling information. Traditional cultures do not emphasize on
organizing skills, so they don’t perform as well on tests but their performance increases
when memory tasks are contextualized. These findings clearly demonstrate the principle
that culture influences cognitive processes.
In conclusion, these three principles are central to research at the cognitive LOA, and
are clearly demonstrated in the above studies and theory.