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Relationship of Structure and Function of the Avian Respiratory System to Disease Susceptibility M. R. FEDDE1 Department of Anatomy and Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506-5602 ABSTRACT The avian respiratory system exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between the gas and the blood utilizing a relatively small, rigid, flow-through lung, and a system of air sacs that act as bellows to move the gas through the lung. Gas movement through the paleopulmonic parabronchi, the main gas exchanging bronchi, in the lung is in the same direction during both inspiration and expiration, i.e., from the mediodorsal secondary bronchi to the medioventral secondary bronchi. During inspiration, acceleration of the gas at the segmentum accelerans of the primary bronchus increases gas velocity so it does not enter the medioventral secondary bronchi. During expiration, airway resistance is increased in the intrapulmonary primary bronchus because of dynamic compression causing gas to enter the mediodorsal secondary bronchi. Reduction in air flow velocity may decrease the efficiency of this aerodynamic valving and thereby decrease the efficiency of gas exchange. The convective gas flow in the avian parabronchus is orientated at a 90° angle with respect to the parabronchial blood flow; hence, the cross-current designation of this gas exchanger. With this design, the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving the parabronchus can be higher than that in the gas exiting this structure, giving the avian lung a high gas exchange efficacy. The relationship of the partial pressure of oxygen in the moist inspired gas to that in the blood leaving the lung is dependent on the rate of ventilation. A low ventilation rate may produce a low oxygen partial pressure in part of the parabronchus, thereby inducing hypoxic vasoconstriction in the pulmonary arterioles supplying this region. Inhaled foreign particles are removed by nasal mucociliary action, by the mucociliary escalator in the trachea, primary bronchi, and secondary bronchi. Small particles that enter parabronchi appear to be phagocytized by the epithelial cells in the atria and infundibulum. These particles can be transported to interstitial macrophages but the disposition of the particles from this site is unknown. The predominant site of respiratory infections in the caudal air sacs, compared to other parts of the respiratory system, can be explained by the gas flow pathway and the mechanisms present in the parabronchi for particle removal. (Key words: lung, air sacs, ventilation, defense system, pulmonary blood flow) 1998 Poultry Science 77:1130–1138 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE AVIAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN THE BODY COELOM The respiratory system in birds has the principal function of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide between atmosphere and blood. It is also involved in temperature regulation and phonation. It has these features in common with the respiratory system of mammals but it differs significantly in the anatomical arrangement of its parts (Figure 1). The respiratory system begins at the nares and has passages in the head that lead inhaled gas to the larynx. The trachea extends Received for publication August 3, 1997. Accepted for publication February 21, 1998. 1To whom correspondence should be addressed. from the larynx and is sometimes very incompressible, as in ducks and geese, and sometimes easy to compress, as in chickens. The trachea in some birds is extremely long (sometimes longer than the entire body) and tortuous or coiled, as in the trumpet bird. The trachea branches into two extrapulmonary primary bronchi, each of which goes to a lung and its associated air sacs. The lung is a relatively rigid structure that does not expand and retract with breathing; its function is to provide a large surface area for gas exchange with the blood and it does this in a very small space. The air sacs function as bellows whose change in volume causes pressure differences across the lungs that result in gas movement during inspiration and expiration. The air Abbreviation Key: PCO2 = partial pressure of carbon dioxide; PO2 = partial pressure of oxygen. 