Download GUIDE AND REVIEW FOR FINAL EXAM IN PHILOSOPHY: As you

GUIDE AND REVIEW FOR FINAL EXAM IN PHILOSOPHY:
As you prepare for final cumulative exam, I trust this guide and review will help you best
prepare for this dynamic opportunity to offer your very best.
The exam will be composed of multiple choice, true/false, and perhaps matching. Please
bring scantron 882E and number 2 pencil. Exam will not involve essay. Questions will range
between 50 to 100.
Stay focused. Do not wait till day before to prepare for final exam. Study for at least
three hours each day, at least a week before exam, constantly reviewing each time you
study. Be strategic! Pace yourself. Do not become preoccupied with other things. Focus!
Ask yourself questions! Use all your learning styles to help you prepare for your test.
Make sure you have completed the reading of your textbook, review your notes, and
examine the notes I have available on website. Don’t get weighed down by the particulars
in your book but focus on big ideas. Focus on major ideas in book for review but
concentrate on lecture notes. However, I am requiring that you read Aesthetic Universals
by Denis Dutton. The article is on my website and I will test you from it.
I believe in the champion in you!
I.
Review the following lectures:
A.
What is Philosophy (lecture 1a)
B.
What is a worldview? (Lecture 1b)
C.
How Can We Know what is True (lecture 4)
D.
Plato’s Chart on Metaphysics and Epistemology (Allegory of the Cave). Also
be able to define the nature of a “form” (lecture 3)
E.
Aristotle’s metaphysics, universals, and 4 causes (Lecture 3b and
supplement: Aristotle’s universals and 4 causes
F.
Aquinas on reality (Lecture 3f)
G.
Aquinas on Knowledge (lecture 3g)
H.
Supplement: The analytic Fallacy by John Dewey (between lectures 7 and 8):
I.
Nihilism (Lecture 17)
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J.
Lectures 11-17 on ethics: Virtue ethics, Supplement to virtue ethics:
Socrates; Deontological & Consequential Ethics; Hume’s Ethics; Nihilism.
K.
Arguments for God’s existence (Lecture 18): see below on what specific
arguments I want you to know but be sure to have an understanding of the
ontological argument and innate idea argument.
Also, do you remember the eight evidences for the moral law argument?
1.
Absolutes are undeniable… we know right from wrong best by our
reactions to wrongs committed against us.
2.
Is there any action or event that is universally unjust? We wouldn’t
know injustice if there was no absolute sense of justice (you only
know something is wrong by comparing it to an unchanging standard of
what is right)
3.
Is every moral issue just an opinion? Real moral disagreement would
not be possible without the Moral Law. Every moral issue would be a
matter of opinion if you deny objective reality.
4.
Can you measure moral judgments? Everything can’t be relative if
there is nothing to be relative to. There must be some independent
standard otherwise nothing could be measured.
5.
We would not make excuses for breaking the Moral Law if it didn’t
exist.
6.
We wouldn’t know the world was getting worse (or better) if there
was no moral law.
7.
Is it ever right to disobey government? The moral law is the
“prescriptive” basis for political and social dissent.
8.
Is there any moral judgment that is always right? Therefore, since
we know what’s absolutely wrong, there must be an absolute standard
or basis of rightness.
L.
Intelligent Design (just know definition and realize how it is different from
scientific creationism)
K.
Anthropic Principle (just know definition).
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M.
Chart on Presocratic Philosophy (Lecture 2)
N.
Descartes’ Meditations (Lecture 5) with a focus on meditations 1-4.
O.
Lecture 19: Miracles
P.
Lecture 20: Problem of evil with lecture notes on 5-fold problem of evil and
counter responses to them (from class lecture):
II.
R.
Introduction to Existentialism with a focus on 6 major existential themes.
S.
Lecture 22: introduction to philosophical aesthetics:
T.
Lecture 24: Plato’s Aesthetics:
U.
Lecture 25: Objective/subjective beauty in ancient aesthetics:
V.
Lecture 28: Aristotle’s aesthetics
W.
Lecture 29: Tolstoy’s aesthetics
X.
Lecture 26: John Dewey and Aesthetic Experience.
Terms you need to know from reading and lecture material. In order to help
you, I’ve given you definitions to most terms.
A.
If you know and understand the following terms, you should do well.
