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The Global Environment
A Global Perspective
The Environment & Security
International Organizations
& The Environment
Global Population
The Global Environment
† Environmental issues have increasingly
become a global concern.
† The environment is a collective good or
public good for the earth's inhabitants.
Environmental problems in one country
have effects in other countries.
† Pollution and environmental degradation
can affect the atmosphere.
Dangers include holes in the
ozone layer and global
warming.
The Global Environment
† Environmental concerns over land include
the pressure to produce enough food for an
increasing population.
† Human practices can lead to a loss of land
for agricultural use. Loss of forests can
create problems.
† There is also the danger that valuable
species of plant and animal life will become
extinct.
† Global warming can increase the process by
which species might disappear.
The Global Environment
† Global threats to the natural environment
are a growing source of interdependence.
† Environmental effects tend to be diffuse
and long-term.
„ They can easily spread from one location to
another.
† This makes for a difficult collective goods
problem, particularly in areas
such as the environment,
natural resources, and
population.
The Global Environment
† Freshwater and coastal areas have suffered
due to environmental problems.
† Water shortages have become apparent in
some areas of the world.
† Managing the
environment is the most
“global” of problems.
„ Involves collective goods
for all states and people of
the world.
Global Loss of Seafood Species
The Atmosphere: Global Warming
† Global warming
„ Slow, long-term rise in the average world
temperature
„ Greenhouse gases
† Costs of reduction are high.
† Triple dilemma
„ Short-term and predictable costs to gain longterm and less predictable benefits.
„ Specific constituencies such as oil companies
and industrial workers pay the costs, whereas
the benefits are distributed more generally
across domestic society and internationally.
The Atmosphere
„ There is the collective goods dilemma among
states:
† benefits are shared globally but costs must be
extracted from each state individually.
† North-South divide and global warming
† Framework Convention on Climate Change
(1992 Earth Summit)
† Kyoto Protocol (1997)
„ China
„ European Union
† Carbon emission credits
„ United States
† UN Environment Program (UNEP)
„ Main function is to monitor environmental conditions
The Atmosphere
† UN Environment Program (UNEP)
„ Main function is to monitor environmental
conditions
The Atmosphere: Ozone Depletion
† Ozone high in the atmosphere screens out
harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun.
† Certain chemicals expelled by industrial
economies float to the top of the
atmosphere and interact with ozone in a
way that breaks it down.
„ CFS – modest costs to replace
The Atmosphere: Ozone Depletion
† Ozone produced by fossil fuels does not
replace the high-level ozone but only
pollutes the lower atmosphere.
† Increased radiation is the result of ozone
depletion.
Projected U.S. & Chinese
† Montreal Protocol 1987 Carbon Dioxide Emissions,
„ Most important
success yet
achieved in
international
negotiations to
preserve the global
environment
1990-2030
Land
†The two are especially important to
biodiversity and the atmosphere.
†Main pressure on land resources is increased
food production.
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
„
Inefficient irrigation
Salinization and alkalization of soil
Land degradation through poor soil management
Deforestation
Removal of natural vegetation
Use of heavy machinery
Overgrazing and
Improper crop rotation
Forests
†Subject to human and natural factors:
„ Poverty, population growth, markets, trade in
forest products
„ Insect pests, disease, and fire
†Rain forests
„ As many as half the world’s total species live in
rain forests, which replenish oxygen and reduce
carbon monoxide.
„ Most are in poor states; debtor nations
„ Until recently, rich states have encouraged
maximum economic growth in these states so
foreign debts might be paid with little regard for
environmental damage.
„ Now, greater interest in protecting rain forests
Biodiversity
† Refers to the tremendous diversity of plant
and animal species making up the Earth’s
ecosystems.
Extinction
Costs of preserving biodiversity
Limited success on endangered species
United States’ participation in treaties on
biodiversity
„ International Whaling Commission
„ Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission
† U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act
„ Difficulty with unilateral approaches
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„
„
„
Freshwater, Coastal & Marine areas
† Water shortages & water management needs
„ 1/3 of the world’s population lives in countries
where water consumption is more than 10% of
renewable freshwater resources.
