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Anatomy and Physiology II Outline
This is the outline I use for my lectures in A&PII. Use your own lecture notes, this
outline and the objectives after each section in the outline as a study guide. You might
find it helpful to put your own notes into outline order. Test questions will come from
material covered in lecture.
Chapters, but not specific pages are referenced on the course syllabus to help you locate
and read about the material covered in class. It is best to at least look over the material
before you come to class so that you are familiar with the topics I will be covering. Other
review and practice materials will be discussed in class.
Chapter 2 is a good review of basic chemistry. Chapter 3 is a good review of the cell. I
will expect that you understand the structure and function of the plasma membrane and
that you are familiar with biologically important ions and molecules.
I. The Endocrine System
A. Introduction
1. Components
2. Major Functions (General)
3. Control of Hormone Release – humoral, neural, hormonal
B. Hormones
1. Chemistry
a. amino acid based molecules
b. steroids
c. prostaglandins etc.
2. Mechanisms of Hormone Action
a. second messenger (ex. cAMP)
b. direct gene activation
3. The Target Cell
C. The Pituitary Gland
1. Location
2. Major Lobes
3. Relationship to Hypothalamus
a. posterior lobe
b. anterior lobe
4. Hormones of the Anterior Lobe
a. list of hormones
b. TH as an example
5. Hormones Stored in the Posterior Lobe
D. Selected hormones
Objectives
1. Describe the components, general function and characteristics of control of the
endocrine system.
2. Define hormone and list the two major chemical classes of hormones.
3. Define target cell and discuss the location, function and importance of the target cells
4. Describe, compare and contrast the two basic mechanisms of hormone action.
5. Locate and describe the pituitary gland, with particular attention to its relationship to
the hypothalamus.
6. List the hormones of the pituitary gland and their general functions.
II. Heart
A. General Pathway of Blood Through the Heart
B. Anatomy - Briefly
1. Size and Location
2. Coverings
a. parietal pericardium
b. visceral pericardium (epicardium)
3. Wall
a. epicardium
b. myocardium
c. endocardium
d. fibrous "skeleton" of the heart
4. Chambers, Valves and Great Vessels
a. chambers
b. valves
c. great vessels
5. Function of the Valves
a. atrioventricular valves
b. semilunar valves
6. Specific Pathway of Blood through the Heart
a. pulmonary circuit
b. systemic circuit
7. Coronary Circulation - briefly
C. Microscopic Anatomy of Cardiac Muscle
1. General Appearance of Cardiac Muscle
2. Intercalated Discs
D. Physiology of Cardiac Muscle Contraction
1. Contraction Mechanism
a. energy requirements
b. events of contraction
c. other comments
- refractory period
- automaticity
- rhythmicity
2. Conduction System of Heart
a. necessity
b. generation of action potentials
c. sequence of excitation
- SA node
- AV node
- AV bundle
- bundle branches
- Purkinje fibers
3. Cardiac Cycle
a. definition
b. period of ventricular filling
c. ventricular systole
d. isovolumetric relaxation
4. Cardiac Output
a. definition
b. cardiac reserve
c. regulation of stroke volume
- end diastolic volume
- end systolic volume
- Frank-Starling Law of the Heart
d. regulation of heart rate
- autonomic nervous system
- chemical regulation
- physical factors
Objectives
1. Locate the heart in the thorax and describe its size and shape.
2. Name the coverings of the heart
3. Describe the function and structure of the three layers of the heart wall and the fibrous
skeleton of the heart.
4. Trace the pathway of blood through the heart, including valves and great vessels.
5. Describe the structure and function of the chambers and valves of the heart.
6. Describe the structure and events of contraction of cardiac muscle; compare and
contrast to skeletal muscle.
7. Explain the structure, function and importance of the conduction system in the heart.
8. Describe the cardiac cycle. Relate to volume and pressure changes, valve activities, the
ECG and heart sounds.
9. Define stroke volume and cardiac reserve. Discuss factors involved in regulation of
stroke volume and heart rate.
10. Describe the role of the autonomic nervous system in regulation of cardiac
output.