1.
A posteriori . In epistemology, pertaining to knowledge derived from or
posterior to, sense experience.
2.
A priori principle: A proposition whose truth we do not need to know through
sensory experience and that no conceivable experience could serve to
refute.
3.
Aesthetics: Philosophical study of art, philosophical reflection on the nature
of art, value judgments about art and of beauty in general, and our
experience of beauty.
4.
Altruism: The belief that everyone ought as much as possible to seek the
good of others.
5.
Analytic Philosophy (Linguistic philosophy): An emphasis in twentieth-century
philosophy (largely British) on linguistic analysis, or the analysis of language,
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as a means of identifying the sources of, and resolving, philosophical
problems.
6.
Antirepresentationalism: A philosophy that denies that the mind or language
contain or are representations of reality.
7.
Arete = Excellency of some sort.
8.
Argument: An attempt to show that some claim mis true (the conclusion) by
providing reasons for it (the premises).
9.
Attribute is a property or characteristic attributed to or predicated of
something.
10.
Autonomous: The state of being self-controlling, independent, or free.
11.
Consequential ethics: An action is right if and only if it promotes the best
consequences.
12.
Cultural relativism: The view that morality and other values are rooted in the
experience, habits, and preferences of a particular culture.
13.
Deductive reasoning: Reasoning in which the conclusion follows with logical
necessity from the premises.
14.
Deontological ethics: An action is right if and only if it is in accord with a
moral rule or principle. Deontological ethics can be either secular or theistic.
15.
“Deon” = obligation; binding duty.
16.
Egoism: the maximization of self-interest.
17.
Empiricism: the belief that knowledge about existing things is acquired
through the five senses.
18.
Existentialism: A 19th and 20th century philosophical perspective which
disdains abstractions and focuses on the concrete reality and freedom of
the existing individual.
19.
Epistemology: The study of theory of knowledge.
20.
Essence: The nature or “whatness” of something that which makes the
something the kind of thing that it is.
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21.
Ethics: The theory of good and evil as applied to personal actions, decisions,
and relations.
22.
Ethical absolutism is the view that moral values are independent of human
opinion and have a common or universal application.
23.
Ethical relativism denies any absolute or objective moral values and affirms
that either the individual or community (culture) is the source of morality.
Individual relativism and cultural relativism flow from this major idea.
24.
Free-will defense: A long-standing solution to the problem of moral evil:
Humans are endowed with free will by God as a condition for genuine
morality, trust, love, etc. though it also makes the introduction of moral evil
into the world. True love is not forced love. Thus, God will not force Himself
upon you.
25.
Habit: To think, feel, desire, and act in such a way that you do not
consciously will to do so; you just do it. Habit is second nature to you.
26.
Hedonism: The ethical doctrine that pleasure is the highest good, and the
production of pleasure is the criterion of right action.
27.
Humanism: the view that human reality is the highest reality and value.
28.
Idealism: In metaphysics, it is the theory that all reality consists of mind
and its ideas.
29.
Indubitable (Descartes): That which is not susceptible to any doubt.
30.
Inductive reasoning: Reasoning in which the conclusion follows with the
probability from the premises.
31.
Infinite regress: A series of claims, explanations, elements, factors, etc.
dependent successively on one another without end.
32.
Innate ideas: The view that at least some ideas are inborn, present to the
mind at birth.
33.
Cosmological argument for God’s existence (beginning): Know definition and
argument/syllogisim for each of the following:
1.
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2.
3.
34.
Teleological argument for God’s existence:
1.
2.
3.
35.
Moral Law argument for God’s existence:
1.
2.
3.
36.
Religious Need Argument for God’s existence:
1.
2.
3.
37.
Argument from Joy:
1.
2.
3.
38.
Natural, Moral Law (ethics): In Judaism, Christianity, and Philosophy of
Aquinas it is God’s eternal law as it applies to humans on earth and dictates
the fundamental principles of morality (e.g., Ten Commandments). In Stoic
philosophy, natural law is the principle of rationality that infuses the
universe to which human behavior ought to conform.
39.
Phenomenalism: The theory that we only know phenomena. In other words, it
is the view that we have no rational knowledge of anything, including the
mind, beyond what is disclosed in the phenomena of perceptions.
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40.