1130 SYMPOSIUM: INFECTIOUS POULTRY DISEASES 1131 small; in the chicken, the caudal thoracic air sacs are small and the abdominal air sacs are large. The structure of the avian respiratory system has been extensively studied but there are still some important questions that remain unanswered and thereby limit the functional understanding of this system. Details about the structure can be found in several original works and reviews (King, 1966; Duncker, 1971; King and White, 1975; Nickel et al., 1977; Fedde, 1986; Brackenbury, 1987; Abdalla, 1989; King, 1989; Maina, 1989; McLelland, 1989a,b). The most appropriate terminology to describe the avian respiratory system is presented in detail by King (1993) in the Handbook of Avian Anatomy: Nomina Anatomica Avium. GAS FLOW PATTERNS IN THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM DURING BREATHING FIGURE 1. General organization of the respiratory system in the chicken. Clav. AS = clavicular air sac; cran. th. AS = cranial thoracic air sac; caud. th. AS = caudal thoracic air sac; Abd. AS = abdominal air sac. sacs have an extremely thin wall, do not contribute to gas exchange with the blood, and occupy every available space in the body coelom not occupied by other viscera. Most birds, including the chicken, have nine air sacs; paired cervical air sacs (not shown in Figure 1), an unpaired clavicular air sac that is connected to each lung, paired cranial thoracic air sacs, paired caudal thoracic air sacs, and paired abdominal air sacs. The cervical, clavicular, and cranial thoracic air sacs arise from the first set of secondary bronchi leaving the intrapulmonary primary bronchus (medioventral secondary bronchi); they are often considered as a group called the cranial air sacs because of the similarity in the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations within them. The caudal thoracic and abdominal air sacs (often called collectively the caudal air sacs) arise from a second and third set of secondary bronchi (lateroventral and mediodorsal secondary bronchi) and from the continuation of the intrapulmonary primary bronchus. The oxygen concentration is higher and the carbon dioxide concentration is lower in the caudal air sacs than in the cranial air sac group. The relative sizes of the air sacs vary in different species; for example, the caudal thoracic air sacs are large in ducks while the abdominal air sacs are Active contraction of muscles of the body wall coupled with its elastic recoil during both inspiration and expiration are responsible for the cyclic changes in the volume of the coelom (Fedde, 1987). These volume changes result in an increase in the volume of the air sacs during inspiration and a decrease in their volume during expiration. Pressure in the air sacs is, therefore, less than that in the atmosphere during inspiration and gas moves from the atmosphere, through the lungs and into the air sacs. The pathway for part of the gas flow is through the paleopulmonic parabronchi that connect mediodorsal to the medioventral secondary bronchi (Figure 2). About one-half of an inspired tidal volume traverses these parabronchi and about one-half of an inspired tidal volume passes through the much smaller neopulmonic parabronchial network that connects the mediodorsal and lateroventral secondary bronchi to the caudal thoracic and abdominal air sacs, and through the direct connection from the intrapulmonary primary bronchus to the abdominal air sacs. Because the neopulmonic parabronchial network contains only about 15 to 20% of the gas exchange surface in the lung in chickens, the ventilation/perfusion ratio is very high in this network (Duncker, 1971; Scheid et al., 1989). Thus, the gas in the caudal air sacs has only a small reduction in the oxygen partial pressure compared to that in air, and has a carbon dioxide partial pressure that is only increased by a small amount above that in air (Fedde, 1986). On the other hand, gas that enters the cranial air sacs has been exposed to a large fraction of the gas exchanging surface in the lung (the paleopulmonic parabronchi) and has partial pressures of oxygen (PO2) and carbon dioxide (PCO2) only a few torr different from that in end-expired gas or in mixed venous blood entering the lung (Meyer et al., 1976; Scheid et al., 1989). As will be mentioned later, the gas pathway through the avian lung can explain the reason for the disposition of the caudal air sacs to bacterial infections, compared to the cranial air sacs. 1132 FEDDE the avian lung, the unidirectional gas flow through the paleopulmonic parabronchi has been postulated to occur because of “aerodynamic valving” (Dotterweich, 1936). There has recently been renewed interest in determining the mechanisms responsible for aerodynamic valving in the avian lung during both