III. Blood Vessels
A. Introduction
1. Major Types of Vessels See handout for details.
2. General Structure of Vessel Walls
B. Circulatory Physiology
1. Definitions
a. blood flow
b. blood pressure
c. peripheral resistance
2. Relationship between F, P and R
3. Systemic Blood Pressure
a. systolic
b. diastolic
c. mean arterial pressure
4. Pressure Changes in Systemic Circulation
a. systemic pressure gradient
b. factors affecting venous return
5. Factors Affecting Pressure
a. cardiac output and resistance
b. blood volume
c. regulation
- autonomic nervous system
- chemical controls
- renal regulation
6. Blood Flow
a. distribution at rest and during exercise
b. velocity
c. autoregulation
- metabolic
- myogenic
- long-term
C. Capillary Dynamics
1. Capillary Exchange
2. Bulk Flow
a. pressures involved and direction of movement
Objectives
1. Describe the structure of the walls of blood vessels.
2. Relate the structure of arteries and arterioles to their functions.
3. Relate the structure of veins to their functions.
4. Compare and contrast arteries and veins.
5. Describe types of capillaries and a capillary bed.
6. Explain the relationship between flow, pressure and resistance.
7. Explain the mechanism of action of factors that affect blood pressure.
8. Describe the regulation of blood pressure.
9. Describe regulation of blood flow.
10. Explain capillary dynamics. Given pressures, be able to predict direction of flow.
IV. Blood
A. General Characteristics
1. Tissue Type and Components
2. Physical Characteristics
B. Functions
C. Formed Elements
1. Erythrocytes (RBCs)
a. structure
b. number
c. function
d. production - briefly
e. regulation
f. fate and destruction
2. Leukocytes (WBCs)
a. general characteristics
b. granulocytes
- neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils
c. agranulocytes
- lymphocytes
- monocytes
3. Thrombocytes (Platelets)
a. production and numbers
b. role
D. Plasma
1. General Characteristics of Plasma
2. The Plasma Proteins
a. general characteristics
b. examples
E. Hemostasis
1. Vascular Spasms
2. Platelet Plug
3. Blood Clotting or Coagulation
a. general comments
b. the general mechanism
c. extrinsic pathway
d. intrinsic pathway
4. Clot Retraction and Fibrinolysis
5. Limits to Clot Growth
Objectives
1. Describe the general composition of whole blood. Explain why it is classified as
connective tissue.
2. List the functions of blood.
3. Describe the structure, function and production of erythrocytes.
4. Describe the classes and functions of leukocytes.
5. Describe the formation, structure and role of platelets.
6. Compare and contrast RBCs and WBCs.
7. Describe the composition and function of plasma.
8. Name and give the function of the major plasma proteins.
9. Describe the three processes involved in hemostasis.
10. Write out the general mechanism for clotting.
11. Give general descriptions of the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways. Discuss how they
are similar and how they differ. (You do not need to memorize all the steps to these
two pathways.)
12. Explain what limits clot growth, dissolves clots and prevents formation of unwanted
clots.
V. Lymphatic and Immune Systems - A Brief Introduction
A. Components of the Lymphatic S ystem – Lecture may be in lab .
1. Lymphatic Vessels
a. Structure of the vessels
b. Fluid movement in the vessels
c. Circulation pattern of lymph
2. Lymph Nodes
a. Structure
b. Circulation through lymph nodes.
c. Function
3. Other Lymphoid Organs
a. The spleen
b. Thymus
c. Tonsils
d. Peyer’s patches
B. An Introduction to the Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Body Defenses
C. Innate Body Defenses - Briefly
1. Surface Membrane Barriers
2. Natural killer (NK) cells
3. Inflammation
4. Interferon and Pyrogens
5. Complement
D. Adaptive Body Defenses
1. Introduction
a. functions
b. characteristics
c. subdivisions - the humoral (B cell) and cell-mediated (T cell) response
2. The Nature of Antigens
3. Cells of the Adaptive Immune System
a. B cells and T cells
- source of cells - hemocytoblast
- self-tolerance and immunocompetence
b. Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs)
- dendritic cells
- macrophages
- B cells
4. Humoral Response
a. clonal selection
b. memory and the primary and secondary response
c. active and passive immunity
d. antibody classes
e. antibody targets and functions
5. Cell-Mediated Response
a. MHC restriction and co-stimulation
b. cytotoxic T cell activation and role
c. helper T cell activation and role
E. Hypersensitivities
1. Immediate
2. Delayed
Objectives
1. Distinguish between innate and adaptive defenses.
2. Describe the basic components of the innate defense system.
3. List the classic signs of inflammation and give the reasons for each.
4. Discuss the role of the macrophage in innate and adaptive responses.
5. Compare and contrast humoral and cell mediated immunity.
6. Describe activation of B cells. Discuss the role of plasma cells and memory cells.
7. Explain what makes a good antigen and give examples.
8. List and describe the 5 classes of antibodies.
9. Compare and contrast the primary and secondary immune responses.
10. Distinguish between active and passive immunity.
11. Briefly describe the activation and roles of helper and cytotoxic T cells.
12. Explain the difference between the two types of hypersensitivity reactions. Give an
example of each.
