Download Word Workout : Building a Muscular Vocabulary in 10 Easy Steps

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CONTENTS
TitlePage
CopyrightNotice
Introduction
KeytoPronunciation
ListofKeywords
Level1
Level2
Level3
Level4
Level5
Level6
Level7
Level8
Level9
Level10
Notes
WordWorkoutSelectedBibliography
AlsobyCharlesHarringtonElster
AbouttheAuthor
Copyright
INTRODUCTION
IN TODAY’S FAST-PACED WORLD, a large and precise vocabulary is a tremendous asset. It is the basis of
knowledgeandthefoundationofeloquence.Ifyouaspiretospeakandwritewell—andthinkwell—you
oweittoyourselftobuildyourknowledgeofwords.
Thenotionofbuildingyourvocabularymaycalltomindthedulldrillsofgradeschool.Butlearning
newwords,andlearningmoreaboutwords,doesn’thavetobetedious.Unlikewithphysicalexercise,
you can gain without pain. Unlike with dieting, the rewards are permanent. Best of all, you can start
buildingyourvocabularyatanyageand,withaminimumofeffort,keepitgrowingfortherestofyour
life.
In fact, like physical exercise, which can enhance your quality of life no matter what your age,
vocabularybuildingcanhelpkeepyourbrainandmemoryvital—evenintoyournineties.1“Olderadults
can remember bigger vocabularies than younger people,” says Christie Chung, associate professor of
psychologyatMillsCollege,inOakland,California,anddirectoroftheMillsCognitionLaboratory.“Our
semanticmemoryincreasesaswegrowolder.”
Buildingaversatilevocabularyisaformofexercise—oneessentialtoyourprofessional,social,and
evenmentalhealth.Ifyoubelieveinthebenefitsofexerciseforyourbody,whynotdothesameforyour
mind?Likeyourmuscles,yourbrainneedsregularstretching.Andaworkoutwithwordsisnowherenear
as taxing as twenty minutes on a StairMaster. In fact, flexing your word muscles can be downright
rejuvenating.(Torejuvenate,fromre-,again,andtheLatinjuvĕnis,young,meanstomakeyoungagain.)
Ofcourse,wordswon’tjustcometoyou;youmustseekthemout.Andthat’sonereasonI’vewritten
WordWorkout:tomakeiteasierforyoutofind,learn,andusenewwords.Considermeyourpersonal
trainerinallthingsverbal,andconsiderthisbookyourpersonalizedcourseinthewaysandwondersof
words.
Word Workout is not a set of flashcards masquerading as a book. Nor is it a monotonous march
throughaswampofwords.Itdoesn’trelyongimmicksorwarmed-overpoppsychology.Itdoesn’tmake
youlearnbyroteorbyhit-and-runmemorization.Anditdoesn’ttakeshortcuts,meaningthattherearen’t
anysuperficiallessonswithonlyadefinitionandasamplesentence.WordWorkoutistherealMcCoy:a
comprehensive,accessiblevocabulary-buildingprogram,writtenbyanationallyrecognizedexpertonthe
English language, that will teach you hundreds of relevant, vigorous words used by our most eloquent
writersandspeakers.
Ifyou’vealreadycompletedmyfirstvocabulary-buildingprogramforadults,VerbalAdvantage, you
knowthiswell.Youknowthatresearchhasshownthatwelearnwordsinorderoftheirdifficulty,from
easier words to harder ones, and that the best way to build your word power is to study words in
ascendingorderofdifficulty.That’swhyWordWorkout,likeVerbalAdvantage,isagraduatedprogram
thatbeginswithwordsknownbymostcollegegraduatesandendswithwordsknownbyonlythemost
educated, intelligent, and well-read adults. And, even more than Verbal Advantage, Word Workout is
chock-full of information about synonyms, antonyms, and word origins. You’ll also get plenty of good
adviceonusageandpronunciation,andtherearereviewtestsallalongthewaytohelpreinforcewhat
you’velearned.
If you haven’t yet read Verbal Advantage, don’t worry. Word Workout is modeled on Verbal
Advantage,butit’snotasequeloraprequel.It’sacompanionvolumethatteachesanentirelynewsetof
words.Inshort,you’lllearnalotifyoureadthisbook,andawholelotmoreifyoureadboth.
Wordsarethekeytoknowledge,andknowledgeisthekeytosuccess.Everywordyouaddtoyour
vocabulary broadens your understanding of the world, improves your comprehension of what you hear
andread,andsharpensyourabilitytoexpressyourideas.Thatisthepremise,andthepromise,ofWord
Workout—to help you become a more knowledgeable and confident user of the English language in the
mosteffectiveandentertainingwaypossible.
SograbyourverbalgymsuitandabottleofEvian(didyouknowthat’snaivespelledbackward?)and
letmepumpyouupwithaprofessionalwordworkout!
HowBesttoUseThisBook
Like Verbal Advantage, Word Workout is arranged in ten increasingly challenging levels consisting of
fifty keywords each, and each level is divided into five sets of ten keyword discussions. After each of
thesesetsthereisareviewtest.Ifyougeteightanswersormorerightonthereviewtestyoumayproceed
tothenextsetoftenkeyworddiscussions.Butifyouscorefewerthaneightcorrectyoushouldreview
thatsetofkeywords,oratleasttheonesyougotwrong,beforecontinuingwiththeprogram.
When it comes to building your vocabulary there is no substitute for discipline. Try to read Word
Workoutforasetamountoftimeeachday,preferablythirtyminutes.Youwillalsobenefitifyougoover
thematerialasecondandevenathirdtimebeforetakingeachreviewquizandbeforebeginningeachnew
level.
Also, don’t rush. You will make better progress if you take your time than if you try to ingest
everythinginafewbigbites.Andpleaseresistthetemptationtojumpahead.It’sallrighttofollowmy
cross-references, but you will gain the most from Word Workout if you proceed through the lessons in
orderwithoutskippingaround.
KEYTOPRONUNCIATION
a—at
a—final,woman
ah—spa
ahr—car
air—fair
ay—hay
aw—saw
ch—chip
e—let
e—item,novel
ee—see
eer—deer
i—sit
i—charity,April,nation
kh—asinGermanach,Scottishloch(agutturalsound)
’l—apple,cattle
’m—spasm
’n—hidden
(n)—asinFrenchbon,vin,blanc(anasalizedsound)
ng—sing
o—carrot,summon
oh—go
oo—soon
or—for
oor—poor
ow—cow
oy—toy
sh—she
th—thin
th—this
u—focus,column
uh—up,but
ur—turn
uu—pull,took
yoreye—by,I
zh—measure
(y)—indicatesthatsomespeakersemploytheysoundofyouandothersdonot:forexample,N(Y)OO,new
Syllablesprintedincapitalsarestressed.Inwordswithprimaryandsecondarystress,thesyllablewith
primarystressisprintedinboldfacecapitalsandthesyllablewithsecondarystressisprintedinroman
capitals:forexample,pruh-NUHN-see-AY-shin(pronunciation).
LISTOFKEYWORDS
LEVEL1
1.DEPRAVITY
2.PRESUMPTUOUS
3.GRANDIOSE
4.DISSEMINATE
5.ECLECTIC
6.SERVILE
7.VORACIOUS
8.CONVOLUTED
9.RANT
10.STRATAGEM
11.EMACIATED
12.MISGIVING
13.ADULATION
14.DEVOTEE
15.VIVACIOUS
16.ANACHRONISTIC
17.GARISH
18.QUALM
19.CONSUMMATE
20.IMPERTINENT
21.RAMIFICATION
22.ELUCIDATE
23.ADAGE
24.BESOTTED
25.RUEFUL
26.SPASMODIC
27.DETRITUS
28.AWRY
29.ENCUMBER
30.BLEMISH
31.IMPEDIMENT
32.MODICUM
33.DOSSIER
34.ALLITERATION
35.RECTITUDE
36.VEXATIOUS
37.EPITHET
38.TRAVESTY
39.WANE
40.HUBRIS
41.VICARIOUS
42.STIPULATE
43.DESPOTIC
44.UNSAVORY
45.INTIMATE
46.PREDISPOSE
47.APACE
48.VERDANT
49.CAJOLE
50.BANE
LEVEL2
1.DIATRIBE
2.EVOCATION
3.IMBUE
4.REPUGNANT
5.INSOLENT
6.IMPUNITY
7.STAGNATE
8.EMBLEMATIC
9.PLAINTIVE
10.RAPACIOUS
11.PEON
12.INTUIT
13.OPINE
14.LANGUISH
15.VESTIGIAL
16.SOMNOLENT
17.SUPPLANT
18.EUPHEMISM
19.VISCERAL
20.DISPASSIONATE
21.INDEFATIGABLE
22.ARCHETYPE
23.VERACITY
24.MINION
25.INVETERATE
26.EXTOL
27.GAFFE
28.INDOCTRINATE
29.NUANCE
30.PLACATE
31.DEIFY
32.RECAPITULATE
33.LUMINARY
34.CONFOUND
35.SOJOURN
36.ASKEW
37.HISTRIONIC
38.COALESCE
39.LISTLESS
40.ABATE
41.PONDEROUS
42.CONSECRATE
43.FLORID
44.INCORRIGIBLE
45.ASSAIL
46.ELIXIR
47.IMPRESARIO
48.SENTIENT
49.LACKLUSTER
50.BENEFICENT
LEVEL3
1.TRIBULATION
2.DERIDE
3.NEFARIOUS
4.IDEOLOGUE
5.DALLIANCE
6.FATUOUS
7.MEANDER
8.CULPABLE
9.SEDATE
10.IMPROPRIETY
11.MEGALOMANIA
12.VOCIFEROUS
13.CONTRIVE
14.NONPLUS
15.IMPERIOUS
16.PRIVATION
17.SUFFUSE
18.DISCONSOLATE
19.CONUNDRUM
20.DOTAGE
21.VACUOUS
22.INTEMPERATE
23.STYMIE
24.AMBROSIA
25.VIVIFY
26.PURLOIN
27.BULWARK
28.MAGISTERIAL
29.TALISMAN
30.STUPEFY
31.RANCOROUS
32.ENNUI
33.CENSORIOUS
34.MARGINALIZE
35.REPROVE
36.RELEGATE
37.BEHEMOTH
38.INCENDIARY
39.STALWART
40.ENMITY
41.MALIGN
42.LIBATION
43.GESTICULATE
44.CIRCUMLOCUTION
45.BESMIRCH
46.IMMUTABLE
47.DECLAIM
48.THRALL
49.SATE
50.GADFLY
LEVEL4
1.HACKNEYED
2.INIQUITY
3.WHIMSICAL
4.ENSCONCE
5.PLUTOCRAT
6.BEATIFIC
7.UNFETTERED
8.ESTRANGE
9.SIBILANT
10.PUNDIT
11.REDOLENT
12.DEMAGOGUE
13.MAUDLIN
14.BEGRUDGE
15.AVOWAL
16.PROSELYTIZE
17.GUILELESS
18.UNCONSCIONABLE
19.CONFLATE
20.ANIMUS
21.SWATH