inspiration and expiration (Banzett et al., 1987; Butler et al., 1988; Kuethe, 1988; Wang et al., 1988, 1992; Banzett et al., 1991; Brown et al., 1995). A constricted region of the primary bronchus (termed the segmentum accelerans) just cranial to the opening of the medioventral secondary bronchi (at least in the goose lung, Brown et al., 1995) causes the gas stream to be accelerated during inspiration so that it does not enter the medioventral secondary bronchi. Thus, aerodynamic valving during inspiration depends on gas velocity (as well as gas density), and is most effective when velocity is high. The smooth muscle in the wall of the segmentum accelerans appears to relax in the presence of elevated carbon dioxide concentration and unless the gas velocity simultaneously increases, the FIGURE 2. Pathway of gas flow in the avian respiratory system during inspiration. Enlargement of the body cavity by inspiratory muscle action lowers pressure in the air sacs relative to that in the atmosphere and gas flows into the system. Gas does not enter the medioventral secondary bronchi, but passes into the mediodorsal secondary bronchi. Some of the gas passes through the paleopulmonic parabronchi, and the remainder passes into the neopulmonic parabronchi and caudal air sacs. During expiration, reduction in coelomic volume increases the pressure in the air sacs relative to that in the atmosphere and gas moves out of the air sacs (Figure 3). Some of the gas from the caudal air sacs again traverses the neopulmonic parabronchi and most of the gas enters the paleopulmonic parabronchi, traveling in the same direction through these latter structures as during inspiration. Gas from the cranial air sacs travels through the medioventral secondary bronchi to exit the lung via the intrapulmonary primary bronchus without contacting any parabronchial gas exchanging surfaces. Thus, exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between gas and blood occurs both during inspiration and expiration in birds and nearly all of the gas that was inhaled has passed over paleopulmonic parabronchial gas exchanging surfaces during some part of the respiratory cycle. The pattern of gas flow through the avian respiratory system and the proposed mechanisms responsible for this pattern has been discussed by Scheid and Piiper (1989). Because of the lack of any anatomical valves in FIGURE 3. Pathway of gas flow in the avian respiratory system during expiration. Reduction in volume of the body cavity by expiratory muscle action increases pressure in the air sacs relative to that in the atmosphere and gas flows out of the system. Compression of intrapulmonary primary bronchus causes gas coming from the caudal air sacs to pass through neopulmonic parabronchi, into mediodorsal secondary bronchi and through the paleopulmonic parabronchi. Gas from the cranial air sacs does not pass through parabronchi on the way to the primary bronchus and trachea. SYMPOSIUM: INFECTIOUS POULTRY DISEASES 1133 FIGURE 4. Gas exchange characteristics of the cross-current system in the bird lung during normal ventilation. PI = partial pressure of oxygen entering a parabronchus; PE = partial pressure of oxygen in the gas exiting a parabronchus; Pa = partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving a parabronchus; Pv̄ = partial pressure of oxygen in the blood entering a parabronchus. Open arrow represents the change in the partial pressure of oxygen in the gas from its entry into the parabronchus to its exit from the parabronchus; closed arrow represents the change in the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving the parabronchus from that in the blood entering the parabronchus. Note that the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving the parabronchus can be higher than that in the gas leaving the parabronchus (overlap of the arrows). (Modified from Piiper and Scheid, 1989). efficiency of the aerodynamic valve decreases and some gas may enter the medioventral secondary bronchi, pass into the cranial air sacs, and fail to contribute to gas exchange. Further, under conditions of low ventilation rates, similar inefficiencies of valving may occur leading to reduced gas exchange. During expiration, aerodynamic valving also occurs with gas from the caudal air sacs passing through the mediodorsal secondary bronchi and into the paleopulmonic parabronchi. Mechanisms responsible for expiratory valving are different from those responsible for inspiratory valving and depend upon gas flow velocity but not gas density. The