Download Sociology: Then and Now

Sociology: Then and Now
Obj: describe how the field of sociology ________________; explain how the _________
main theoretical perspectives in sociology _______________ in their focus.
The ____________ of social life and human interaction has been of interest to scholars
throughout history. However, a separate _____________ discipline dedicated to the
analysis of society – sociology - did not develop until the _____________.
Several factors led to the development of sociology as a distinct field of _____________. The
rapid social and political changes that took place in ____________ as a result of the
Industrial Revolution were of primary importance.
The ____________ replaced the home as the main site for manufacturing. With the growth of
factories came the growth of cities as people left their homes in the countryside in search of
work.
The rapid growth of ___________ populations produced a multitude of social problems. The
number of people seeking work outpaced available jobs. ________________ shortages
developed, crime increased, and pollution became a major problem. In addition, many
people found it difficult to adapt to the impersonal nature of cities. Urban life was different
from life in the small _______________ communities where most people were raised.
Interactions in the country were based on personal relationships.
Over time, it became more difficult to ignore the effect of society on the _____________.
Individual liberty and individual rights became the focus of a wide variety of political
movements. These demands for freedom and rights gave rise to the American and French
____________________.
These sweeping political, social, and economics changes caused some scholars to question
the ______________ explanations of life.
The Early Years
Sociology took ___________ in the 1800s, primarily in France, Germany, and England.
These countries had most strongly felt the effects of the __________________ Revolution.
Auguste Comte
Many people consider French philosopher Comte (1798-1857) the ___________ of sociology
as a distinct subject. He was one of the first scholars to apply the methods of the
_____________ sciences to the study of social life. He also coined the term
___________________ to describe the study of society.
Like most French scholars of his day, Comte was intrigued by the __________ and
consequences of the French Revolution. As a result, Comte began to focus on two basic
areas of study – social __________ and social change. He suggested that certain
processes, which he called social statics, hold society together. Similarly, Comte argued
that society changes through definite processes, which he called social _____________.
The basic principles of these two social forces, Comte believed, could be uncovered
through the methods of scientific research. He hoped this knowledge could be used to
reform society.
Herbert Spencer
(1820-1903), an _____________ contemporary of Comte. He was strongly influenced by the
views of Charles _____________, an evolutionist from the 1800s. Spencer adopted a
_______________ model of society.
In a living organism, the biological systems work together to maintain the organism’s
_____________. Spencer attributed a similar process to society. Society, he said, is a set
of interdependent parts that work together to maintain the system over time.
Spencer also used Darwin’s theory of the evolution of biological _________________ to
describe the nature of society. Spencer considered social change and unrest to be natural
occurrences during a society’s ___________________ toward stability and perfection.
Because he believed that the best aspects of society would survive over time, Spencer
thought that no steps should be taken to correct social ills. Spencer also believed that only
the ___________ societies would survive over time, leading to a general upgrading of the
world as a whole. Although the phrase “_________________ of the fittest” is often credited
to Darwin, it was coined by Spencer to describe this process. Because of its similarities to
Darwin’s ideas, Spencer’s view of society became known as social
_________________________.
Spencer’s ideas gained a wide following, particularly in Britain and France. However, like
Comte, Spencer refused to __________ the writings of scholars whose ideas differed from
his own. As a result, he disregarded the rules of careful scholarship and made scientifically
____________________ claims about the workings of the world. Over time, Spencer’s
social Darwinism fell out of _____________.
Karl Marx
(1818-83) Marx believed that the structure of a society is influenced by how its
_____________ is organized. According to Marx, society is divided into two classes - the
bourgeoisie, or __________________, and the proletariat, or workers. The bourgeoisie
own the means of production – the materials and methods used to produce goods and
services. The ___________________, on the other hand, own nothing. The provide the
labor needed to produce goods and provide services.
Marx believed this imbalance in power would inevitably lead to ________________ between
the capitalists and the workers. This class conflict would end only when the proletariat
united to overthrow those in power. After this _________________, Marx said, the
victorious workers would build a classless society in which each citizen would contribute
“according to his ability” and would be _______________ “according to his needs.”
Marx did not really consider himself a sociologist. Nevertheless, his belief that a society’s
economic system strongly _________________ its social structure has had a lasting
influence on sociology. His emphases on conflict as the primary cause of social
_______________ led to the development of one of the major sociological perspectives –
_____________ theory.
Emile Durkheim
(1858-1917) he developed the country’s first ___________________ sociology course.
Durkheim was particularly interested in the function of ________________ in maintaining
social order, because he believed that shared beliefs and values were the
______________ that held society together.
The basis of his scientific analysis of society was his belief that sociologists should only
_______________ features of society that are directly observable.
Ideas about observable _________________, Durkheim noted, can be tested by applying the
scientific tool of statistical analysis.
He used this approach in his 1897 study, _______________. This study examined suicide
rates in several European countries. The first true sociological study, Suicide is still used by
sociology professors and students today.