22.CONFLAGRATION
23.RAREFIED
24.MENDICANT
25.RECOMPENSE
26.INUNDATE
27.AGGRANDIZE
28.OUTRÉ
29.QUINTESSENTIAL
30.PANDER
31.SACROSANCT
32.INDOMITABLE
33.METTLE
34.ELLIPSIS
35.PETULANT
36.DEIGN
37.BERATE
38.HARBINGER
39.CORPULENT
40.AGGRIEVED
41.POLYGLOT
42.COMPORT
43.REVILE
44.PERSPICACIOUS
45.TRIUMVIRATE
46.AUGURY
47.PALLID
48.INDOLENT
49.UTILITARIAN
50.SALACIOUS
LEVEL5
1.BEREFT
2.NEMESIS
3.EQUIVOCATE
4.PHILISTINE
5.BACCHANALIAN
6.SCHISM
7.LINGUAFRANCA
8.WINSOME
9.PATRICIAN
10.REDACT
11.PRÉCIS
12.TAXONOMY
13.SUBLIMINAL
14.MISANTHROPY
15.IMPRIMATUR
16.CANARD
17.PERFIDIOUS
18.EPIPHANY
19.PRATTLE
20.PLEBEIAN
21.GULL
22.COMPENDIOUS
23.RHAPSODIZE
24.OXYMORON
25.PROVENANCE
26.LAISSEZ-FAIRE
27.PRETERNATURAL
28.DISABUSE
29.COURTESAN
30.DEBAUCH
31.BRAGGADOCIO
32.FLAGELLATE
33.INSURGENT
34.PANACHE
35.OMNIBUS
36.MILITATE
37.NIHILISTIC
38.TORPID
39.SEMINAL
40.CRAVEN
41.MALADROIT
42.GORMANDIZE
43.POLEMICAL
44.EPOCHAL
45.COGNOSCENTI
46.IMMOLATE
47.HIDEBOUND
48.MOLDER
49.FRATRICIDE
50.SPLENETIC
LEVEL6
1.INELUCTABLE
2.MORIBUND
3.BELLWETHER
4.PERMUTATION
5.INTERLOPE
6.HECTOR
7.DISSOLUTE
8.LINEAMENTS
9.CHURLISH
10.PREPOSSESSING
11.ELEGIAC
12.UKASE
13.ASPERITY
14.DELECTATION
15.BOOTLESS
16.EXPLICATE
17.PEJORATIVE
18.LABYRINTHINE
19.LEONINE
20.DOCTRINAIRE
21.PRESCIENCE
22.LOCUTION
23.OLFACTORY
24.LOGOPHILE
25.PERTURB
26.DISSIMULATE
27.BAUBLE
28.CONTRARIAN
29.LUMMOX
30.FECUND
31.HOIPOLLOI
32.FELICITOUS
33.PAEAN
34.SERENDIPITY
35.EPISTOLARY
36.GUSTATORY
37.COSSET
38.RIPOSTE
39.PATOIS
40.ANIMADVERSION
41.EXEGESIS
42.DOYENNE
43.ACIDULOUS
44.GELD
45.BATHOS
46.OVERWEENING
47.FEBRILE
48.BENIGHTED
49.TURPITUDE
50.IMPRECATION
LEVEL7
1.SIMPER
2.DENUDE
3.SUIGENERIS
4.JEREMIAD
5.SOBRIQUET
6.REGNANT
7.HAUTEUR
8.PATERFAMILIAS
9.APOGEE
10.MIEN
11.DYSPEPTIC
12.ANAPHORA
13.PHILANDER
14.MISSIVE
15.PENULTIMATE
16.ZEITGEIST
17.SENTENTIOUS
18.INTERDICT
19.MALAISE
20.PROGENY
21.BELIE
22.FACTOTUM
23.JINGOISM
24.GAINSAY
25.NEOLOGY
26.EXCRESCENCE
27.CORBEL
28.SEDULOUS
29.MAUNDER
30.SALTATION
31.ANODYNE
32.AUTODIDACTIC
33.JOCUND
34.SIMULACRUM
35.LAMBENT
36.SUPERVENE
37.VAINGLORIOUS
38.PETRIFACTION
39.FECULENT
40.SOLOMONIC
41.LEITMOTIF
42.SCARAMOUCH
43.EFFLORESCE
44.SKEIN
45.INTERSTICE
46.COMMENTARIAT
47.PEREGRINATION
48.FILIGREE
49.GIMCRACK
50.IMMITIGABLE
LEVEL8
1.PANOPLY
2.RECHERCHÉ
3.VERTIGINOUS
4.KISMET
5.TEMPORIZE
6.PLEONASM
7.VERISIMILITUDE
8.CABAL
9.POSTPRANDIAL
10.ONOMATOPOEIA
11.DUDGEON
12.HEGEMONY
13.PREMONITORY
14.RETRONYM
15.RECUSE
16.PENURY
17.ROUÉ
18.LUDDITE
19.SCHADENFREUDE
20.COSTIVE
21.GALLIMAUFRY
22.ANALECTS
23.PARTURITION
24.ATRABILIOUS
25.TRANSMOGRIFY
26.SCREED
27.MATUTINAL
28.CRAPULENT
29.IPSOFACTO
30.DEBOUCH
31.IMMURE
32.CORRIGENDUM
33.LATITUDINARIAN
34.STENTORIAN
35.ABECEDARIAN
36.JUVENILIA
37.HIDALGO
38.ELEEMOSYNARY
39.PLANGENT
40.LAGNIAPPE
41.ACOLYTE
42.CHATOYANT
43.DOPPELGÄNGER
44.SUPERNUMERARY
45.REBARBATIVE
46.LOUCHE
47.INTERREGNUM
48.ALEMBIC
49.OLEAGINOUS
50.WASTREL
LEVEL9
1.SANGFROID
2.DESUETUDE
3.SHIBBOLETH
4.CRIDECOEUR
5.INCUNABULA
6.CHEF-D’OEUVRE
7.IAMB
8.FRISSON
9.PRELAPSARIAN
10.MÉTIER
11.ABLUTION
12.APOSTASY
13.SUMPTUARY
14.TATTERDEMALION
15.ABJURE
16.NOBLESSEOBLIGE
17.PRIMOGENITURE
18.XERIC
19.UXORIOUS
20.OPPUGN
21.AGNOSIA
22.CASUISTRY
23.PARAPRAXIS
24.POLYMATH
25.ENCOMIUM
26.CHARRETTE
27.DEBRIDE
28.LAPIDARY
29.OVIPAROUS
30.MARMOREAL
31.NUGATORY
32.PRESBYCUSIS
33.CICERONE
34.PANSOPHIC
35.RUBICUND
36.PICARESQUE
37.ENDOGENOUS
38.PERORATE
39.ONYCHOPHAGY
40.DÉJÀLU
41.VERBIGERATE
42.TENEBROUS
43.AGNATE
44.ULULATE
45.ZUCCHETTO
46.PSEUDANDRY
47.CAESURA
48.PHILODOX
49.VALETUDINARIAN
50.APOTHEOSIS
LEVEL10
1.CHIAROSCURO
2.CONTEMN
3.APOLOGIA
4.GORGONIZE
5.SCHOLIA
6.CATHECT
7.SORTILEGE
8.TERPSICHOREAN
9.ESPRITDEL’ESCALIER
10.POPINJAY
11.CATACHRESIS
12.ETIOLOGY
13.DEMIMONDE
14.NUMINOUS
15.LEXIPHANIC
16.BRACHIATE
17.QUIDNUNC
18.CATECHUMEN
19.SYBARITE
20.QUISLING
21.CATHOLICON
22.DISCALCED
23.INCONDITE
24.AFFLATUS
25.FLANEUR
26.QUOMODOCUNQUIZE
27.PASQUINADE
28.XANTHIPPE
29.POCOCURANTE
30.HOMUNCULUS
31.MORGANATIC
32.PARALEIPSIS
33.MUMPSIMUS
34.BIBLIOPHAGIC
35.CORYBANTIC
36.AUBADE
37.LYCANTHROPY
38.NULLIPARA
39.WELTSCHMERZ
40.NOETIC
41.QUIDDITY
42.RESISTENTIALISM
43.NULLIBIQUITOUS
44.FLOCCULENT
45.BOUSTROPHEDON
46.CLINQUANT
47.CASTELLATED
48.ULTRACREPIDARIAN
49.THERSITICAL
50.PERENDINATE
LEVEL1
Word1:DEPRAVITY(di-PRAV-i-tee)
Wickedness,moralperversion,corruptorevilcharacterorbehavior.
Synonymsofdepravityincludedeviancy,degeneracy,baseness,vileness,iniquity(word2ofLevel4),
debauchery(di-BAWCH-uh-ree,seedebauch,word30ofLevel5),andturpitude(word49ofLevel6).
Antonyms include virtue, integrity, uprightness, rectitude (word 35 of Level 1), scrupulousness,
impeccability,andprobity.
Depravity began as the shorter word pravity, which came to English in the 16th century through
Middle French pravité from the Latin prāvitās, crookedness, irregularity, deformity. The prefix de-,
whichhasseveralmeanings,wasaddedbythemid-17thcenturyandinthisinstancemeanscompletely,
thoroughly,tothebottomorcore,asindenude(di-N[Y]OOD),tostripcompletely,makebare;despoil
(di-SPOYL),totakeallthespoils,andthustorob,plunder,pillage;anddeliquesce(DEL-i-KWES), to
meltawaycompletely,dissolve.
In modern usage depravity always applies to morals and, because of that intensifying prefix de-,
suggeststhoroughcorruptionorwickedness:thesexualpredator’sdepravity.Theadjectiveisdepraved,
corrupt,wicked,perverted,asdepravedfantasies,adepravedlifestyle,adepravedappetitefordrugs.
Word2:PRES UMPTUOUS (pri-ZUHMP-choo-us)
Overlyforward,takingundueliberties,actingorspeakingtooboldly,venturingbeyondthelimitsofproperbehaviororgoodsense.
Synonyms of presumptuous include arrogant, impertinent (word 20 of Level 1), impudent, insolent
(word5ofLevel2),shameless,overweening(word46ofLevel6),andbrazen.
Oneofthemeaningsoftheverbtopresumeistotakeundueliberties,or,totakeupononeselfwithout
permissionorauthority.Forexample,youcanpresumetoknowwhat’sgoodforsomeoneelse,presume
youcandosomethingbetterthansomeoneelse,orpresumetospeakwhenyououghttobesilent.
Fromthissenseofpresumecomestheadjectivepresumptuous,overlyforward,undulyconfidentor
bold.Whenyouarepresumptuousyougobeyondwhatisconsideredappropriateorproper,oryoutakeit
uponyourselftodoorsaysomethingwithoutpermissionorauthority.Apresumptuouspersontakesundue
libertieswithothers,suchasbossingthemaroundormakingunwantedamorousadvances.Presumptuous
speechisoverlyboldorarrogant.Presumptuouslogicisoverlyconfidentinitsrightnessandarrogantly
ignorestheflawsinitsreasoning.
Initsmorecommonsense,presumemeanstosuppose,believe,takeforgranted,infer—aswhenSir
HenryMortonStanley,uponfindingtheexplorerDavidLivingstoneinUjiji,Tanzania,in1871,famously
asked,“Dr.Livingstone,Ipresume?”Inthissenseitisofteninterchangeablewithassume.Butsometimes
afinedistinctioncanbedrawnbetweenthesetwowords.
Whenyouassume,yousupposesomethingthatisrealisticorprobable,thatislikelytohappenorbe
true: teachers assume that their students will do their homework; employees assume they will be paid.
When you presume, you suppose more boldly and confidently, believing or asserting the likelihood or
truthofsomethingthatmaybedoubtfulorwrong:optimistspresumethingswillalwaysworkoutforthe
better;studentsoftenpresumetoknowtheanswertoateacher’squestion.
The distinction between the nouns assumption and presumption, however, is slightly different. An
assumptioncanbeanythingsupposedortakenforgranted,oftenwithoutanyprobableevidence:“Before
CopernicusandGalileo,thecommonassumptionwasthattheearthwasflat.”Apresumptionisanything
supposed or believed that is based on probable, though not conclusive, evidence: “The $3.8 trillion
budgetreleasedbytheWhiteHouseonMondayincludes$150billionindeficitreductionover10years
onthepresumptionthatahealthcarebillwillbeadopted”(TheNewYorkTimes).
Inlaw,thenotionthatadefendantisinnocentuntilprovedguiltyiscalled“presumptionofinnocence,”
whichBlack’sLawDictionarydefinesas“thefundamentalprinciplethatapersonmaynotbeconvicted
ofacrimeunlessthegovernmentprovesguiltbeyondareasonabledoubt,withoutanyburdenplacedon
theaccusedtoproveinnocence.”
Word3:GRANDIOS E(GRAN-dee-ohs,rhymeswithhandydose)
Showyandgrandinanexaggerated,artificialway;affected,inflated,pompous.
