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Learning
Types of graphs:
histogram:
a bar graphs that shows frequency distributions
frequency polygon:
(M617)
(M617)
a line graph that shows frequency distributions
scatter plots: a pattern of dots corresponding to an X and Y axis
that tells if the two characteristics are in any way correlated with
each other (M622)
positive correlation if a line runs from the lower left-hand
corner to
the upper right hand corner (as one thing
increases so does the other,
e.g. as attendance increases so
do grades)
negative correlation is a line runs from the upper left-hand
corner to
the lower right hand corner (as one thing
increases the other
decreases, e.g. as absences
increase grades decrease)
learning curve: a graph of educational performance with the
horizontal axis
showing the number of trials and the vertical axis
showing the actual change
in a subject's performance (Harcourt
website)
Emotional learning
escape conditioning occurs when an organism learns that a response
will stop an unpleasant stimulus
avoidance conditioning occurs when an organism learns that a
response will
prompt an unpleasant stimulus
active avoidance occurs when an organism must demonstrate a
specific
response in order to avoid an aversive stimulus
avoid
passive avoidance is when an organism must not respond in order to
an aversive stimulus.
Learned taste aversions
based on the idea the animals and humans are biologically prepared
to make
certain connections more easily than others; if you
ingest an unusual food or
drink and then become nauseous, you will
develop an aversion to it; promotes
powerful avoidance
responses based on a single stimulus-response pairing;
the
pairing also occurs over several hours (B81)
Coping versus helplessness
there are three basic coping strategies:
confrontation involves acknowledging a stressful situation
directly and
attempting to find a solution to the problem or
attain the difficult
goal
goal when
compromise involves deciding on a more realistic solution or
an ideal solution or goal is not practical
coping are
withdrawal involves avoiding a situation when other forms of
not practical (M484-486)
defensive coping involves using defense mechanisms such as denial,
repression, projection, identification, regression,
intellectualization,
reaction formation, displacement and sublimation
(M489 chart)
helplessness is failure to take steps to avoid or escape from an
unpleasant or aversive stimulus that occurs as the result of previous
exposure to
unavoidable painful stimuli (M197-198)
Biological constraints on learning
researchers have found animals will not perform certain behaviors
that go
against their natural inclinations; the tendency for animals
to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior is called
instinctual drift
(B86, see also
lecture notes for Learning)
Cognition
complexity
a largely unconscious set of related ideas that have a common
emotional tone
and strongly influence a person's behavior and
attitudes; medicine. a group
of physical symptoms or signs that
appear together with some consistency
(Harcourt website)
practical methods for improving memory
steps include developing motivation, practicing memory skills,
being
confident, minimizing distractions, staying focused, making
connections
between new and old material, using mental imagery,
using retrieval cues and
relying more on memory alone (M248-252, see
also SQ3R B249-250))
metacognitive skills in thinking
1. Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, esp.
regarded
as having a role in directing those processes. 1972 L. R.
GLEITMAN et al. in
Cognition 1 161 The lower-order process often
proceeds without any metacognition... Examples of meta-cognition in
memory are recollection..and
intentional learning. 1977 Child Devel.
48 1/1 Metacognition refers to the
individual's knowledge concerning
his own cognitive processes, and the
development of such selfawareness in children has become a topic of
considerable interest. 1981
Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Devel. 46 No. 5. (serial
no.
92) 3
Metacognition means knowledge and cognitive activity that takes
cognitive phenomena as its object. (OED)