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Social Structure Section 1: Building Blocks of Social Structure Status A social structure is a network of interrelated statuses and roles that guide human behavior. A status is a socially defined position, while a role is the behavior associated with a status. o Ascribed status is assigned according to qualities beyond a person’s control, such as age. o Achieved status is acquired through a person’s direct efforts, such as education. Most people have many statuses, but a master status is the one that plays the greatest role in a person’s life. o It can be either ascribed or achieved. Roles Role expectations are the socially determined behaviors expected of a person with a particular status. Role performance is the actual behaviors of a person with a particular status. They may or may not be the expected behaviors. A role set is the different roles associated with a particular status. Role conflict occurs when fulfilling the role expectations of one status interferes with a second status. Role strain occurs when a person has difficulty fulfilling the role of one status. Role exit is the process people go through to detach from a role that was previously central to their social identity. Social Institution A social institution is a group of statuses and roles that are organized to satisfy one or more of the basic needs of society. o The family, the most universal social institution, takes responsibility for raising the young and teaching them accepted norms and values. o The economic institution organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. o The political institution is the system of norms that governs the exercise and distribution of power in society. o Education ensures the transmission of values, patterns of behavior, and certain skills and knowledge. o Religion provides a shared, collective explanation of the meaning of life. Section 2: Types of Social Interaction Exchange Exchange occurs when people interact in an effort to receive a reward or a return for their actions. o Reward might be tangible or intangible Reciprocity is the idea that if you do something for someone, that person owes you something in return. o Basis of exchange interactions Exchange theory is the idea that people are motivated by self-interest in their interactions with other people. 1 o Rewarded behavior is repeated Competition & Conflict Competition occurs when two or more people or groups oppose each other to achieve a goal that only one can attain. o Common in Western societies o Sometimes considered basis of capitalism and democracy o Can lead to psychological stress, a lack of cooperation, and conflict Conflict is the deliberate attempt to control a person by force, to oppose someone, or to harm another person. o Has few rules of accepted conduct o Can reinforce group boundaries and loyalty Cooperation Cooperation occurs when two or more people or groups work together to achieve a goal that will benefit more than one person. o A social process that gets things done o May be used along with competition to motivate members to work harder for the group Accommodation Accommodation is a state of balance between cooperation and conflict. 4 types: o Compromise – when two parties at odds come to a mutual agreement. o Mediation - Calling in a third party who guides the two parties toward an agreement o Truce - Temporarily brings a halt to the competition or conflict until a compromise can be reached o Arbitration - A third party makes a decision that is binding on both parties Section 3: Types of Societies Preindustrial Societies The largest groups studied by sociologists are entire societies. Sociologists categorize societies according to subsistence strategies. In a preindustrial society food production is the main economic activity. Hunter-Gather Societies o Collect wild plants daily o Hunt for wild animals o Move constantly o Rarely exceed 100 members o Family is main social unit Pastoral Societies o Rely on domesticated animals o Lead a nomadic life o Fewer people produce food 2 o Complex division of labor o Produce some items for trade Horticultural Societies o Grow fruits and vegetables in garden plots o Use slash-and-burn techniques o Move to new plot when old becomes barren o Build semi-permanent or permanent villages o Village size depends on amount of land for farming o Division of labor creates specialized roles o Economic and political systems more developed because of the settled life Agricultural Societies o Animals are used to plow fields o Irrigation increases crop yields o Many members are able to engage in specialized roles o Cities are formed o Leaders are often hereditary o Marked by powerful armies and the construction of roads o Abandon bartering in order to make trade easier o Power often unequally distributed Industrial Societies In an industrial society: o Production of food shifts to production of manufactured goods o Production moves from human and animal labor to machines o Increases food production and population o Numbers and kinds of jobs increase o Location of work changes to cities, away from the home o Social processes such as education take the place of family Post-Industrial Societies o Economic emphasis is on creation and exchange of information and services instead of manufacturing goods o United States is a postindustrial society o Standard of living improves o Education and science are important o Technological advances seen as key Contrasting Societies Preindustrial Societies Held together by mechanical solidarity Societal relationships based on values Gemeinschaft Strong sense of group solidarity 3 Traditional values are strong Industrial Societies o Held together by organic solidarity o Societal relationships based on need o Gesellschaft o Relationships are impersonal and often temporary o Traditional values are weak Section 4: Groups within Society Defining Groups Size o Small or large Quality o Intimate or formal Four features: o Two or more people o Interaction occurs between members o Shared expectations o Must possess a sense of common identity Aggregate o A gathering of people without lasting organization Social categories o People with a shared trait or status who do not interact with each other Size A dyad is two people. A triad is three people. Fifteen is the largest number that works well as a group. Time A group can be a one-time meeting or a lifetime. Interaction is not continuous; there are breaks. Organization A formal group has clearly defined structure, goals, and activities. An informal group has no official structure or rules of conduct. Types of Groups Primary Group o Small group that interacts over a long period of time on a personal basis 4 o The most intimate type o Fundamental in forming the social nature and ideals of the individual o Involves entire self of a member Secondary Group o Interaction is impersonal and temporary o Involve only part of a member’s self o Casual and limited o Importance of person linked to his or her function o Members can be replaced Reference Group o A group with whom an individual identifies and whose attitudes and values are adopted o Can have both positive and negative effect on behavior In-Group – any group that a person belongs to and identifies with Out-Group – any group that the person does not belong to or identify with Social Networks o The web of relationships across groups that occurs because of the many groups people belong to o No clear boundaries Electronic Communities o Have arisen with arrival of internet o Some reflect primary-group dynamics Formal Organization - secondary groups designed to achieve specific objectives. o Examples: a high school, Wal-Mart, The IRS (tax people), the post office, library Traits of Formal Organizations 1) Specific goal or purpose that almost all activities are geared toward achieving 2) Division of Labor – everyone has a specific task to complete to meet the goal. 3) Authority in the group is clearly defined. 4) Formal procedures used for all tasks and activities (records, paperwork) 5) The group has specific rules that all members are expected to obey and respect. Group Functions 1) Define boundaries o Use of uniforms, gestures, handshakes, or language 2) Select leaders o Leaders influence the attitudes and opinions of others o Instrumental leaders help find specific means that will help the group reach its goals o Expressive or charismatic leaders find ways to keep the group together and to maintain morale 3) Define purpose o Set goals o Assign tasks o Make decision 4) Control Members’ Behavior 5