Synonyms of grandiose include pretentious, highflown, ostentatious (AH-sten-TAY-shus), bombastic
(bahm-BAS-tik),grandiloquent(gran-DIL-uh-kwint),andturgid(TUR-jid).
Althoughgrandiosehasbeenusedofthingsthatareimpressivewithoutbeingobjectionable—aswhen
Ralph Waldo Emerson, in 1843, wrote, “This grandiose character pervades his wit and his
imagination”—thewordisusuallyusedinadisparagingwayofsomethingthattriessohardtoimpressor
appeargrandthatitseemsshowyandpompous.Aperson’swayofdressing,behaving,orspeakingcanbe
describedasgrandioseifitissoaffectedorexaggeratedastoborderontheabsurd.
Grandiose may also mean unnecessarily complicated or elaborate, extravagant, overblown. In this
senseweoftenhearorreadofgrandioseplans,ideas,ordreams,andgrandiosearchitecture,music,or
terminology.
Thenounisgrandiosity(GRAN-dee-AH-si-tee).
Word4:DIS S EMINATE(di-SEM-i-nayt)
Tospreadwidely,scatterasifsowingseed.
The verb to disseminate comes from the Latin dissēmināre, to sow, spread abroad, from dis-, apart,
away, and sēmen, sēmĭnis, seed, that which is sown or planted, the direct source of the English semen
(SEE-min), which dictionaries typically define as “a viscid, whitish fluid produced in the male
reproductiveorgansandcarryingspermatozoa.”Viscid(VIS-id),bytheway,meansthickandsticky.
TheLatinsēmen,sēmĭnis,seed,isalsothesourceofthewordsseminary and seminal. A seminary
may be a place where something originates and is nurtured and developed (a seminary of provocative
ideasfortacklingsocialproblems),oraschoolwherepeoplestudytheologyandaretrainedtobecome
ministers,priests,orrabbis.Theadjectiveseminal(word39ofLevel5)literallymeanslikeaseed,and
therefore so original and important as to influence later development or future events (a seminal
scientificstudythatchartedthecourseofallsubsequentresearch).
Synonyms of disseminate include broadcast, disperse, and promulgate. Of these, to broadcast, to
spreadabroad,makewidelyknown,isclosestinmeaningtodisseminate.Todispersemaymeantomove
orscatterindifferentdirections,asthecrowddispersed;tosendordriveoffindifferentdirections,as
thepolicedispersedthecrowd;or,likedisseminate,tospreadabroadorabout,distribute,astodisperse
heat or a disease dispersed throughout the city. To promulgate (pro-MUHL-gayt or PRAHM-ul-gayt)
means to make known formally or officially, publish, proclaim, as to promulgate a new policy of
amnesty,ortoteachpublicly,advocateopenly,astopromulgatethedoctrineofnonviolence.
Word5:ECLECTIC(i-KLEK-tik)
Variedordiverseinaninterestingway;selecting,orconsistingofselections,fromavarietyofsources,especiallythebestofthosesources.
“Notconfinedtoanyonemodelorsystem,”saysTheCenturyDictionary,“butselectingandappropriatingwhateverisconsideredbestin
all.”
Although the adjectives eclectic and diverse are close in meaning, they are not synonymous. Diverse
meanshavingvariety,consistingofdifferentkinds.Youcanhavediverseopinions,adiversesociety,ora
diversewardrobe.Incarefulusage,eclecticdoesnotmeanmerelyvariedbutratherselectedthoughtfully,
with the goal of achieving an interesting variety. Thus, although an eclectic collection of music may
include many kinds of music, and in this sense be diverse, eclectic also implies that this variety was
achievedbycarefulselectionratherthanbychance.
Unfortunately,eclecticisoftenusedasashowysubstitutefordiversebywriterswhoarenotsensitive
tothesubtledistinctionbetweenthesewords.Forexample,thephraseChina’seclecticcuisine is poor
usagebecausetheChineseinventedtheirowndiversecuisine;theydidnotselectitwithcarefromother
greatcuisinesoftheworld.Andthephraseaneclecticmixofpeoplemilledinfrontofthebuilding is
alsopoorusagebecausethemixisrandom,notintentionallyarranged.Onlyifpeoplehavebeenchosento
createanespeciallyinterestingmixcanagroupbecalledeclectic.
Haphazardmeansselectedorassembledatrandomorbychance,withoutanythoughtforarrangement.
Diverse and miscellaneous both mean of mixed character, composed of different kinds of things, and
usuallydonotimplyjudgmentortasteinselection.Eclecticshouldalwaysimplyjudgmentandtastein
selection,especiallychoosingthebestfromavarietyofsources.Aneclecticapproachtophilosophyor
religion selects from them those ideas that seem best, while an eclectic diner will go to various
restaurants,samplingabithereandabitthere,lookingforthebestfaretobehad.
Word6:S ERVILE(SUR-vil,rhymeswithchervil)
Likeaslave,slavish,submissive,obedient,subservient,yielding.
Servile is the adjective. The noun is servility (sur-VIL-i-tee), submissive behavior, unquestioning
obedience,ortheconditionofbeingaslaveorservant.
Synonymsofservileincludegroveling,fawning,truckling,toadying,sycophantic(SIK-uh-FAN-tik),
and obsequious (uhb-SEE-kwee-us). All these words suggest submissive behavior, but in slightly
differentways.
Togrovel(GRAH-vulorGRUH-vul),fromMiddleEnglishandOldNorsewordsmeaningfacedown,
prone,istolieorcrawlwithone’sfacedown.Because,indaysofyore,thispositionwasassumedto
show humility and obedience before a noble person or one’s superiors, grovel came to be used
figurativelytomeantohumbleoneselfoutofloyalty,remorse,orfear.
Tofawn,whichdatesbackto1225,originallyappliedtoanimals,especiallydogs,andmeanttoshow
delight,affection,oradesireforattentioninthemannerofadog—inotherwords,towagthetail,whine,
crouch,rollsubmissively,andsoon.Bytheearly14thcenturyfawnhadcometobeusedfigurativelyof
submissivebehaviorintendedtogainnoticeorfavor,andtodaythiswordappliestoanyonewhocurries
favor by apple-polishing or kissing up: the pop star’s fawning admirers; she fawned on her boss in
hopesofapromotion.
Whatwenowcallatrundlebed,akindoflowbedthatmovesoncastersandcanslideunderalarger
bedwhennotinuse,wasoriginallycalledatrucklebed.Theverbtotruckleatfirstmeanttosleepina
trucklebed,butbecausethepersonwhosleptinthetrucklebedwasinvariablytheservantorpupilofthe
master,whosleptinthemorecomfortablehighbed,trucklesooncametomeantoactlikeaservantora
fawningpupil,tosubmitoryieldmeekly.Youcantruckleto,asinthis1789quotationfromSamuelParr’s
Tracts Warburton: “He was … too proud to truckle to a Superior.” Or you can truckle for, as in this
quotationfrom1885:“Doubtfulpeopleofallsortsandconditionsbeggingandtrucklingforyournotice.”
InhisDictionaryofWordOrigins,JosephT.Shipleytellshow“medievaltravelingmedicine-men”
usedtohaveanassistantwhowouldswallowalivetoad,orseemto,“sothatthemastercoulddisplay
his healing powers.” The assistant came to be called a toadeater, which was eventually shortened to
toadyandusedofanyflatteringfollower,apersonwhotrucklestotherichorpowerful.Totoadyistobe
likeatoady,tobeayes-manorapplepolisher.
Asycophant(SIK-uh-funt,with-phantasinelephant)isanespeciallyself-servingkindoftoady.The
wordgoesbacktoancientGreekandinEnglishoriginallymeantaninformerormaliciousaccuser.Today
the word refers to those who attempt to gain influence or advancement through fawning flattery and
slavishsubservience.Andwhilethetoadyismerelyafaithfulfollowerorservant,underneathhisguiseof
servilitythesycophantisusuallyaschemingbackstabber.
The adjective obsequious comes from the Latin obsĕqui, to comply with, yield to, obey. The
obsequiouspersonfollowsthewishesorbowstothewillofanother,andisalwaysreadyandwillingto
serve,please,orobey.“Iseeyouareobsequiousinyourlove,”wroteShakespeareinTheMerryWives
ofWindsor.
Ourkeyword,servile,comesfromtheLatinadjectiveservīlis,slavish,ofaslave,fromservire,tobe
a servant or slave. Because of this derivation, servile has always been used of those who accept an
inferiorpositionandwhatevermenialdutiesandundignifiedconcessionscomewithit.Aservileperson
isabootlicker,akowtower,onewhobehavesinthebowing,cringingmannerofaservantorslave.
Antonyms of servile include unruly, defiant, intractable (in-TRAK-tuh-bul), refractory (ri-FRAKtur-ee),recalcitrant(ri-KAL-si-trant),andintransigent(in-TRAN-si-jent).
Word7:VORACIOUS (vor-AY-shus)
Extremelyhungry,havingalargeappetiteorcravingsthataredifficulttosatisfy.
Voraciousmaybeusedeitherliterally,ofgreatphysicalhunger,orfiguratively,eitherofagreatappetite
for intellectual or emotional nourishment or of an excessive eagerness or greed for something. A
voraciousreaderisanextremelyavidreader;avoraciousloverisonewhoseappetiteforeroticpleasure
cannotbesatisfied;avoraciouslookisahungry,desirous,andperhapspredatorylook.
Synonymsofvoraciousinitsliteralsenseincludefamishedandgluttonous.Synonymsofvoracious
in both its literal and figurative senses include insatiable (in-SAY-shuh-bul or in-SAY-shee-uh-bul),
ravenous,rapacious(word10ofLevel2),andedacious(ee-DAY-shus).
Word8:CONVOLUTED(KAHN-vuh-LOO-tid)
Intricate,complicated,veryinvolved,hardtounravel.
ConvolutedcomesfromtheLatinconvolūtus,thepastparticipleoftheverbconvolvĕre,torolltogether,
rollround,intertwine,thesourcealsooftheunusualverbtoconvolve,torollup,coil,twist,andthemore
familiarnounconvolution,awinding,coil,twistorfold,asofsomethingrolleduponitself:“Ithathmany
convolutions, as worms lying together have,” says the earliest citation for this word, from 1545, in the
OxfordEnglishDictionary(hereaftertheOED).
Themorninggloryisacommonplantknownforitsabilitytosupportitselfbytwiningaroundanything
itsvigoroustendrilscangrasp.Likethemorningglory,whichtwistsandcoilsitselfaroundthings,that
whichisconvolutedissointricateandcomplex,sofoldedinuponitself,thatitisdifficultandsometimes
impossibletounravel.Along,complexargument—orevenacomplicatedsentence—isoftendescribedas
convoluted.Mathematicalequationsandphilosophicalreasoningcanbeconvoluted,andtheregulations
ofthefederaltaxcodearenotoriouslyconvoluted.Thehumanbodyalsohasitswell-knownconvolutions:
thebrainisaconvolutedmassofgrayandwhitematter,andifyouweretounraveltheconvolutionsofthe
smallintestineitwouldstretchtomorethantwentyfeet.
Word9:RANT(rhymeswithslantandcan’t)
Tospeakinanexcited,vehement,orviolentmanner;speakferventlyorfuriously.
Synonyms of the verb to rant include to storm, rage, rail, denounce, fulminate (FUHL- or FUUL-minayt),andinveigh(in-VAY).
To rant comes from an obsolete Dutch word meaning to talk foolishly, rave. In the early 1600s
ShakespeareandBenJonsonusedranttomeantospeakordeclaiminanextravagantormelodramatic
manner,andthewordhassinceoftenbeenappliedtoactorsororatorswhodeliveredgrandiosespeeches.
Though this sense is still in good standing, by the mid-1600s the now-familiar expression to rant and
ravehadappearedinprint,andrantbyitselfwasmoreoftenusedtomeantotalkinawild,furious,or
deliriousmanner.Bytheearly20thcenturyranthadalsocometobeusedtomeantoengageinalong,
vehement, and often furious speech. The noun rant is a lengthy and intemperate expression of outrage,
dissatisfaction,ordisgust.(Intemperateisword22ofLevel3.)