Metaphysics: The branch of philosophy that studies the nature and
fundamentals features of being; it is the study or theory of reality. For
example, transcendent reality is the reality which lies beyond the physical
world and cannot therefore be grasped by means of the senses.
41.
Nihilism: literally, “nothingism”; the generally, the rejection of any
transcendent values or ultimate meaning. It is the rejection of values and
beliefs. Remember the distinction between ontological nihilism and
existential nihilism from lecture notes. See powerpoint.
a.
What is significant about F. Nietzsche?
1.
What is slave morality?
2.
What is master morality?
3.
Explain his term, “transvaluation of all values”:
4.
What is his notion of true morality?
5.
Life is simply the will to power.
6.
The moral person is the one who “lives dangerously” by
increasing his or her mastery.
7.
What are general criticisms made against Nietzche’s view of
ethics:
a.
Self-defeating nature of perspectivalism
b.
Destructive consequences in history when his ideas
were followed.
42.
c.
Promotion of hatred, bigotry, and discrimination
d.
Radical empiricism is unwarranted.
b.
Jean-Paul Sartre?
c.
Albert Camus?
Law of non-contradiction: nothing can be and not be at the same time and in
the same respect.
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43.
Rationalism: The epistemological theory that reason is either the sole or
primary source of knowledge. Rationalism is the affirmation of reason and
the view that truths about reality are acquired independently of sense
experience.
Loose rationalists will hold that at least some truths about reality are
required independently of sense experience whereas strict rationalists will
hold that all truths about reality are acquired independently of sense
experience.
44.
Reformed Epistemology: Belief in God is a properly basic belief requiring no
justification (Alvin Plantinga).
45.
Utilitarianism: The ethical doctrine that an action is right if and only if it
promotes the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
46.
Understand the Innate idea for God’s existence.
47.
Argument against miracles (Improbability) by David Hume:
1.
2.
3.
48.
Violation of Natural Law (Alister McKinnon):
1.
2.
3.
50.
Violation of Natural Law by Spinoza:
1.
2.
3.
51.
Lack of Identifiability (former atheist now deist late Antony Flew):
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1.
2.
3.
II.
Particular ideas and People:
A.
Presocratic Philosophers and view of substance/change.
B.
Socrates’ concept of virtue: virtue = knowledge. No one intentionally does
anything wrong. Rather, we do things that are wrong because of ignorance or
forgetfulness. Plato’s concept of virtue is a well-ordered soul; the
aggregation (harmony) of the three parts of the soul (appetites,
emotions/spirit, and reason) whereby virtues like justice, temperance,
courage, and wisdom emerge. In contrast, disordered soul is one whereby
the emotional or appetitive parts of the soul (e.g., appetites) take control
over reason and become unruly (e.g., gluttony).
C.
Know Plato’s Metaphysics and Epistemology (sensible world and intelligible
world) and the Allegory of the Cave.
D.
Know “clear and distinct” criterion in Rene Descartes criterion of truth (see
chart on Rene Descartes). His criterion of truth is that truth, according to
which that, and only that, which is perceived as clearly and distinctly as the
fact of one’s own existence is certain. Also, realize that Descartes
advocated “systematic doubt”, namely, the process in which anything
susceptible to doubt is doubted in the interest of discovering something
indubitable.
E.
Understand Rene Descartes’ “cogito ergo sum”: “I think, therefore I am”;
The single indubitable truth on which Descartes epistemology is based. Also,
know meditation 1 on methodic doubt, arguments for God’s existence in
meditation 3, and his explanation why error occurs and how to avoid errors in
fourth meditation.
F.
Kant’s noumena (things in themselves): Thing as they are in themselves
independently of all possible experience of them.
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G.
Kant’s phenomena (things as they appear to be): They are objects as
experienced and hence as organized an unified b the categories of the
understanding and the forms of space and time.
H.
Need to know John Dewey’s starting point in philosophy, namely, experience
as it is, how ideas are utilities or tools to help us engage present experience
to obtain beneficial ends. Moreover, you need to understand that for
Dewey, the most pervasive fallacy in philosophy is reductionism, that is,
focusing on one idea to the neglect of all other ideas. John Dewey is a
pragmatist. Pragmatism holds that the meaning of concepts lies in the
difference they make to conduct and that the function of thought is to
guide action. See supplement on Analytic fallacy on website.