proposed mechanism responsible for producing expiratory valving is dynamic compression of the membranous intrapulmonary primary bronchus, an action that would increase with increased expiratory effort and increased flow velocity (Brown et al., 1995, 1997). Compression of the intrapulmonary primary bronchus would increase the resistance to flow through the primary bronchus relative to that in the mediodorsal secondary bronchi and the paleopulmonic parabronchi, thus limiting the amount of gas that would pass directly from the caudal air sacs to the trachea. During normal breathing, the efficiency of the expiratory valving is about 95%, i.e., only 5% of the gas from the caudal air sacs is lost to the tracheal gas without passing through the paleopulmonic parabronchi. This efficiency appears to be greatly reduced under conditions of low gas velocity, as would occur if the rate of ventilation was low. GAS EXCHANGE IN A PARABRONCHUS Gas exchange in the avian lung can be best visualized using a cross-current model (Powell and Scheid, 1989; Piiper and Scheid, 1989) (Figure 4). The organization of this type of gas exchanger is based on the convective movement of gas through the parabronchial lumen, diffusion of oxygen from this gas stream into the air capillaries (which emanate from depressions, atria and infundibula, in the parabronchial wall), diffusion of carbon dioxide from the air capillaries into the convective gas stream, entrance of the mixed venous blood from the pulmonary arteries all along the periphery of the parabronchial mantle with blood capillaries in intimate contact with air capillaries, and collection of the arterialized blood in venules located immediately beneath the epithelium of the lumen of the parabronchus (King and McLelland, 1984; Abdalla, 1989). Thus, the convective flow of gas is approximately 90° from the convective flow of blood, and hence the cross-current designation of this model. As gas moves through a parabronchus, it continuously loses oxygen to the blood and attains carbon dioxide from 1134 FEDDE FIGURE 5. Gas exchange characteristics of the cross-current system in the bird lung during high ventilation. PI = partial pressure of oxygen entering a parabronchus; PE = partial pressure of oxygen in the gas exiting a parabronchus; Pa = partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving a parabronchus; Pv̄ = partial pressure of oxygen in the blood entering a parabronchus. Open arrow represents the change in the partial pressure of oxygen in the gas from its entry into the parabronchus to its exit from the parabronchus; closed arrow represents the change in the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving the parabronchus from that in the blood entering the parabronchus. During a high ventilation rate, the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving the parabronchus can approach that in the gas entering the parabronchus. (Modified from Piiper and Scheid, 1989). the blood. Blood entering a parabronchus at its origin from a mediodorsal secondary bronchus equilibrates with the high PO2 and low PCO2 in the gas while blood near the end of the parabronchus equilibrates with a gas that contains a much lower PO2 and higher PCO2. The arterial PO2 in the blood that exits the lung is thus determined by the admixture of blood from all of the capillaries along each parabronchus (Figure 4). With this gas exchange design, it is possible for the blood leaving the exchanger to have a higher PO2 than that in the gas leaving the exchanger. This signifies a gas exchanging system with an inherently high efficacy. If the parabronchial ventilation becomes high, as might occur when the respiratory control system is stimulated in hypoxic conditions, the arterial PO2 approaches to within 2 to 3 torr of the PO2 in the moist inspired tracheal gas (Faraci et al., 1984a; Fedde et al., 1985) (Figure 5). The moist inspired PO2 is the highest possible value that the arterial PO2 could attain if the gas exchange system was perfect. However, under conditions of high parabronchial ventilation, birds become extremely alkalotic and arterial PCO2 may decrease to 6 to 7 torr. The remarkable tolerance of at least some birds (bar-headed geese) to hypocapnia and hypoxia may result in part from their ability to maintain a high cerebral blood flow (Faraci et al., 1985; Faraci and Fedde, 1986) and to their lack of the pulmonary pressor response (Faraci et al., 1984b). On the other hand, if ventilation is lower than normal, the PO2 in the parabronchial gas will quickly decrease to that