Word10:S TRATAGEM(STRAT-uh-jem)
Atrick,deception,ruse,artifice;specifically,acleverschemeorartfulmaneuverusedtodeceive,outwit,orgainanadvantageoveranenemy,
adversary,orrival.
StratagemcomesfromtheGreekstratēgein,tobeincommand,fromstratēgos, a military commander,
general, and is related to the more common word strategy. A stratagem, a deceptive and sometimes
underhandedmaneuver,isoneelementofastrategy,whichisamorefar-reachingplantoachieveagoal
orattainvictory.Forexample,theD-dayinvasionofEuropeatNormandywasthestratagemtheAllies
employedintheirfinalpushtodefeatHitler.Andaruthlessbusinessstrategytooutstripthecompetition
mightinvolvevariousethicallyquestionablestratagems.
Although stratagem comes ultimately from ancient Greek, English acquired the word in the 15th
centuryfromtheOldFrenchstratageme,whichiswhywespellitwithanainthesecondsyllableandnot
withane,asinstrategy.Takecaretospellitstratagem,notstrategem.
ReviewQuizforKeywords1–10
Let’sreviewthetenkeywordsyou’vejustlearned.Considerthefollowingquestionsanddecidewhether
thecorrectanswerisyesorno.Answersappearhere.
1.Wouldstealingaloafofbreadtofeedyourstarvingfamilybeasignofdepravity?
2.Isitpresumptuoustoaskfordirectionswhenyou’relost?
3.Cansomeone’sspeechbegrandiose?
4.Doesthesanitationdepartmentdisseminategarbage?
5.Canaperson’slibrarybeeclectic?
6.Isadisobedientchildbeingservile?
7.Ifyoucan’tgetenoughofsomething,areyouvoracious?
8.Canwritingbeconvoluted?
9.Doradiotalkshowhostssometimesrantaboutpolitics?
10.Wouldanunsuccessfulstratagemhelpyougainanadvantage?
***
Nowlet’sturntothefirstofthefeaturesthatwillappearthroughoutWordWorkoutaftereachsetoften
keyworddiscussions.
DifficultDistinctions:MayandMight
Some people think the words may and might are interchangeable, but they are not. There is a subtle
differenceinthedegreeofprobabilitytheyexpress.
“May poses a possibility; might adds a greater degree of uncertainty to the possibility,” writes
Theodore M. Bernstein in The Careful Writer. “This shade of difference appears in the following
sentence:‘Anybroadcastingstationthatairsmorecommercialsthanthecodeallowsmaybefined,andin
extremecasesitslicensemightbetakenaway.’”
Toputthatanotherway,mayindicatesgreaterpossibilitythanmight.Ifaweatherreportsaysitmay
rain,youshouldtakeanumbrella.Ifitsaysitmightrain,youcantaketheumbrellaortakeyourchances.
DifficultDistinctions:AorAn?
“Inelementaryschool,Iwastaughttouseanbeforevowelsandabeforeconsonants,”writesafaithful
readernamedJames.“ButrecentlyI’veheardmoreandmorepeoplesayanbeforewordsbeginningwith
h,inphrasessuchasanhistoricevent.Isthiscorrect?”
Yourteacherstaughtyouright.Ifawordbeginswithavowelorvowelsound,usean (an idea, an
egg).Ifitbeginswithaconsonant,usea(a friend, a story). The general rule, say nearly all the usage
guidespublishedsincethe19thcentury,isthatifthehissounded,usea.Ifitissilent,usean. Thus, a
history,ahappening,ahumbleman,butanhour,anhonor,anherb.
The problem with certain words beginning with h, such as historic, is that the first syllable is not
stressedandthehmayseemtobesuppressed,sothespeakeristemptedtousean.TheBrits,whohavea
history of dropping their h’s, tend to use an—except with herb, because they pronounce the h. But in
AmericanEnglishthehissoundedinhistoric,historical,hysterical,hypnosis,humble,andheroic,and,
asMarkTwainnotedbackin1882,“CorrectwritersoftheAmericanlanguagedonotputanbeforethose
words.”
***
Nowlet’smoveontothenexttenkeywordsinLevel1:
Word11:EMACIATED(i-MAY-shee-ay-tid)
Ofapersonoranimal,abnormallythin,wastedawayfromdiseaseorstarvation.Theverbistoemaciate(i-MAY-shee-ayt),towasteaway,
becomeabnormallyleanorthin.
Emaciated applies only to people and animals; it is not used of plants or inanimate objects. Thus, you
coulduseemaciatedofastarvingpersonoranabnormallythinmodel,butyouwouldsayawithered or
shriveledflowerandadeterioratedordilapidatedhouse.
Synonyms of emaciated include scrawny, gaunt, shrunken, skeletal, haggard, malnourished,
rawboned, and wizened (WIZ-und). Antonyms include obese, portly, rotund, corpulent (word 39 of
Level4),andpursy(PUR-see),whichmeansshort-windedfrombeingoverweight;hence,fat.
Word12:MIS GIVING(mis-GIV-ing)
Afeelingofdoubt,hesitation,uneasiness,suspicion,ordread.
Theprefixmis-beginsmanyEnglishwordsandoftenmeansbad,badly,wrong,orwrongly.Forexample,
a misadventure is a bad, unfortunate adventure; misbegotten means badly begotten, poorly or illegally
conceived;tomisrepresentistorepresentwronglyorfalsely;andtomisuseistouseinthewrongway.A
misgivingisbyderivationthegivingofabadfeeling.
The noun misgiving was formed in the late 16th century from the now unusual and literary verb to
misgive,toarousesuspicion,doubt,orfearinthemindorheart,aswhenJohnMiltonwritesinParadise
Lost(1667),“Yetofthisheart,divineofsomethingill,misgavehim.”Misgivingisprobablymoreoften
used in the plural, misgivings, of feelings that shake one’s confidence, belief, or trust: “They began to
havemisgivingsabouttheprojectafterresidentsexpressedtheirstrongoppositionatthetownmeeting”;
“Itwasanamorousadventure,yethedidnotenterintoitwithoutcertainmisgivings,forhedidnotknow
whethershewassincereormerelyplayingwithhisfeelings.”
Thenounqualm,keyword18ofthislevel,isaclosesynonymofmisgiving.
Word13:ADULATION(AJ-uh-LAY-shin)
Excessiveadmiration,praise,orflattery;overzealousdevotion;heroworship.
Synonyms of adulation include fawning, servility, blandishment, obsequiousness (uhb-SEE-kwee-usnis), and sycophancy (SIK-uh-fun-see). All these words—especially servility, obsequiousness, and
sycophancy—imply submissive, deferential, or slavish behavior that is designed to gain favorable
attention.
AdulationcomesfromtheLatinverbadūlāri,tofawnuponlikeadog,cringebefore,andsincethe
poetGeoffreyChaucerusedit,in1380,thewordhashadthepejorativeconnotationofdoglikeservility.
(Canyoudiscern—todetectwiththeeyesorthemind—fromthecontextwhatpejorativemeans?You’ll
meet pejorative again, as word 17 of Level 6.) While adoration is pure, denoting reverent homage
(HAHM-ij), love, or worship, adulation is exaggerated and sometimes hypocritical, suggesting not
respect or veneration but a servile devotion or false flattery that seeks to gain favor. “Adulation ever
followstheambitious,forsuchalonereceivepleasurefromflattery,”wroteOliverGoldsmithin1766.
The words compliment, flattery, and adulation all suggest admiration, but in different ways. A
complimentiscourteouspraise;itmaybepersonalandheartfeltordignifiedandformal,butitisnever
exaggerated or insincere. Flattery is artful and sometimes hypocritical praise designed to appeal to
someone’s vanity. Adulation is excessive praise, flattery taken to an undignified or shamelessly servile
extreme.
Adulationisthenoun.Toadulate(AJ-uh-layt),toflatter,praise,oradmireexcessively,istheverb.A
person who adulates is an adulator (AJ-uh-LAY-tur), and the adjective is adulatory (AJ-uh-luh-TORee),markedbyservileflatteryorexcessivepraise.JamesBoswellwastheadulatorybiographerofthe
18th-centuryEnglishessayistandlexicographerSamuelJohnson.(Alexicographer[LEKS-i-KAHG-ruhfur]isamakeroreditorofdictionaries.)
Word14:DEVOTEE(dev-uh-TEE)
Apersondevotedtosomething;anenthusiasticorardentfollower,admirer,orpractitioner.
Synonyms of devotee include fan, buff, enthusiast (en-THOO-zee-ast, not -ist), and aficionado (uhFISH-yuh-NAH-doh), which comes directly from the Spanish aficionado, from the verb aficionar, to
becomefondof.Aficionado,whichfirstappearedinEnglishinthe1840s,originallymeantadevoteeof
thesportofbullfighting,butbythe1880sitsmeaningwasextendedtoincludeanyardentfan,follower,or
practitionerofsomething,asinthissentencefromJohnSteinbeck’sRussianJournal,publishedin1949:
“AlittleswingbandwasledbyEdGilmore,whoisaswingaficionado.”
Devotee,asyoumightimagine,isrelatedtotheverbtodevoteandthenoundevotion.Allthreewords
comefromtheLatindēvōtus,devoted,attached,avowed.Devoteecombinesdevote with the suffix -ee,
whichcomesfromFrenchanddenotestheobject,beneficiary,orperformerofwhateveractoractionthe
verb it is attached to specifies. For example, an appointee is a person you appoint; an employee is a
personyouemploy;andanescapeeisapersonwhoescapes.Devotees,therefore,arepeoplewhodevote
themselvespassionatelytosomething.Youcanbeadevoteeofalmostanythingthatcanbefollowedor
practicedenthusiastically,fromsports,yoga,andcookingtomusic,history,andreligion.
Word15:VIVACIOUS (vi-VAY-shusor,lessoften,vy-VAY-shus)
Filledwithlivelyspirit,vigorous,high-spirited,energetic.
Thenounisvivacity(vi-VAS-i-tee),liveliness,vigorousness,highspirits.
Synonyms of vivacious include frisky, sprightly, animated, vibrant, frolicsome, and effervescent
(EF-ur-VES-int). Effervescent comes from the Latin effervescĕre, to boil or foam up, and may mean
eitherliterallybubblingorfullofbubbles,likesoftdrinksorchampagne,orfigurativelybubblingwith
energyordelight,aseffervescentconversationoreffervescentmusic.
Antonymsofvivaciousincludelethargic,somnolent(SAHM-nuh-lint, word 16 of Level 2), listless
(word39ofLevel2),languid,enervated,apathetic,indolent(word48ofLevel4),phlegmatic (flegMAT-ik),andtorpid(word38ofLevel5).
Vivacious comes from the Latin adjective vīvax, vīvācis, which meant either long-lived or brisk,
lively,vigorous.ThisLatinadjectivecomesinturnfromtheverbvīvĕre, to live, the source of various
Englishwords,amongthemtorevive,tobringbacktolife;vivid,fulloflife,hencebrightorintense;and
vital,necessarytoorpertainingtolife,orhavinggreatenergyorforce.SincevivaciousenteredEnglish
in the mid-17th century, writers have used it to describe a person’s appearance, mood, behavior,
character, or intellect, as a vivacious countenance, a vivacious temperament, a vivacious greeting,
vivacious students, and a vivacious mind. They have even used it of speech and writing, as in loud,
vivacioustalkandabookfilledwithvivaciousnonsense.
The words lively and vivacious both mean vigorous, full of life, but lively suggests brisk energy,
alertness,orquickness,whilevivacioussuggestshighspirits,cheerfulness,ormirth.
Word16:ANACHRONIS TIC(uh-NAK-ruh-NIS-tik)
Misplacedintime,notinproperchronologicalplaceororder;hence,byextension,out-of-date,outmoded,obsolete.
Ananachronism(uh-NAK-ruh-niz’m),thenoun,isapersonorthingoutofitsproperhistoricalplace,in
thewrongtime,orsimplyout-of-date.