Max Weber
(1864-1920) Unlike Comte, Spencer, Marx, and Durkheim, Weber was interested in
__________________ groups within society rather than in society as a whole. This
emphasis on ______________ led Weber to focus more on the _____________ of society
on the individual.
Weber also thought that sociologists should go beyond studying what can be directly
_____________________ and attempt to uncover the feelings and thoughts of individuals.
Weber proposed doing this by using the principle of ___________________. Verstehen
involves an attempt to understand the meanings individuals attach to their actions. In
essence, with Verstehen one puts oneself in the ______________ of others and tries to
see situations through their eyes.
In addition to Verstehen, Weber employed the concept of _______________ type in much of
his work. An ideal type is a description comprised of the essential characteristics of a
feature of society.
A feature of society might be public __________________ or attitudes about ____________.
Sociologists construct an ideal type first by examining many different examples of the
feature and then by deducing its essential characteristics.
Yet any particular example of the feature might not contain all of the characteristics described
in the ideal ___________. For example, the ideal type for a ________________ might not
be a perfect representation of your school. However, you would recognize it as a general
__________________________ of an educational institution.
Current Perspectives
A _______________ is an explanation of the _______________________ among particular
phenomena. Sociologists develop theories to guide their work and help interpret their
findings. Sociologists not only develop theories to explain specific phenomena, they also
adopt broad theoretical perspectives to provide a foundation for their _________________.
A theoretical _____________________ is a general set of _________________________
about the nature of things. In the case of sociology, a theoretical perspective outlines
specific ideas about the nature of social life.
Three broad theoretical perspectives form the basis of modern sociology. Each one presents
a slightly different image of society or focuses on different ________________ of social life.
Functionalist Perspective
The ________________________ perspective is broadly based on the ideas of Comte,
Spencer, and Durkheim. People who employ this perspective view society as a set of
interrelated parts that work together to produce a _________________ social system.
According to functionalists, society is held together through consensus. In other words,
most people agree on what is best for society and work together to ensure that the social
system runs smoothly. Topics of interest to functionalist sociologists include the functions
that ______________________ or education serve in society.
Like Durkheim, functionalists view the various __________________ in society in terms of
their __________________, or their positive consequences for society. Recognizing that
not everything in society operates smoothly, functionalists also label certain elements as
dysfunctional. A _____________________ is the negative consequence an element has
for the stability of the social system. Dysfunctional elements, such as crime, disrupt society
rather than stabilize it.
In addition to being either ________________ or negative, functions can be either manifest or
latent. A ___________________ function is the intended and recognized consequence of
some element of society. For example, a manifest function of the automobile is to provide
speedy transportation from one location to another. A latent function, on the other hand, is
the unintended and unrecognized consequence of an element of society. A
_______________ function of the automobile is to gain social standing through the display
of wealth.
Conflict Perspective
People who employ the _________________ perspective focus on the forces in society that
promote competition and change. Following in the tradition of Karl Marx, conflict theorists
are interested in how those who possess ________________ power in society exercise
control over those with ________________ power. Conflict theorists do not limit their
attention to acts of violent conflict.
They are also interested in ____________________ competition between various groups in
society – men and women, people of different ages, or people of different
________________ or national backgrounds. Some of the topics that conflict sociologists
research include decision-making in the ___________________, relationships among
racial groups, and disputes between workers and employers.
According to conflict theorists, _____________________ over scarce resources is at the
basis of social conflict. Because resources such as power and wealth are in limited supply,
people must compete with one another for them. Once particular groups gain control of
society’s resources, they tend to establish rules and procedures that protect their interests
at the expense of other groups. This leads to social conflict as those with less power
attempt to gain access to desired ___________________. Conflict, in turn, leads to social
________________. Thus, conflict theorists see social change as an inevitable feature of
society.
Interactionist Perspective
Functionalists and conflict theorists tend to focus on society in ________________ or on
groups within society. However, some sociologists adopt an ___________________
perspective, focus on how individuals interact with one another in society. These
sociologists are interested in the ways in which individuals respond to one another in
everyday situations. They are also interested in the meanings that individuals attach to their
own actions and to the actions of others. Interactionist theorists are heavily indebted to the
work of Max __________.
Interactionists are particularly interested in the role that ________________ play in our daily
lives. A symbol is anything that ____________________ something else. In order for
something to be a symbol, however, members of society must agree on the meaning that is
attached to it. Such things as physical objects, gestures, words, and events can serve as
symbols. The American flag, the bald eagle, Fourth of July celebrations, and Uncle
_______ are examples of symbols used to represent the US. In the case of gesture, a
salute is a sign of respect for authority.
Interactionists focus on how people use symbols when interacting. This process is called
symbolic _________________. The interactionist perspective is used to study topics such
as child development, relationships within groups, and mate selection. This
_________________ perspective has been particularly influential in the US.
Which theoretical perspective should you use? Each one poses different questions and
provides contrasting __________________ into the social world. Combining the elements
each has to offer will provide you with a more complete understanding of human behavior.