in the mixed venous blood (Figure 6). This will produce an hypoxic environment for arterioles supplying blood to this region of the parabronchus and they will constrict. This will reduce the blood flow to this region, minimizing the shunt and the arterial PO2 may be maintained near normal. However, the increase in pulmonary vascular resistance may increase pulmonary arterial pressure. It would appear valuable to determine if the pulmonary hypertension leading to right ventricular failure and ascites in fast growing broilers (Odom, 1993; Wideman and Bottje, 1993) could be explained by this mechanism. It is well known that the smooth muscle in the pulmonary arterial system in chickens, unlike that in barheaded geese, is very reactive to hypoxia (Burton et al., 1968; Kadono and Besch, 1972; Besch and Kadono, 1978; Faraci et al., 1984b), which induces pulmonary hypertension. MECHANISMS OF DEFENSE AGAINST INHALED FOREIGN PARTICLES Filtration of Inspired Air The upper respiratory system in the nasal cavity is well designed to heat, humidify and filter the inspired air. The SYMPOSIUM: INFECTIOUS POULTRY DISEASES 1135 FIGURE 6. Gas exchange characteristics of the cross-current system in the bird lung during a low ventilation rate. PI = partial pressure of oxygen entering a parabronchus; PE = partial pressure of oxygen in the gas exiting a parabronchus; Pa = partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving a parabronchus; Pv̄ = partial pressure of oxygen in the blood entering a parabronchus. Open arrow represents the change in the partial pressure of oxygen in the gas from its entry into the parabronchus to its exit from the parabronchus; closed arrow represents the change in the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving the parabronchus from that in the blood entering the parabronchus. During a low ventilation rate, the partial pressure of oxygen in the parabronchial gas approaches that in the mixed venous blood entering the parabronchus considerably before the gas has reached the end of the parabronchus. This may produce hypoxic vasoconstriction of many arterioles at this end of the parabronchus, especially in those birds (such as chickens) whole pulmonary vascular smooth muscle is reactive to hypoxia. The partial pressure of oxygen in the blood leaving the parabronchus may be nearly normal if vasoconstriction occurs and shunted blood is minimized. (Modified from Piiper and Scheid, 1989). expanded, mucous-covered epithelial surfaces possess cilia that quickly (10 mm/min) carry the mucous sheet, where inspired particulate material may impact, to the pharynx where it can be swallowed and eliminated in the feces (Bang, 1961, 1971; Mensah and Brain, 1982; Bang and Wenzel, 1985). This part of the respiratory system forms the first line of defense against large inspired particles (down to about 4 mm) but does not entrap many particles smaller than 0.2 mm (Hayter and Besch, 1974). It appears that the trapped particles can be rapidly removed from the nasal cavity but more studies are required in a variety of species to determine the effectiveness of this site in the respiratory system in preventing microorganisms in the air stream from entering the trachea and lower parts of the respiratory system. Mucociliary Escalator in the Trachea and Bronchi The trachea, primary bronchi, and the roots of the secondary bronchi are lined mostly with ciliated columnar epithelial cells (McLelland, 1989a,b). Much of the remain- ing epithelium of the secondary bronchi is cuboidal (sometimes ciliated) or squamous in structure. The cilia appear to move the overlying mucous layer in an oral direction. The parabronchi are lined by unciliated cuboidal and squamous epithelium and, therefore, do not possess a means of moving inhaled foreign particles orally. Mensah and Brain (1982) exposed chickens for 30 to 40 min to aerosol particles (median aerodynamic diameter of 0.45 mm) containing 99mTc-sulfur colloid. Although not much radioactivity was in the trachea at the end of the exposure, most was removed by 12 h after the end of exposure. Likewise, a large fraction of the radioactivity had been removed from the lungs within one hour after exposure and a large accumulation of radioactivity had occurred in the gastrointestinal tract. This study indicated a rapid-phase clearance of the insoluble technetium from the trachea and lungs to the feces. There was essentially no radioactivity in the heart, kidneys, ovaries, or liver, indicating the technetium had not entered the blood. The study also indicated a