AnachronismandanachronisticbothgobacktotheGreekanachronismós, a wrong time reference.
They are formed from the prefix ana-, which means against or back, and chron(o)-, a combining form
from the Greek chrónos, time, that appears in many other English words, such as chronic, lasting over
time; chronological, arranged in order of time; and chronicle, an account of events in order of time, a
history.Thus,byderivationanachronismandanachronisticpertaintothingsthatgoagainsttime,donot
belongintheirtime,orthatgobackintime,thatseemtobelongtoaprevioustime.
Somethinganachronisticmaybeoutofkeepingwiththepresenttime,asananachronisticsuitfromthe
1940s, or foreign to, not belonging to, any particular time—whether past, present, or future. In modern
medicine, leeching is an anachronistic treatment, but a thousand years from now our most advanced
treatments for cancer, such as radiation and chemotherapy, may be considered sadly anachronistic,
belonging to a previous time, outmoded. And the author of a historical novel, set in the past, must take
caretoavoidwordsandexpressionsthatareobviouslyanachronistic,outofkeepingwiththetimeperiod
ofthestorybecausetheywerecoinedatsomelaterdate.
Word17:GARIS H(GAIR-ish)
Excessivelyshowyorbright;harshlyorcrudelycolorful;attractingattentioninaloudandtastelessway.
Synonyms of garish include flashy, gaudy, tawdry, and meretricious (MER-uh-TRISH-us). All these
wordsareusedofthatwhichisshowyandvulgar.
Flashy suggests sparkling or brilliant showiness that is momentary or superficial: flashy piano
playing;flashytraveldestinationslikeLasVegas.
Gaudy suggests showiness that is especially tasteless: gaudy costume jewelry; the bowlers’ gaudy
shirts.
Tawdry means showy and cheap, of inferior quality, and may be used literally or figuratively: the
knockoffstore’stawdryclothing;atawdryreputation.
MeretriciouscomesfromaLatinwordmeaningpertainingtoprostitutes,andisusedofsomeoneor
something superficially or deceptively attractive: meretricious eyes; meretricious decorations; a
meretriciousargument.
Garish suggests excessive showiness or unpleasant brightness, and is used of that which tries to
attractattentioninaloudandtastelessway:garishneonlights;NewYorkCity’sgarishTimesSquare;
garishmodernarchitecturethatconfusesornamentationwithstyle.
Word18:QUALM(KWAHM,rhymeswithbomb;thelissilent)
Asuddenuneasy,disturbing,orsickeningfeeling,especiallywhenaccompaniedbyatwingeofconscienceorapangofguilt.
Since the mid-1500s qualm has been applied either to a sudden, sickening emotional feeling or to a
sudden,sickeningphysicalfeeling,andboththesesensesarestandardtoday.Youmayhaveaqualm—a
suddenuneasyorfearfulfeeling—aboutanyimportanteventordecisioninlife,suchashavingsurgery,
gettingmarried,orchangingcareers.Oryoumayhaveaqualm—asuddenfeelingoffaintnessornausea—
ifyouexperiencemotionsicknessoreatfoodthatdisagreeswithyou.
Sincetheearly17thcenturyqualmhasalsobeenusedspecificallyofasudden,disturbingfeelingof
guiltordoubtconcerningtherightnessofone’sbehavior.Tohaveaqualmaboutsomethingistofeela
twingeofconscienceorapangofguiltaboutit.Inthissensethewordisnowusuallyusedintheplural,to
havequalms,andofteninnegativeconstructions,astohavenoqualmsaboutspendingmoremoney or
shehadnoqualmsaboutwhatshehadsaid.
Thewordsmisgiving(word12ofthislevel),compunction,scruple,andqualmarecloselyrelated.
Allpertaintouneasy,disturbing,ordoubtfulfeelings.
Misgiving refers to feelings that shake one’s confidence, belief, or trust: we had misgivings about
hiringthenewemployee.
A compunction, from the Latin verb compungĕre, to prick severely, is a pricking or stinging of
conscience, either from anxiousness about the possibility of doing wrong or causing harm, or from
remorse for having done wrong or caused harm: “In therapy she was finally able to admit her
compunction about the mistakes she had made in her marriage. Her husband, on the other hand, felt no
compunctionforhisoffenses.”
Ascruplemaybeamoralorethicalprinciplethatmotivatesonetodotherightthing:“Myscruples
prevent me from supporting that ignoble cause.” Or a scruple may be something that causes doubt or
hesitationaboutthepropercourseofaction,oftensomethingoverrefinedthatotherswoulddisregard:a
vainscruplethatspringsfromaflightoftheimaginationratherthanfromsoundreason.
Aqualmisasuddenmisgivingthatofteninvolvescompunction,adisturbingorsickeningfeelingoften
accompaniedbyapangofguiltorremorse:“Theschoolboardmembersexpressedqualmsaboutslashing
thebudgetfortheperformingarts.”
Word19:CONS UMMATE(kun-SUHM-itorKAHN-suh-mit)
Ofthehighestorgreatestdegree,complete,utmost,utter.
Boththeadjectiveconsummateandtheverbtoconsummate(KAHN-suh-mayt),tocomplete,fulfill,come
from the Latin consummāre, to complete, form a whole, bring to perfection. You can consummate a
businessdeal,completeit,orconsummateavisionorgoal,fulfillit.Youcanalsoconsummateamarriage
byhavingsexualintercourse,whichsymbolicallycompletesorfulfillstheunion.
Theadjectiveconsummateisneutralandmayimplyperfectcompletion,asconsummate happiness,
oruttercompletion,totheutmostdegree,asconsummatewisdomorconsummatestupidity.Consummate
maybeappliedtothosewhoareaccomplishedorskilledtothehighestdegree,asaconsummateactoror
aconsummatepolitician.Orconsummatemayapplytothosewhopossessaqualityorcharacteristicin
the greatest degree, as a consummate fool or a consummate bore. In like manner we can speak of
consummatevirtueorconsummateevil,consummatehonestyorconsummatehypocrisy.
Word20:IMPERTINENT(im-PUR-ti-nent)
Overlyforwardorbold;rude,meddlesome,orinappropriateinspeechorbehavior.
The noun is impertinence (im-PUR-ti-nints), unmannerly speech or behavior, rudeness, arrogance,
incivility:ateacherwhowouldnottolerateimpertinence.
Synonyms of the adjective impertinent include disrespectful, presumptuous (word 2 of this level),
arrogant, uncivil, saucy, impudent, insolent (word 5 of Level 2), brazen, officious, and malapert
(MAL-uh-purt). Antonyms of impertinent include respectful, courteous, civil, mannerly, gracious, and
deferential.
Impertinentcombinestheprefixim-,whichheremeansnot,andpertinent,relatingdirectly,relevant.
WhenimpertinententeredEnglishinthe14thcenturyitmeantnottothepoint,notpertinent,irrelevant,a
meaningthatsurvivestoday,butchieflyinlegalusage.Bytheearly17thcenturyimpertinenthadcometo
be applied to speech or behavior that was not pertinent or proper to the occasion, specifically “rude,
unbecoming, or uncivil words or actions” (Webster’s New International Dictionary, second edition,
hereafterWebster2).Animpertinentremarkisoverlybold,rude,orintrusive.Animpertinentpersongoes
beyondwhatisconsideredproperorpolitebybeingpresumptuous,disrespectful,ormeddlesome.
ReviewQuizforKeywords11–20
Let’sreviewthetenkeywordsyou’vejustlearned.Considerthefollowingstatementsanddecidewhether
eachoneistrueorfalse.Answersappearhere.
1.Somesumowrestlersareemaciated.
2.“Buyer’sremorse,”regretforhavingboughtsomething,isamisgiving.
3.Adulationcanbesubtle.
4.Youcanbeadevoteeofcountrymusic.
5.Youcanbevivaciouswhenyou’reexhausted.
6.Amanualtypewriterisanachronistictoday.
7.Somethingdullandordinaryisgarish.
8.Youareuncomfortableifyouhavequalms.
9.Aconsummateliarisalousyliar.
10.Aservilepersonisimpertinent.
SynonymDiscriminations:Amiable,Affable;Blatant,Flagrant;Catastrophe,Calamity
The adjectives amiable and affable both mean friendly and likable. Amiable suggests someone with a
pleasantpersonality:“EveryonewantedtohangoutwithAshantibecauseshewassoamiable.”Affable
suggestssomeonewhoiseasytoapproachandtalkto:“Carmenwasrelievedtofindthatherprofessors
weren’thighandmighty,butquiteaffable.”
The adjectives blatant and flagrant both refer to what is extremely obvious, especially when it’s
offensive.Withblatantthereisnoattempttodisguiseorconcealtheobvious;somethingblatantstandsout
inaglaringorrepugnant(word4ofLevel2)way:blatant lies. Flagrant implies serious wrongdoing.
Somethingflagrantstandsoutinashockingway;itisdeplorable(di-PLOR-uh-bul),worthyofoutrage:a
flagrantbreachoftrust.Avoidthephraseblatantlyobvious,whichisredundant.
Finally,acatastropheandacalamityarebothdisasters.Catastropheputstheemphasisonthetragedy
oftheevent:the catastrophe of 9/11. Calamity puts the emphasis on the toll of the event, on the grief,
suffering,andmiseryitcauses:“ThecalamityofHurricaneSandymaylingerforyears.”
Word21:RAMIFICATION(RAM-i-fi-KAY-shin)
Afar-reachingeffect,relateddevelopment,orconsequenceofsomething.
Implication,extension,outgrowth,andoffshootaresynonymsoframification.
TheLatinrāmusmeansabranch,andtheverbrāmificāremeanstobranchout.TheunusualEnglish
wordramiform(RAM-i-form)meansshapedlikeabranch,branchlike,andtheverbtoramify (RAM-ify) means to spread out or extend like branches, divide into branchlike parts. Ramify may be used
literally,asin“Therailroadtracksramifyinalldirectionsfromthehub.”Oritmaybeusedfiguratively,
asinthis1861quotationfromThomasErskineMay’sConstitutionalHistoryofEngland: “Dissent had
grownandspreadandramifiedthroughouttheland.”
Ramification, from the same Latin rāmus, a branch, may also be used literally or figuratively.
Literally,ramificationmeansabranchoroffshoot,orabranchingout.Forexample,bloodvesselsand
nerveshaveramifications;theybranchoutinvariousdirections.Andscholarsoftentrytomasterallthe
ramificationsoftheirsubject.Figuratively,ramification,asWebster2putsit,is“thatwhichspringsfrom
another in the manner of a branch or offshoot.” It is an outgrowth, consequence, or far-reaching effect,
oftenanunforseenorunwelcomeone.Anearthquakemayhaveenvironmentalramifications;adecisionby
theSupremeCourtcanhavelong-lastingsocialramifications;andseeminglyeverywordthatcomesoutof
themouthofthechairoftheFederalReservehasramificationsfortheeconomy.
Word22:ELUCIDATE(i-LOO-si-dayt)
Tomakeclear,explain,castlightupon.
Synonyms of elucidate include clarify, illuminate, interpret, and expound. Antonyms of elucidate
includeconfuse,obscure,confound(word34ofLevel2),muddle,mystify,andbewilder.
TheadjectivelucidcomesfromtheLatinlūcidus,clear,fulloflight.Somethinglucidiscleartothe
mind, easily understood, comprehensible, as a lucid explanation or lucid conversation. The verb to
elucidatecomesfromthesameLatinlūcidus,clear,andbeginswiththeprefixe-,shortforex-,whichin
thisinstancemeansthoroughly,completely.Thusbyderivationelucidatemeanstomakecompletelyclear.
The verbs to explain, to expound, and to elucidate all mean to make clear, but in different ways.
Explainisthegeneralwordformakingsomethingclearthatisnotknownorunderstood.Toexpoundisto
makesomethingclearbygivingalearned,detailed,andoftenelaborateexplanation.Toelucidate is to
castlightuponsomethingobscureorhardtounderstandbymeansofvividexplanationandillustration.