VI. Respiratory System
A. Introduction
1. Function
2. Events
a. pulmonary ventilation
b. external respiration
c. gas transport
d. internal respiration
3. Functional Anatomy
a. conducting zone
b. respiratory zone
B. Brief Anatomy and Physiology of the Conducting Zone
1. Nose
2. Pharynx
3. Larynx
4. Trachea
5. Bronchi
6. The Mucociliary Escalator
C. Respiratory Zone Structures
1. Respiratory Bronchioles
2. Alveolar Ducts
3. Alveolar Sacs and Alveoli
4. The Respiratory Membrane
D. Gross Anatomy of the Lungs
E. Mechanics of Breathing
1. Pressures in the Thorax
a. intrapulmonary
b. intrapleural
2. Boyle's Law and Breathing
a. Boyle's Law
b. inspiration
c. expiration
3. Physical Considerations
a. resistance
b. alveolar surface tension
c. compliance and elasticity
F. Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
G. Minute Respiratory Volume and Alveolar Ventilation Rate
1. MRV
2. Alveolar Ventilation Rate
H. Gas Exchange
1. Composition of Air and Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
2. Composition of Gases in Alveoli
3. External Respiration
4. Internal Respiration
I. Gas Transport in Blood
1. Oxygen
a. dissolved in plasma
b. associated with Hb
c. factors affecting binding of oxygen and Hb
2. Carbon Dioxide
a. dissolved in plasma
b. carbamino hemoglobin
c. bicarbonate
J. Control
1. Neural
2. Chemical
Objectives
1. List the organs of the respiratory system and distinguish between conducting and
respiratory zones. Relate structure to function.
2. Describe the general functions of the respiratory system.
3. Describe the structure of the respiratory membrane. Relate to function.
4. Describe the structure of the lungs and pleurae. Relate to function.
5. Describe the mechanics of breathing. Include quiet breathing and forced inspiration
and expiration. Relate to Boyle's Law
6. Describe the physical factors that influence pulmonary ventilation.
7. Define dead space and relate it to alveolar ventilation rate. Be able to calculate MRV
and alveolar ventilation rate given the appropriate information.
8. Describe the difference in composition between atmospheric and alveolar air.
9. Use Dalton's Law to explain external and internal respiration.
10. Compare and contrast the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.
11. Describe factors that affect oxygen loading and unloading.
12. Describe the neural and chemical controls of respiration.
VII. Digestive System
A. Overview
1. Organs (In Lab)
a. alimentary canal
b. accessory organs
B. Basic Plan of Digestive System
1. Peritoneum
2. Basic Structure of Wall of Alimentary Canal
a. mucosa
b. submucosa
c. muscularis
d. serosa or adventitia (visceral peritoneum)
C. Mouth
1. Basic Anatomy and Function
a. Oral cavity
b. Tongue
c. Teeth
- primary dentition and permanent dentitions
d. Salivary glands
2. Mechanical Digestive Processes
a. Chewing
b. Formation of bolus
c. Initiation of swallowing - voluntary phase
3. Chemical Processes
D. Pharynx and Esophagus
1. Anatomy
2. Mechanical Processes - Swallowing
E. Stomach
1. Anatomy and Function
2. Mechanical Processes
a. Churning and peristalsis
b. Stimulation of Gastric Secretion
-cephalic (reflex) phase
- gastric phase
- intestinal phase
c. Inhibition of Gastric Secretion
d. Gastric Motility and Emptying
3. Chemical Processes
F. Small Intestine
1. Anatomy and Function
2. Accessory Organs
a. Liver anatomy and function
b. Pancreas anatomy and function
3. Mechanical Processes
a. Segmentation
b. Peristalsis
4. Chemical Processes and Absorption
a. Carbohydrates
b. Proteins
c. Triglycerides
G. Large Intestine
1. Anatomy and Function
2. Mechanical Processes
a. Motility
b. Defecation
Objectives
1. List the organs of the digestive system and give their general functions.
2. Describe the generalized structure of the GI tract wall.
3. Describe the physiology of digestion, including the mechanical aspects, nervous
control and hormonal control. Be able to describe complete digestion and absorption
of carbohydrates, proteins and triglycerides (neutral fats). Describe how the products
of digestion get into the bloodstream.