slow-phase clearance of radioactive 1136 FEDDE material that may have resulted from the phagocytotic mechanisms discussed below. The impact of poultry house pollutants on particulate clearance from the respiratory system of birds remains largely unknown (see Brown et al., 1997 for review). However, any substance that reduces ciliary motility or disrupts the ciliated epithelium could be expected to adversely affect the resistance of birds to microorganisms that normally enter their bodies via the respiratory system. Phagocytosis Wandering macrophages are rarely found in the healthy avian respiratory system (Toth and Siegel, 1986; Klika et al., 1996). They can be induced to enter the air sacs by injecting foreign substances (Freund’s adjuvant or Sephadex G-100), disease producing organisms, and spores (Aspergillus fumigatus) into their lumen (Ficken et al., 1986; Kunkle and Rimler, 1996; Pruimboom et al., 1996). These macrophages have strong phagocytic reactions to many substances and organisms, and can be quickly FIGURE 7. Electron micrographs showing phagocytosis of aerolized iron oxide particles by atrial epithelial cells in the parabronchus of a duck. A) iron oxide particles entering the apical surface an atrial epithelial cell. Bar equals 0.25 mm. B) Phagosome (a) in an atrial epithelial cell containing iron oxide and large amounts of trilaminar substance and (b) iron oxide particles with only small fragments of trilaminar substance. Bar equals 0.25 mm. C) Atrial epithelial cell emptying iron oxide (arrow) into the subjacent interstitium through the basal surface of the cell. Bar equals 0.25 mm. D) Atrial interstitial macrophage containing iron oxide particles (arrow). Bar equals 0.5 mm. (Reprinted from Respir. Physiol., 67:23–36, 1987, Stearns, R. C., G. M. Barnas, M. Walski and J. D. Brain, Deposition and phagocytosis of inhaled particles in the gas exchange region of the duck,Anas platyrhynchos, with kind permission of Elsevier Science-NL, Sara Burgerhartstraat 25, 1055 KV Amsterdam, The Netherlands). SYMPOSIUM: INFECTIOUS POULTRY DISEASES attracted into the respiratory system when the appropriate chemotactic substance is present (Toth et al., 1987; Toth et al., 1988). However, airway macrophages may not be responsible for maintaining a clean environment in the respiratory system under normal circumstances. When ducks were exposed to aerosols (aerodynamic mass mean diameter of 0.18 mm) containing iron oxide particles, these particles were found trapped within the trilaminar substance coating the atria and infundibuli in the parabronchi. The iron oxide particles were seen entering the epithelial cells, in phagosomes within these cells, passing from the epithelial cells into the interstitium, and in interstitial macrophages (Stearns et al., 1987) (Figure 7). These observations may explain why parabronchial macrophages are not usually seen in the avian lung: each epithelial cell the region of atria and parts of the infundibula can function as a macrophage and remove foreign material that becomes embedded in the trilaminar substance overlaying this region. Such a function would act to protect the air capillaries from contamination. Also, it is possible to explain the observations that the caudal group of air sacs are those most prone to infections while the cranial group of air sacs are less often affected. All of the gas must pass through paleopulmonic parabronchi prior to reaching the cranial air sacs, resulting in the trapping and removal of most foreign particles. On the other hand, the gas that enters the caudal group of air sacs passes only through overventilated neopulmonic parabronchi (Scheid et al., 1989) or directly into these air sacs and, thereby, is not filtered to the same extent as the gas reaching the cranial group of air sacs. The mechanisms by which foreign particles are removed from the lungs after being engulfed by interstitial macrophages are unknown. These cells may find their way into the blood stream and thereby be carried to other organs. Studies to define the disposition of these cells would be useful to determine the involvement and reaction of other organs in clearance of lung particulate matter. REFERENCES Abdalla, M. A., 1989. The blood supply to the lung. Pages 281–306 in: Form and Function in Birds. Vol. 4. A. S. King and J. McLelland, ed. Academic Press, London, UK. Bang, B. G., 1961. The surface pattern of the nasal mucosa and its relation to mucous flow—a study of chicken and herring gull nasal mucosae. J. 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