Ifyouexplainsomethingyoumakeiteasiertounderstand.Ifyouexpoundsomething,orexpoundonit,
you explain it in great detail. And if you elucidate something, you shine a bright light on it so that its
meaningisplaintoall.
Word23:ADAGE(AD-ij)
Anexpressionofpopularwisdom,anoldsaying,proverb.
Englishhasmanywordsfortraditional,popular,andcleversayings.
A saw—often redundantly called an old saw—is a saying so old and shopworn that it has become
tiresomeandhackneyed(word1ofLevel4).
Anaxiom(AKS-ee-um)isagenerallyacceptedtruthorprinciple,especiallyonethatisself-evident
andrequiresnoproof,astheaxiomsofgeometry.Thefundamentalaxiomofdemocracy,enshrinedinthe
DeclarationofIndependence,is“Allmenarecreatedequal.”
Amaxim(MAKS-im)isaguidingprincipleorruleofconductthatexpressesageneraltruthdrawn
fromexperience.Thegoldenrule—“Dountoothersasyouwouldhavethemdountoyou”—isamaxim.
AndPolonius’sadvicetohissonLaertes(lay-UR-teezorlay-AIR-teez)inShakespeare’sHamlet(ActI,
sceneiii)isfullofmaximssuchas“Neitheraborrowernoralenderbe”and“Giveeverymanthineear,
butfewthyvoice.”
Anaphorism(AF-ur-iz’m)isageneraltruthorshrewdobservationexpressedinaforceful,thoughtprovokingway.Aphorismsareterse—briefandtothepoint—andtheirtoneisusuallyphilosophical.A
famousexamplecomesfromthe19th-centuryEnglishhistorianLordActon:“Powertendstocorrupt,and
absolutepowercorruptsabsolutely.”
An epigram (EP-i-gram) is a brief and pointed saying that is notable for its wit or ingenuity. For
example,inhisplayLadyWindermere’sFan(1892),theIrishpoetandplaywrightOscarWildewrote,“I
can resist everything except temptation.” (By the way, take care not to confuse epigram with epigraph
[EP-i-graf],whichmeansaquotationatthebeginningofaliteraryworkoranengravedinscription.)
Finally, we have the proverb and the adage (AD-ij), which are close in meaning. Both are wellknown,oft-repeatedsayingsthatexpresssomethinguniversallyacceptedaswiseortrue.Aproverbisa
short,popularsayingcouchedinsimple,vivid,andoftenmetaphoricallanguage,as“Abirdinthehandis
worthtwointhebush,”“Goodthingscomeinsmallpackages,”and“Youcanleadahorsetowaterbut
youcannotmakehimdrink.”Anadageisanexpressionofpopularwisdomthathasbeenpasseddown
throughthegenerations;itisusuallysooldthatitsoriginhasbeenforgotten.“Timewaitsfornoman,”
“Wherethere’sawill,there’saway,”and“Nothingventured,nothinggained”areadages.
Word24:BES OTTED(bi-SAHT-id)
Verydrunk,extremelyintoxicated;also,infatuated,obsessed.
Theprefixbe-hasseveralmeanings.Itmaymeantodepriveof,asinbehead.Itmaymeanallaround,on
allsides,asinbesetandbesiege.Itmaymeanallover,asinbesmear,besprinkle,andbeslobber.Andit
maymeancompletely,thoroughly,asinbesotted,completelydrunk.Otherwordsinwhichtheprefixbemeanscompletely,thoroughly,includebecalm,tocalmcompletely,andbenumb,tonumbthoroughly.
Thenounsotwasfirstused,morethanathousandyearsago,tomeanastupidperson,afool.Latersot
cametomeanapersonwhohabituallydrinkstoexcess,adrunkard,whichishowthewordisusedtoday.
Theadjectivebesotted,whichenteredEnglishinthe16thcentury,meansrenderedstupidorfoolisheither
from drinking or by infatuation. Drunken sailors are besotted sailors, and in Shakespeare’s Antony and
Cleopatra,MarcAntonybecomesbesottedwiththeexoticEgyptianqueen.
Synonyms of besotted in the sense of very drunk include befuddled, groggy, addled (AD’ld),
inebriated,andstupefied.(Theverbtostupefyisword30ofLevel3.)Antonymsofbesottedinthesense
ofverydrunkincludesober,temperate,andabstemious(ab-STEE-mee-us).Synonymsofbesottedinthe
sense of infatuated, obsessed include captivated, smitten, enamored, enraptured, enthralled, and
beguiled.Antonymsofbesottedinthesenseofinfatuated,obsessedincludedispassionate (word 20 of
Level2),unruffled,andimperturbable(IM-pur-TUR-buh-bul).
Word25:RUEFUL(ROO-ful)
Sorrowful,mournful;showingorfeelingsorrow,pity,orregret.
Synonymsofruefulincludemelancholy,woeful,doleful,pitiable,lamentable(traditionallyLAM-in-tuhbuul,butnowusuallyluh-MEN-tuh-buul),andlugubrious(luu-GOO-bree-us).Antonymsofrueful—and
let’sbegladthattherearemany—includemerry,cheerful,joyful,gleeful,blithe(BLYTH, rhymes with
writhe),buoyant(BOY-int),mirthful,jovial,jubilant,andsanguine(SANG-gwin).
TheverbtorueisoneoftheoldestwordsintheEnglishlanguage,datingbacktothe9thcentury.Inits
mostcommonandenduringsense,toruemeanstolookuponwithsorroworregret,towishthatsomething
hadneverbeendoneorhadneverhappened.Youcanruethedayyoufirstlaideyesonsomeone,ruethe
dayyouwereborn,orruethetimethatsomethingterriblehappened,aswhenShakespearewritesinhis
playKingJohn,“France,thoushaltruethishourwithinthishour.”
Thenounrueisasoldastheverbandmeanssorrow,regret,ordeepdistress,asinthefamous1896
poembyA.E.Housman:“Withruemyheartisladen/ForgoldenfriendsIhad,/Formanyarose-lipt
maiden/Andmanyalightfootlad./Bybrookstoobroadforleaping/Thelightfootboysarelaid;/The
rose-liptgirlsaresleeping/Infieldswhererosesfade.”
Tackthesuffix-fulontothenounrueandyouhavetheadjectiverueful,filledwithorexpressiveof
sorrow,pity,orregret.Apersoncanberueful,andaperson’seyes,face,heart,manner,orappearance
canalsoberueful.One’splightcanberueful,acrycanberueful,andwordsareoftenrueful.Thenounis
ruefulness.
Word26:S PAS MODIC(spaz-MAH-dik)
Likeaspasm:sudden,violent,andbrief;also,happeninginfitsandstarts,notregularorsustained,fitful,intermittent.
In pathology (puh-THAHL-uh-jee), which is the medical term for the study of diseases and abnormal
conditions, a spasm (SPAZ’m) is a sudden, involuntary muscular contraction. Spasm is also used
figurativelyofanythingthatislikeaspasminitssuddennessandviolence.Thereareemotionalspasms,
asofanxiety,grief,orjoy.Therearepoliticalspasms,asofrebellionorwar.Andtherearespasmsof
nature,suchashurricanes,earthquakes,andvolcanoes.
The adjective spasmodic may mean sudden, violent, and brief like a spasm, and in this sense it is
closeinmeaningtotheadjectiveconvulsive.Orspasmodicmaymeanoccurringlikeaspasm,atirregular
and unpredictable intervals, and in this sense it is close both in meaning and in sound to the word
sporadic(spor-AD-ik).Butthatwhichisspasmodichappensatintervals,periodically,whilethatwhich
issporadicisscatteredordispersed,occurringonlyinisolatedinstances.Theoppositeofspasmodic is
constantorcontinuous,whiletheoppositeofsporadiciswidespreadorepidemic.
Word27:DETRITUS (di-TRYT-is,rhymeswitharthritis)
Debris,disintegratedmaterial;specifically,rockfragmentsthathavewornawayfromamass,orsand,clay,orsomeothermaterialthathas
beenwashedaway.
Detritus comes from the Latin dētrītus, a rubbing away, and at first it was used in English to mean a
wearingaway,disintegration.Butsoonitcametobeusedofwhatevermaterialhasbeenwornorwashed
away,andthenitwasusedofanykindofdisintegratedmaterialordebris.Thesearethemeaningsofthe
wordthathaveendured.
Some well-educated people mispronounce detritus with the accent on the first syllable: DE-tri-tus.
Properly,detritusrhymeswitharthritis.
Word28:AWRY(uh-RY,rhymeswiththepie)
Offcourse,amiss,inanunintendeddirection,inawrongorunfortunateway.
Awry,whichgoesbacktoMiddleEnglish,isusuallyusedwithsomeformoftheverbtogo:aplanthat
goesawry;amissionthatwentawry;arelationshipthathasgoneawry.Thewordalwaysimpliesliteral
orfigurativemovementinanunexpectedorimproperdirection:“Inagroomingsessionthatwentawry,
DesperateHousewivesstarTeriHatcheraccidentallyslicedoffhereyelashes”(DNAindia.com).
Headlinewritersarefondofusingawry,perhapsbecauseit’smorevividthanamissandshorterthan
wrong.HerearetwoshockingheadlinesthatIgleanedfromGoogleNews:“Momparalyzedafterpole
dancestuntgoesawry,”and“Plantoburnhusband’sgenitalswentawry,courttold.”
Word29:ENCUMBER(en-KUHM-bur)
Toburden,weighdown,placeaheavyloadupon;also,tofrustrateorobstructtheactionormotionof.
Synonymsoftheverbtoencumberincludetoimpede,hinder,hamper,handicap,andretard.Antonymsof
encumberincludetoease,alleviate,facilitate,andexpedite (EKS-puh-dyt), which means to speed up,
hasten.
Thenounisencumbrance(en-KUHM-brints),somethingthatfrustratesorobstructsaction,aburden,
hindrance,impediment(word31ofthislevel).
EncumbercomesfromanOldFrenchwordmeaningtoobstruct,blockup,whichcomesinturnfrom
the Late Latin combrus, an obstacle, barricade. In modern usage encumber always implies weighing
something down or placing an obstacle in the way. You can use it literally to mean to burden with
somethingheavy,placeaheavyloadupon:“Theywereencumberedwithbulkysuitcases.”Youcanuseit
figuratively to mean to burden with a heavy load of obligations or responsibilities: “They were
encumbered by their young dependent children and by their elderly dependent parents.” You can use
encumbertomeantoburdenwithaheavyloadofdebt,astofinanciallyencumberfuturegenerations.
Andfinally,youcanuseittomeantoloadorfillwithsomethinguselessorsuperfluous,tocomplicate
unnecessarily:amindencumberedwithtrivia;anamendmentthatencumbersthelegislation.
Word30:BLEMIS H(BLEM-ish)
Todamageordiminishthebeautyorsoundconditionofsomething.
Synonyms of the verb to blemish include to injure, impair, mar, deface, tarnish, taint, sully, and
besmirch(word45ofLevel3).
Thenounblemishisusedofanythingthatdamagesordetractsfromtheappearanceofsomething,orof
a flaw or defect that renders something imperfect. The word may be literal or figurative. A stain on a
piece of clothing or a dent in a piece of furniture is a literal blemish. A black mark on someone’s
reputationisafigurativeblemish.
The verb to blemish suggests making something imperfect or less attractive. It is also used both
literallyandfiguratively.Pimplesblemishyourcomplexion.Errorsofgrammarandusageblemishyour
writing.Drinkingcoffeeandredwinecanblemishyourteeth.Andifyoudon’tpayyourbillsontime,you
willblemishyourcreditrating.
Theadjectiveblemishedmeanshavingadamagedorunattractiveappearance:ablemishedpieceof
fruit,ablemishedrecordinoffice.
ReviewQuizforKeywords21–30
Let’sreviewthetenkeywordsyou’vejustlearned.Decideifthepairsofwordsbelowaresynonymsor
antonyms.Answersappearhere.
1.Implicationandramificationare…synonymsorantonyms?