4. Describe optimal conditions in the small intestine.
5. Describe vitamin absorption if we cover it in class.
6. Relate the structures of the stomach and the small intestine to their functions.
7. Describe the roles of saliva, HCl, bile and bicarbonate in digestion.
8. Describe the major functions of the large intestine.
9. Describe the enterogastric and defecation reflexes.
VIII. The Urinary System
A. Introduction
1. Components
2. Functions
a. excretion
b. blood volume/chemistry regulation/gluconeogenesis
c. renin
d. erythropoietin
e. activation of vitamin D
B. Kidney Anatomy
1. Location
2. External Anatomy
3. Internal Anatomy
a. renal cortex
b. renal medulla
c. renal pelvis
4. Blood Supply
5. Nerves
6. The Nephron
a. components
b. microscopic anatomy
c. types of nephrons
7. Collecting Ducts
8. Capillary Beds
a. glomerular
b. peritubular
c. the vasa recta
9. Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
a. location
b. structure
c. function
C. Kidney Physiology
1. Glomerular Filtration
a. filtration membrane
b. net filtration pressure (NFP)
c. glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
2. Regulation
a. myogenic mechanism
b. renin-angiotensin mechanism
c. tubulo-glomerular feedback mechanism
d. sympathetic nervous system stimulation
3. Tubular Resorption
a. active
b. passive
c. nonresorbed substances
d. absorption in different regions of renal tubule
- PCT
- loop of Henle
- DCT
4. Tubular Secretion
5. Regulation of Urine Concentration and Volume
a. review of osmolality
b. medullary osmotic gradient (briefly)
c. formation of dilute urine
d. formation of concentrated urine
D. Acid-Base Balance (Selected Parts)
1. blood buffer systems
2. role of the respiratory system
3. role of the kidney
a. hydrogen ion secretion
b. conservation of bicarbonate
c. buffering of hydrogen ions in filtrate
Objectives
1. Describe the gross anatomy of the kidney. List its functions.
2. Trace the blood supply through the kidney.
3. Describe the nephron and explain the formation of filtrate.
4. Explain what happens to the filtrate in each section.
5. Explain how dilute and concentrated urine are formed. (Have a general
understanding of the countercurrent mechanism and the medullary gradient.)
6. Describe the maintenance of the correct acid-base balance.
IX. Reproductive System
A. Embryology
1. The Indifferent Stage
2. Differentiation
B. Puberty in Males and Females
C. Human Male
1. Male Structure
a. testes
b. duct system
- epididymis
- ductus deferens
- ejaculatory duct
- urethra
c. penis
d. accessory glands
- seminal vesicles
- prostate gland
- bulbourethral glands
e. semen
2. Spermatogenesis
a. Location
b. Process
c. Sustentacular Cells
d. Spermiogenesis and the Mature Spermatozoa
e. Hormonal Control
D. Human Female
1. Structures
a. ovaries
b. uterine tubes
c. uterus
d. vagina
e. external genitalia
f. mammary glands
2. Oogenesis
a. Events During Fetal Development
b. Events after Puberty
1. ovarian cycle
- follicular phase
- ovulatory phase
- luteal phase
2. hormonal regulation of ovarian cycle
- no pregnancy
- pregnancy and HCG
3. uterine (menstrual) cycle
E. Male Sexual Response
1. Erection
2. Ejaculation
3. Hormonal Regulation
F. Female Sexual Response
G. Fertilization
1. Sperm Transport and Capacitation
2. Acrosomal Reaction and Sperm Penetration
3. Blocks to Polyspermy
4. Completion of Fertilization
H. Early Development
1. Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation
2. Implantation
3. Development of the Placenta (If time permits)
Objectives
1. Describe the function and early development of the reproductive system. Compare
and contrast male and female.
2. Describe the structure and function of the parts of the male reproductive system.
3. Describe the structure and function of the parts of the female reproductive system.
4. Describe the events at puberty in the male and the female.
5. Compare and contrast spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
6. Discuss the role of hormones in male development and spermatogenesis.
7. Describe the male and female sexual response.
8. Describe the phases of the ovarian cycle; relate to events of oogenesis.
9. Describe the menstrual cycle.
10. Discuss the role of hormones in control of the ovarian and menstrual cycles.
11. Describe the events leading up to fertilization.
12. Describe fertilization, cleavage, and implantation. Discuss the importance of each.
13. Describe the formation and functions of the placenta.