I.
Understand Hume’s view of “sympathy” and his four-fold categories of
pleasurable and useful virtues. Also understand why our human feelings are
his starting point for ethics
J.
Understand Aristotle’s concept of virtue, vice, eudaimonia, the golden mean,
and phronesis. How do obtain eudaimonia. What are criticisms made against
virtue ethics? Why is virtue ethics popular today as an alternative to both
deontological ethics and consequential ethics… because character formation
is based upon certain virtues that are promoted by a particular community.
K.
Understand Kant’s threefold Categorical Imperative.
L.
Understand Denis Dutton’s notion of aesthetic signatures (see article on
website).
M.
Understand Plato and Aristotle’s views of aesthetics.
N.
Understand Tolstoy’s view of aesthetic experience and value.
O.
Understand Dewey’s view of aesthetic experience.
P.
Understand David Hume’s argument against miracles.
Q.
Understand the advantages for and criticisms against deontological ethics.
R.
Understand the advantages for criticisms against consequential ethics.
S.
Understand the criticisms made against relativism.
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T.
Understand the criticisms made against rule-based by ethics by virtue
ethicists.
U.
Understand Augustine’s view of “evil” and free-will defense theory regarding
the problem of evil.
V.
Understand the 5 problems/solutions offered about evil and theism:
1.
Problem 1: Evil affirms the non-existence of God;
Counter response by theist: Evil actually affirms the existence of
God because of the moral law argument. Also, you have the use of the
ontological argument.
“One of the strongest arguments against the existence of God is the
presence of evil and suffering in the world. Can you not the see what
is brought in through the back door in that question? Because if
there’s evil, there’s good. If there’s good there has to be a moral law.
If there’s a moral law there has to be a transcendent moral lawgiver.
But that’s what the skeptic is trying to disprove and not prove.
Because if there is no moral law giver, there’s no moral law. If there’
no moral law there’s no good. If there’s no good there’s no evil. So
what’s the question, really? The strongest argument against the
existence of God actually assumes God in the objection.”
2.
Problem 2: God is not all-perfect:
Response: Leibniz type argument: “No one has demonstrated that any
alternative world is morally better than the one we have. Hence, no
antitheist can show that God did not create the best world, even
given the privation of God. This, of course, does not mean that the
theist is committed to the belief that this present world is the best
world that can be achieved. God is not finished yet, and Scripture
promises that something better will be achieved. The theist’s
assumption is that this world is the best way to the best world
achievable.”
3.
Problem 3: God is the author of evil
Response: Evil is not a substance but a corruption of a substance.
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4.
Problem 4: Natural evil;
Response: Leibniz type argument: “No one has demonstrated that any
alternative world is morally better than the one we have. Hence, no
antitheist can show that God did not create the best world, even
given the privation of God. This, of course, does not mean that the
theist is committed to the belief that this present world is the best
world that can be achieved. God is not finished yet, and Scripture
promises that something better will be achieved. The theist’s
assumption is that this world is the best way to the best world
achievable.”
5.
Problem 5: Gratuitous (pointless) evil:
Response: If God exists, then pointless evil does not exist. Lack of
capacity to see all things from God’s perspective… are we really in a
position to declare that pointless evil does occur?
X.
The Problem of evil and worldviews:
1.
Atheism affirms evil but denies the reality of God;
2.
Finite godism can claim that God desires to destroy evil but is unable
to because he is limited in power;
3.
Deism can distance God from evil by stressing that God is not in the
world, but beyond it.
4.
Panentheism insists that evil is a necessary part of the ongoing
progress of the interaction of God and the world.
Y.
5.
Pantheism affirms the reality of God but denies the reality of evil.
6.
Theism affirms both the reality of both God and evil.
What are the two types of miracles that do not violate physical laws, thus
avoiding the force of Hume’s critique against miracles:
1.
Superseding miracles: The evident appears to defy known physical
laws (e.g., law of buoyancy vs. law of gravity).
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2.
configuration miracles: Set of events that seem too improbable to
come together on the basis of coincidence alone.
Z.
Know Blaise Pascal’s wager (end of lecture 18 on God’s existence):
Since we cannot know all that there is to be known about anything, we ought to know a
little about everything. ~ Blaise Pascal
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