„ About 1.1 billion people worldwide, the great
majority of them in rural areas, lack access to safe
drinking water.
† Hundreds of millions of water-related diseases each
year and over 5 million deaths.
† Oceans
„ Cover 70% of the Earth’s surface
„ Key to regulating climate and preserving
biodiversity
Freshwater, Coastal & Marine areas
† Oceans
„ Attractive targets for short-term economic uses
that cause long-term environmental preservation
„ Belong to no state but are a global “commons”
Free riders
† High seas – non-territorial waters
† UN Convention of the Law of the Sea
(negotiated 1973-1982)
† Role of private environmental groups
„ Overfishing and similar problems of managing the
“commons” of world oceans have been addressed
by enclosing the most important ocean areas
under the exclusive control of states.
Coastal & Marine areas
State Controlled Waters
Shaded areas are
within the 200mile economic
zones controlled
by states under
terms of the
UNCLOS treaty.
† Antarctica
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„
„
Belongs to no state
Strategic and commercial value is limited
Antarctica Treaty of 1959
World park
Pollution
† More often a regional or bilateral issue
„ The effects of pollution are generally limited to
the state where it occurs and its close neighbors
„ In several regions (notably Western and Eastern
Europe and the Middle East), states are closely
packed in the same air, river, or sea basins.
† Acid rain
„ Often crosses borders
† Water pollution
† Toxic and nuclear waste
„ Chernobyl
The Environment and Security
† Conflict over natural resources could increase
in the future.
„ Because the extraction of resources brings states
wealth, these resources regularly become a source
of international conflicts.
„ Not collective goods problems because they are
mostly located within individual states, but states do
bargain as to these vital resources.
† Scarcity of non-renewable resources, such as
oil, has led to conflicts in the past.
† Three aspects of natural resources shape their
role in international conflict.
„ Required for the operation of an industrial economy
The Environment and Security
„ Sources are associated with particular territories
over which states may fight for control.
„ Natural resources tend to be unevenly distributed,
with plentiful supplies in some states and absence in
others.
† Energy resources (fuels) are central to states.
„ Oil (40% of world energy consumption)
† Cheapest to transport over long distances
„ Coal (30%)
„ Natural gas (25%)
„ Hydroelectric and nuclear power (5%)
† Renewable resources have been less likely to
lead to conflicts.
The Environment and Security
† It is possible that conflicts over water could be
possible in the near future.
„ World water use is 35 times that of just a few
centuries ago and grew twice as fast as population in
the 20th century.
„ One-fifth of the world’s population lacks safe
drinking water.
„ 80 countries suffer from water shortages.
„ Water supplies often cross international borders.
† Source of conflict
„ Problem in the Middle East
The Environment and Security
† The U.N. has taken a more active role in dealing
with global environmental concerns, but
international agreements have been difficult to
achieve.
† Even when agreements are reached, many
nations have maintained reservations or
exceptions that limit their application.
† Transnational private groups have become more
active in seeking to preserve and renew the
environment, i.e. Greenpeace & World Wildlife
fund.
Network
Website
One World Net
Global Forest Watch
People & Ecosystems
Horizon Solutions Site
UN Environment Programme
www.oneworld.net
www.globalforestwatch.org
www.wri.org/ecosystems
www.solutions-site.org
www.unep.net
The Environment and Security
† Military activities are important contributors
to environmental degradation.
† Gulf War
† Scorched earth policy
† Military industries pollute.
† Military forces use energy less efficiently
than civilians do.
† Ozone depletion
† Toxic waste dumps
Global Population
† World population, 6.6 billion in 2007
† Growing by 75 million each year
„ 200,000 additional people per day
† 96% of projected population growth will be
in the global South.
† Half the world’s population growth occurs in
six countries: India, China, Pakistan,
Nigeria, Bangladesh, Indonesia
† Projections beyond a few decades are
uncertain.