2.Elucidateandmuddleare…
3.Adageandproverbare…
4.Besottedandtemperateare…
5.Ruefulandbuoyantare…
6.Intermittentandspasmodicare…
7.Debrisanddetritusare…
8.Awryandamissare…
9.Toexpediteandtoencumberare…
10.Toblemishandtosullyare…
TheStyleFile:TheEndResultIsYourFinalDestination
Findtheerrorinthissentence:“Theendresulthasbeenrunawayspending,taxincreases,andreductions
incoreservices.”Nowfindtheerrorinthissentence:“BoardmemberMarciCordaropredictedthefinal
outcomeofthegrowingdebate.”Ifyouguessedthatthetroublelieswiththephrasesendresultandfinal
outcome,you’reright.
Redundancyistheuseofmorewordsthanarenecessarytoexpressanidea,andifyouwanttobea
moresensitiveandcarefuluserofthelanguage,youmustlearntorootoutredundancyfromyourwriting
andspeech.End result is redundant because a result is what happens at the end. And final outcome is
redundant because an outcome is how things come out in the end. In these phrases, the words end and
finalareunnecessarybecauseresultandoutcomespeakforthemselves.Anddon’tthinkyoucangetaway
withusingthecommonvariantfinalresult;that’salsoredundantforthesamereason.
AsthegameshowWhoWantstoBeaMillionaire?taughttheworld,it’sallrighttogiveyourfinal
answer.That’sbecauseinthatgameacontestantmaygiveseveralanswersbeforesettlingonafinalone,
andanswerbyitselfdoesn’timplyfinality.Butitisredundanttomakeafinaldecisionorreachafinal
conclusionbecausethewordsdecision(fromtheLatindēcīdere,tocutdownorcutoff)andconclusion
(fromtheLatinconclūsiōnis,ashuttingorclosing)meanajudgmentordeterminationthatisfinal.
Andwhilewe’reonthesubjectoffinalityandredundancy,haveyounoticedhowflightattendantslike
usingthephrasefinaldestination?Theysay,“We’llbelandinginHartfordinaboutfiveminutes.Ifthisis
yourfinaldestination,thankyouforflyingwithusandhaveaniceday.”
Yes,Iknowthatflightattendantsusethisredundantphrasebecauseanairplaneoftenmakesseveral
stopsbeforereachingthatday’sfinalstop.Butadestinationisnotastopalongthewayoralayover;it’s
whereyouwindup,wherethetravelingends,thelocationattheendofthejourney.Solet’sjettisonfinal
destinationandproceedtothenextstoponthewaytotheendofWord Workout, which is your proper
destination.
***
HerearethenexttenkeywordsinLevel1:
Word31:IMPEDIMENT(im-PED-i-mint)
Anobstacle,hindrance,somethingthatslowsdownmovementorstandsinthewayofprogress.
Animpedimentmayalsobeaspeechdisorder,orwhatthedictionariescall“anorganicobstructionto
distinctspeech,”suchasalisporastutter.
TheverbtoimpedecomesfromtheLatinimpedire,whichmeantliterallytosnareorshacklethefeet,
andsotoentangle.Whenyouimpedesomething,youslowdownitsmovementorprogress,standinits
way.Synonymsofimpedeincludehinder,retard,thwart,andencumber(word29ofthislevel).
The noun impediment comes from the Latin noun impedimentum, a hindrance; the plural is
impedimenta, baggage, traveling equipment, especially the supplies carried by an army. For more than
fourhundredyearsthispluralimpedimentahasbeenusedinEnglishinpreciselythisway,ofbaggage,
supplies,orequipmentthatencumberatravelinggroup,suchasanarmyorcaravan.
ThemoreusualEnglishplural,impediments,appliestothingsofanykindthatgetinthewayorslow
youdown.Astrainedmuscleisanimpedimenttoanathlete.Athunderstormisanimpedimenttoapicnic.
Andtoanarchitect,theredtapeofthebuildingdepartmentcanbeanannoyingimpediment.
Word32:MODICUM(MAH-di-kum)
Asmallamount,modestportion,littlebit.
ModicumcomesdirectlyfromtheLatinnounmodicum,asmallormodestamount,especiallyofmoney.
ThisLatinmodicumcomesfromtheadjectivemodicus,moderate,limited,withinbounds,whichinturn
comes from the noun modus, a measure or a standard of measurement. Other English words that come
fromthisLatinmodusincludemodest,moderate,andmodulate.
Thewordsmodicum,iota,minim,soupçon,smidgen,andskoshallrefertosmallamounts.
Iota(eye-OH-tuh)andminim(MIN-im)denotethetiniestamounts.Iotaistheninthandsmallestletter
of the Greek alphabet, a diminutive vertical squiggle [ι], hence a minute or microscopic amount.
(Diminutive,pronounceddi-MIN-yuh-tiv,meansexceedinglyorstrikinglysmall.)Minim,fromtheLatin
minimus, smallest, least, may specify the smallest liquid measure, about one drop, or it may mean the
smallest or least possible amount of anything, a jot or whit, as in this 1884 quotation from Public
Opinion: “He has not the smallest intention of … yielding one minim of the rights and interests of
Germany.”
Thewordsoupçon(soop-SAW[N],withaFrenchnasalizedn)meanseitheraverysmallportion,tiny
bit,asasoupçonofbrandy,orthemerestsuggestionofsomething,suchasaflavor,smell,orfeeling:a
soupçonofresentment;asoupçonofnutmeg.
Asmidgen(SMIJ-in,rhymeswithpigeon),awordofuncertainorigin,isalsoaverysmallportion,
butperhapsabitlargerthanasoupçon.Andaskosh(pronouncedwiththelongoofkosher)isperhapsa
bitlargerthanasmidgen.SkoshenteredEnglishinthe1950s,duringtheKoreanWar.Itcomesthrough
KoreanpidginfromtheJapanesesukoshi(pronounced“skoshy”)andmeansasmallamountorportion,a
littlebit.
Ofallthesewords,modicumsuggeststhemostgenerousportionoramount,smallbutoftenadequate
for one’s needs or purpose. A modicum of money is neither a paltry1 sum nor a fortune; it is a modest
amountthatisusuallysufficient.Ifyoudon’thaveaniota,aminim,orasmidgenofcommonsense,you’re
a blundering fool. But if you have a modicum of common sense, a modest portion of it, you have just
enoughtogetby.
Word33:DOS S IER(DAH-see-ay)
Acomprehensivefile;abundleorcollectionofpapersordocumentscontainingdetailedinformationaboutaparticularpersonortopic.
TheLatindorsummeanstheback.FromitcometheEnglishscientificwordsdorsum,theback(asofan
animal),anddorsal,pertainingtoorsituatedatorontheback.FromthisLatindorsum also comes the
Frenchworddos,whichmeansback,andfromdoscomestheFrenchworddossier,whichmeanttheback
of a chair and also a bundle of papers or documents. In the late 19th century, English borrowed this
French dossier in the latter sense. Here’s an 1884 citation from The Pall Mall Gazette: “In neatlydocketedcabinetsroundhisofficestoodthedossiers[DAH-see-ayz]ofallthecriminalswithwhomhe
hashadanythingtodoforthepasteightyears.”
Whatdoesabundleofpapershavetodowiththeback?MostdictionariesnotethatinFrenchdossier
referredtoabundleorfileofpaperswithalabelattachedtothebackorspine,andtheOEDsuggestsit
wasthebulgingofthebundlethatresembledaback.
A file and a dossier are both collections of papers about a person or a topic, but a file may be
incomplete,lackingsomeimportantinformation,whiletheinformationinadossierisalwaysdetailedand
comprehensive.
Word34:ALLITERATION(uh-LIT-uh-RAY-shun)
Therepetitionofthesameletterorsoundatthebeginningoftwoormoreneighboringwordsorstressedsyllables:Andstillthewindwailed
andtheincessantsnowswirledandfell.Theadjectiveisalliterative(uh-LIT-ur-uh-tiv).
Alliteration is one of the writer’s most powerful tools. The careful and considered use of alliteration
(carefulandconsideredisalliterative)cangiveyourwritingagracefulandpleasingmusicality.Butyou
mustbecarefulandconsideredaboutit,foralliterationcangrateontheearandannoythereader.
Shakespeare’splaysandpoemsarefullofalliteration;forexample,healliterateswiththeletterf in
Ariel’ssonginTheTempest:“Fullfathomfivethyfatherlies.”Andlistentothehypnoticalliterationof
theselinesfromEdgarAllanPoe’sfamouspoem“TheRaven”:“Thesilkensaduncertainrustlingofeach
purple curtain / Thrilled me—filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before.” In the first line, the
sibilant (word 9 of Level 4) sound of s creates the alliteration in four successive words—silken, sad,
uncertain,rustling—whileinthesecondlinethealliterationcomesfromtherepeatedsoundoff—filled,
fantastic,felt.
TheopeninglinesofVladimirNabokov’s1955novelLolitaprovideastrikingexampleofsustained
alliteration:
LOLITA,lightofmylife,fireofmyloins.Mysin,mysoul.Lo-lee-ta:thetipofthetonguetakinga
tripofthreestepsdownthepalatetotap,atthree,ontheteeth.Lo.Lee.Ta.
She was Lo, plain Lo, in the morning, standing four feet ten in one sock. She was Lola in
slacks. She was Dolly at school. She was Dolores on the dotted line. But in my arms she was
alwaysLolita.
Alliterationcanbeeffectiveintitles.AmongthemanyalliterativelytitledbooksinmylibraryareSin
andSyntaxbyConstanceHale;TheTreasureofOurTonguebyLincolnBarnett;DeviousDerivationsby
HughRawson;TheGlamourofGrammarbyRoyPeterClark,andofcoursemyownWhatintheWord?
andTheBigBookofBeastlyMispronunciations.
Alliteration is sometimes used to achieve a humorous or sarcastic effect. But when the writer’s
intention is serious and the alliteration occurs repeatedly, it can be disagreeable. In his usage manual
Right, Wrong, and Risky, another alliteratively titled book, Mark Davidson offers this advice:
“Sometimes alliteration combines memory enhancement with poetic grace, as when … the Rev. Martin
LutherKingJr.spokeofhisdreamofaworldinwhichallpeoplewouldbejudgednot‘bythecolorof
theirskinbutbythecontentoftheircharacter.’Butbewareofthetemptationtooverdoit.”
Word35:RECTITUDE(REK-ti-t[y]ood)
Virtue,righteousness,moralintegrity;correctnessinprinciplesorbehavior,orconformitytoacceptedstandardsofproperconductorthinking.
Synonyms of rectitude include uprightness, which implies straightforwardness and sincerity; veracity
(vuh-RAS-i-tee), which implies truthfulness and trustworthiness; and probity (PROH-bi-tee), which
implieshonestyandintegrity.
Antonyms of rectitude include deceitfulness, speech or behavior intended to mislead another or
conceal the truth; duplicity, double-dealing, giving two impressions, one or both of which is false; and
perfidy (PUR-fi-dee), a breach of faith, disloyalty, treachery. Depravity, the first word of this level, is
alsoanantonym.
RectitudecomesthroughFrenchfromtheLatinrectitudo,straightness,righteousness,ultimatelyfrom
theLatinrectus, straight, upright, proper, correct. This Latin rectus has influenced a number of English
words,includingcorrect,direct,rector,amemberoftheclergywhodirects;rectify,tomakeorsetright;
and,believeitornot,theanatomicaltermrectum,whichdenotestherelativelystraightterminalpartof
thecolon,orlargeintestine,endingintheanus.
Sincethe15thcenturyrectitudehasalsobeenusedtomeanstraightness,astherectitudeofthespine.
Though this use is still in good standing, rectitude more commonly means correctness or conformity in
behavior or thinking, as the rectitude of his judgment, or moral integrity, righteousness, virtue, as a
womanoffidelity,rectitude,andcourage.
Word36:VEXATIOUS (vek-SAY-shus)
Troubling,disturbing,annoying,irritating.
