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Biological Key Concepts: - Reductionism/determinism: - Environmental Importance: Plomin and others, 1988,91,94: identical twins raised separately recall their parents’ warmth very similarly, more so than fraternal twins (even fraternal twins raised in the same family) - Genetic Importance: Plomin and others, 1996: a person whose identical twin has Alzheimer’s has a 60% chance of getting it; a person whose fraternal twin has it only has a 30% chance - Genetic Importance: McGue and Bouchard, 1998: people who grow up together (biologically related or not) do not much resemble each other in personality. Localization v. Lateralization - Localization: Roger Sperry, ~1974: Studied split brain patients with epilepsy…found that information is shared between two hemispheres, but that there are specific functions for each side - Localization: Paul Broca, ~1861: discovered Broca’s Area, a section in the left hemisphere responsible for producing speech - Lateralization: Karl Lashley, early 20th century: damaged certain sections of rats’ brains to show that memory was spread out over the entire brain Basic Assumptions: - All that is psychological is first physiological. - All behavior has a cause - deterministic - Human genes have evolved over millions of years to adapt behavior to the environment. Therefore, much behavior has a genetic basis. -for all of those: - McGue and Bouchard, 1998: people who grow up together (biologically related or not) do not much resemble each other in personality. - Psychology should investigate the brain, nervous system, endocrine system, neurochemistry, and genes - Paul Broca, ~1861: discovered Broca’s Area, a section in the left hemisphere responsible for producing speech - Karl Lashley, early 20th century: damaged certain sections of rats’ brains to show that memory was spread out over the entire brain - Animals may be studied as a means of understanding human behavior. Pros: - unethical to test potentially bad things on human beings - controlled experiments involve controlling all variables, in a lab; this can’t be done on a human - it helps humans - more available drugs to treat both humans and animals Cons: - suffering outweighs the benefits - animal tests aren’t always an accurate prediction of effects - animals can’t consent Strengths - The approach is very scientific. - Practical applications have been extremely effective Weaknesses - Reductionist approach- may ignore other factors - it doesn’t explain consciousness and emotion - Biopsychological theories often over-simplify the huge complexity of physical systems and their interaction with the environment. Learning Key Concepts: - Radical Behaviorism: everything (including thinking and feeling) we do is a behavior - Classical conditioning: involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus with a neutral stimulus - UCS: naturally/instinctually evokes response (the UCR) - UCR: naturally/instinctually occurs due to UCS - NS: the stimulus that is eventually paired with the UCS…eventually elicits UCR - CS: NS -> CS after conditioning -CR: the UCR in response to the NS (in the absence of the UCS) - Ivan Pavlov, 1890s: conditioned dogs to salivate to a buzzer by repeatedly pairing the buzzer with food (which naturally evoked the spit) - John B. Watson, 1920: Little Albert…conditioned a young boy to fear rabbits, dogs, and wool by repeatedly pairing them with something that would naturally evoke fear (a loud noise) - Operant Conditioning: the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior - Wolfgang Köhler, 1910s: observed that chimpanzees learned how to combine boxes to reach bananas - Edward Thorndike, 1901: put cats in “puzzle boxes”…with experience, they got out faster; this led to the Law of Effect - Reinforcement: causes a behavior to occur more frequently - Positive: a behavior is followed by a pleasant stimulus -Negative: a behavior is followed by the removal of a bad stimulus - Punishment: causes a behavior to occur less - Positive: behavior is followed by a bad stimulus - Negative: behavior is followed by the removal of a good stimulus - Avoidance Learning: learning that a certain behavior results in a bad stimulus ending (shielding your eyes from the sun) - Extinction: lack of any consequence following a behavior; decreases behavior - The Law of Effect: basically the pleasure principal - Edward Thorndike, 1901: put cats in “puzzle boxes”…with experience, they got out faster; this led to the Law of Effect - Social Learning Theory: Albert Bandura; people learn by watching what others do and that human thought processes are central to understanding personality - Bobo Doll experiment: Bandura, 1961: children are MUCH more likely to verbally/physically attack a “Bobo doll” if they see an adult do it first - representative-ness heuristic: categorizations are based on the extent to which someone’s behavior represents a category we have of various social groups - availability heuristic: We attempt to bring to mind examples of behaviors of people, and the easier we can imagine such examples, the more likely we will think those behaviors will occur. - Learned helplessness: a psychological condition in which a human or animal has learned to believe that it is helpless - Martin Seligman, 1965: observed that dogs “gave up” after the researchers conditioned the dogs to associate a flash with an inescapable shock; the dogs no longer attempted to cross the barrier that would have saved them - Finkelstein and Ramey, 1977: two groups of babies; one was given control over a mobile, one wasn’t. After both were conditioned, the groups were switched…the babies that were not originally given control never learned to control the mobile. - Imprinting: any kind of phase-sensitive learning (learning occurring at a particular age or a particular life stage) that is rapid and apparently independent of the consequences of behavior - Konrad Lorenz, early 1900s: discovered a 36-hour imprinting period in geese…the geese would follow him around. - Latent Learning: a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without obvious reinforcement to be applied later. - Tolman and C.H. Honzik,1930: demonstrated latent learning in rats by placing food at the end of a maze after a ten-day “learning period” with no food; after placing the food at the end, the rats’ time to complete the maze was drastically reduced. Basic Assumptions: - The majority of behavior is learned from the environment after birth. - Psychology should investigate the laws and products of learning. - Behavior is determined by the environment, since we are the total of all our past learning experiences, freewill is an illusion. - Only observable behaviors should be studied if psychology is to be objective. - There is an innate predisposition to learning. - Learning can take place in the absence of reinforcement Strengths - very scientific - reductionist - many practical applications Weaknesses - Heavy reliance on animal research - discounts the qualitative difference between humans and non-human animals - Ignores important mental processes involved in learning. - Highly deterministic. - Questionable ecological validity (almost all experiments done in a lab) Cognitive