Population Projections & The
Demographic Transition
As income rises, first death
rates and then birthrates fall.
The gap between the two is the
population growth rate. Early in
the transition, the population
contains a large
proportion of
children; later it
contains a larger
proportion of
elderly people.
The Demographic Transition
† The process of economic development brings
about a change in birth rates and death rates
that follows a fairly universal pattern called
demographic transition.
„ First death rates fall as food supplies increase and
access to health care expands.
„ Later, birth rates fall as people become educated, more
secure, and more urbanized, and as the status of
women in society rises.
„ At the end of the transition, birth rates and death rates
are fairly close to each other, and population growth is
limited.
„ But during the transition, when death rates have fallen
more than birth rates, population grows rapidly.
Population Policies
† One of the most important policies that
influence the birth rate are those involving
birth control (contraception).
† State policies vary widely.
† China at one extreme
„ One child policy
† India
„ Strongly committed to birth control but less
control over society
Population Policies
† Mexico
„ Strong but not as coercive policy; has been
effective
„ Higher incomes than India or China
† Pronatalist
„ Pro-birth policy; encourage or force childbearing and outlaw or limit access to
contraception
„ Only a few governments have strongly
pronatalist policies.
† Often, poor women have little access to
effective contraception.
Population & International Conflict
† The idea that overpopulation is the cause of
hunger in today’s world is not really
accurate.
† Poverty and politics, more than population,
are the causes of malnutrition and hunger
today.
„ Enough food, water, petroleum, land, etc., but
these are unequally distributed.
† Strains and conflicts on resources
† Migration
† Demographics can exacerbate ethnic
conflicts.
Glossary List:
† collective good
† human security
† biodiversity
† renewable resources
† deforestation
† ozone layer
This chapter looks at
„ the role of international organizations in the international
politics of the global environment
„ the possible consequences of global warming
„ the possibilities that wars over resources may break out
„ the importance of the concept of national self-determination
„ the role of nongovernmental environmental groups in
international environmental issues.
Review – How much do you
understand?
1. The Montreal Protocol contains
agreements
A.
B.
C.
D.
to protect the ozone layer.
to stop global warming.
to prevent the extinction of species.
all of the above
Review– How much do you
understand?
2. Rain forests are important for the
global environment because
they
A.
B.
C.
D.
recycle and clear air.
increase carbon dioxide in the air.
reverse global warming.
answers B and C
Review– How much do you
understand?
3. China has faced environmental
degradation due to
A.
B.
C.
D.
deaths due to air pollution.
loss of sources of freshwater.
lower crop yields.
all of these answers
Review– How much do you
understand?
4. The Law of the Sea Convention
deals with
A.
B.
C.
D.
pollution by tankers.
Piracy.
economic uses of offshore water.
all of these answers
Review– How much do you
understand?
5. The following are transnational
environmental groups
A.
B.
C.
D.
World Wildlife fund
Greenpeace
Earth Council
all of these answers
Review– How much do you
understand?
6. Acid rain is caused by
A.
B.
C.
D.
carbonic acids.
hydrochloric acids.
sulfuric acids.
all of these answers
Review– How much do you
understand?
7. A ozone hole was discovered in
1985 over
A.
B.
C.
D.
Europe
North America
South America
none of these answers
Review– How much do you
understand?
8. Greenhouse gases
A.
B.
C.
D.
raise global temperatures.
easily catch fire.
can be extremely poisonous.
create more oxygen.
Review– How much do you
understand?
9. Burning fossil fuels over many
decades increases the overall
volume of
A.
B.
C.
D.
water in the ocean.
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
CFCs in the oceans.
lead in the atmosphere and oceans.
Review– How much do you
understand?
10. Which of the following is the
least likely to be a major cause
of deforestation?
A. over harvesting of industrial and fuel
wood
B. infestation of birds
C. overgrazing
D. expansion of agricultural land