The verb to vex means to irritate, annoy, provoke, or to bother deeply, trouble, torment. The adjective
vexed means annoyed, irritated, troubled: “His road rage vexed her.” The noun vexation may mean the
stateofbeingvexed:“Shedreadedwhenhedrovebecauseshehadtoputupwithhisconstantvexation.”
Or vexation may mean something that vexes: “His angry outbursts while driving were her greatest
vexation.”
All these words come from the Latin vexāre, to shake, disturb, agitate, or by extension, to annoy,
harass, disquiet. The adjective vexatious, formed from the noun vexation, may be used of people or
things,asavexatioustoddlerorvexatiousflies.Andformorethanthreehundredyearsithasalsobeen
usedinlawofmaliciouslawsuits,onesthatareinstituted,astheOEDputsit,“withoutsufficientgrounds
forthepurposeofcausingtroubleorannoyancetothedefendant.”
Word37:EPITHET(EP-i-thet)
Awordorphraseappliedtoapersonorthingthatdescribessomequalityorcharacteristicofthatpersonorthing.
Syonymsofepithetincludenickname,designation,appellation(AP-uh-LAY-shin),andsobriquet(SOHbri-kay,word5ofLevel7).
EpithetcomesfromanancientGreekwordthatmeantadded,attributed,placedupon.Byderivation,
anepithetisanattributedqualityorcharacteristic,anespeciallydescriptivewordorphraseappliedtoa
personorthing.Anepithetmaybeanadjectivethatcharacterizesanoun,suchasgreen-eyed in greeneyedjealousy,andtheterribleinIvantheTerrible.Anepithetmayalsobeadescriptiveormeaningful
wordorphrasecloselyassociatedwithapersonorthingandusedasasubstitutefortheactualnameof
thepersonorthing,suchasman’sbestfriendforadogandTheGreatEmancipatorforAbrahamLincoln.
Epithetisperhapsmostoftenusedtodayinathirdsense,whereitmeansatermofabuse,aslur,an
insultingorcontemptuouswordorphrase,asaracialepithet.Thewordhasbeenusedinthiswaysince
at least 1712, when the Scottish physician and satirist John Arbuthnot (ahr-BUHTH-nut or AHR-buthnaht)pennedthisline:“Blockhead,Dunce,Ass,Coxcomb,2werethebestEpithetshegavepoorJohn.”
StudentsatYalehavelongusedtheepithetweenieforapersonwhostudiestoomuchandneverhasfun,
andtheynicknamedthestudycubiclesinYale’sCrossCampusLibraryweeniebins.
Word38:TRAVES TY(TRAV-i-stee)
Anabsurdorludicrousimitation;agrotesqueorgrosslyinferiorlikenessorresemblance.
In its original sense, which dates back to the 17th century, the noun travesty referred to an absurd or
ludicrousliteraryorartisticimitationofaseriouswork,asinthis1846citationfromtheessaysofthe
EnglishhistorianThomasWright:“Thoseromanceswerebutbarbaroustravestiesoftheoriginalstories.”
From this definition, which is still in good standing, the word broadened to refer to any grotesque or
grosslyinferiorimitation,andtodayitoftenappearsinphraseslikeatravestyofdemocracyoratravesty
ofjustice,whereitimpliesthatsomethingseriousanddignifiedhasbeenunfairlymockedortrivialized.
Thewordscaricature,burlesque,parody,andtravestyallrefertoartorliteraturethatmakesuseof
exaggeration,imitation,andabsurditytoachieveacomicorludicrouseffect.“Acaricature…absurdly
exaggeratesthatwhichischaracteristic…bypictureorbylanguage,”saysTheCenturyDictionary.“A
burlesque renders its subject ludicrous by an incongruous3 manner of treating it, as by treating a grave
subject lightly, or a light subject gravely.… A parody intentionally burlesques a literary composition,
generallyapoem,byimitatingitsform,style,orlanguage.”
Travesty and parody should be carefully distinguished, says the Century. In a parody “the language
and style of the original are humorously imitated,” while in a travesty “the characters and the subjectmatterremainsubstantiallythesame,thelanguagebecomingabsurdorgrotesque.”
Travestyisfrequentlymisusedfortragedy.Here’sanexampleoftherampantmisuse:“Itwouldbea
travestyiftheethicsandcampaignfinancereformsfizzlebecauseofpartisanwrangling.”Remember:a
tragedy is a disastrous event, terrible misfortune—or, in loose usage, an unfortunate occurrence or
unhappy situation. A travesty is an absurd or ludicrous imitation, or a grotesque or grossly inferior
likenessorresemblance.
Theverbtotravestymeanstoimitateinanabsurd,grotesque,andludicrousway,soastoridicule.
Word39:WANE(rhymeswithplane)
Todecreaseordiminishgradually,fadeaway.
Synonymsoftheverbtowaneincludetodwindle,decline,ebb,abate (uh-BAYT), wither, shrivel, and
subside.
To wane and its antonym to wax come from Old English and are among the oldest words in the
language. Both are commonly applied to the phases of the moon. When the moon waxes, the visible
portionofitgraduallyincreasesuntilthewholeorbisilluminated.Thenthemoonbeginstowane,andthe
illuminatedportiongraduallyshrinksuntilonlyasickle-shapedsliverisvisible.
Theunusualwordsfalcate(FAL-kayt)andgibbous(GIB-us)applytooppositestagesinthiswaxing
andwaningofthemoon.Theyareroughlyequivalenttothewordsconcave,hollowedorroundedinward,
and convex, curved or rounded outward. Falcate refers to the crescent shape of the moon when it is
waning.ThewordcomesfromtheLatinfalx,asickle,andmeanshavingaslendercurvelikeasickleora
scythe.Gibbousreferstothewaxingmoon,whentheilluminatedportionismorethanhalfbutnotyeta
fullcircle.ThewordcomesfromtheLatingibbus,ahump,andmeansshapedlikeorhavingahump.
Inadditiontothemoon,wanemaybeusedofcolororlight:theflushwanedfromhercheek.Itmay
beusedofqualities,conditions,orfeelings:waningyouth;waningenthusiasm.Anditmaybeusedof
people or things to mean to decrease gradually in power, intensity, or importance: the waning of the
RomanEmpire.Finally,towanemaymeantodrawtoaclose,approachanend,asinthissentencefrom
EdgarAllanPoe’sclassichorrorstory“TheTell-TaleHeart”:“Thenightwaned,andIworkedhastily,
but in silence.” The expression on the wane means decreasing in frequency, importance, or power,
diminishing,declining,as“Onedayasocialnetworkingsiteisarisingstarandthenextit’sonthewane.”
Word40:HUBRIS (HYOO-bris)
Excessiveprideorself-confidence.
Synonyms of hubris include arrogance, insolence (IN-suh-lints), presumption, and hauteur (hoh-TUR,
word7ofLevel7).Modestyandhumilityareantonymsofhubris.
The noun hubris and the adjective hubristic (hyoo-BRIS-tik), which means insolent, arrogant,
contemptuous,comefromtheGreekhybris,insolence,arrogance.TheOxfordCompaniontotheEnglish
LanguagenotesthatinancientGreektragicdrama,hubriswas“theoverweening[word46ofLevel6]
self-confidenceandambitionthatleads…totheruinofitspossessor.”Hubrisissometimesalsocalled
thefatalflaw,theweaknessordefectincharacterthatbringsaboutthedownfallofatragicfigure.Inthis
technical, theatrical sense hubris is opposed to the word nemesis (NEM-uh-sis, word 2 of Level 5),
divine punishment. In Greek tragedy, a character’s hubris, arrogance, was depicted as an affront to the
gods or to the divine order of nature, and would inevitably lead to an appropriate nemesis, divine
punishment.
Hubrisisalsousedgenerallytodescribeapersonwhoexhibitsexcessivepride,self-confidence,or
ambition,asinthissentencefromaTimemagazinereviewofthefilmTheCompanyMen:“[Ben]Affleck
alwayshastroublesimulatinghighemotion…buthenailsBobby’splungefromhubristohumiliation.”
Hubris may also be used of an institution or a nation: Wall Street’s unchecked greed and hubris; the
hubrisofAmericanforeignpolicy.
ReviewQuizforKeywords31–40
Let’sreviewthetenkeywordsyou’vejustlearned.
Thistimewe’regoingtoplayaversionoftheoldSesameStreetgameOneofTheseThingsIsNot
Like the Others. It’s called One of These Definitions Doesn’t Fit the Word. In each statement below, a
keyword(initalics)isfollowedbythreeone-wordorphrasaldefinitions.Twoofthethreearecorrect;
oneisunrelatedinmeaning.Decidewhichonedoesn’tfitthekeyword.Answersappearhere.
1.Animpedimentisanobligation,hindrance,encumbrance.
2.Amodicumisamodestportion,littlebit,morethanenough.
3.Adossierisabundleofpapers,secretdocument,comprehensivefile.
4.Alliterationissimilarsounds,repeatedsounds,familiarsounds.
5.Rectitudemeansopenness,integrity,virtue.
6.Vexatiousmeansdisturbing,annoying,frivolous.
7.Anepithetisanickname,designation,cleverremark.
8.Atravestyisanabsurdimitation,grotesquelikeness,gravemisfortune.
9.Towaneistodecrease,disappear,diminish.
10.Hubrismeansexcessivegreed,excessiveself-confidence,excessivepride.
TheStyleFile:SomeCommentsontheSerialComma
“When preparing a PowerPoint slide show, our company often shows a direct quote from a Federal
Manual,”writesJohninDenver,Colorado,whereseveraltimesayearIamaguestlanguagemavenon
theMikeRosenShowonKOA-AM.“Sometimesthepunctuationinthemanualisincorrect.Forexample:
‘workers,bicyclists,motorists,andpedestrians.’Iknowthepreferredformistonotuseacommaafterthe
word motorists. If we show this sentence on a slide, should we eliminate the comma but still use
quotationmarks?”
Actually,thecommaaftermotoristsisthetraditionalwayofpunctuatingaseries,andit’scalledthe
serialcomma(orsometimestheOxfordcomma).ItisendorsedbytheChicagoManualofStyle,favored
by many other authorities, and preferred by most book publishers. The practice of omitting the comma
afterthepenultimate(word15ofLevel7)iteminaseries,beforethewordand,comesfromjournalism;
newspaperstylecallsforred,whiteandbluewithonecommaratherthanred,white,andbluewithtwo.
Bothstylesareacceptableandyoumaychoosewhichoneyouprefer.Butifyouarequotingyoumay
notchangeanything;youmustreproducewhatyouarequotingpreciselyasitwasprinted.Ifyoubelieve
there’sanerrorofgrammarorstyleintheoriginal,youmayinsertsicinbrackets—[sic]—to show that
it’snotyourmistake.
Incidentally,Ifavortheserialcommabecause,tome,itgivestheseriesproperbalanceandavoids
anypotentialambiguities,asinthishilariousdedication:“Tomyparents,AynRandandGod.”
***
HerearethelasttenkeywordsinLevel1:
Word41:VICARIOUS (vy-KAIR-ee-us)
Sharingthefeelingsorexperienceofothersinone’sownimagination.
VicariouscomesfromtheLatinvīcārius,takingtheplaceofapersonorthing,substituted,thesourcealso
ofvicar(VIK-ur),awordthatoriginallymeantanearthlyagentorrepresentativeofGodorChristandis
nowappliedtovariousmembersoftheEpiscopalandRomanCatholicclergy.
TheoriginalmeaningofvicariouswasliketheLatinvīcārius,takingtheplaceofanother,substituted
fortheproperpersonorthing.Itlatercametobeusedinlawandtheologytomeanperformedorendured
byonepersoninplaceofanother,asvicariousliabilityorvicariouspunishment.Andithasbeenusedof
apersonorgroupthatactsfororrepresentsanother,asavicariousrulerwhowieldsvicariouspower.
You will find all these meanings of vicarious listed in modern dictionaries, but since the 1920s
vicarious has also been used to mean sharing the feelings or experience of others in one’s own
imagination.Thisisthesenseinwhichthewordisbestknownandmostoftenusedtoday.Avicarious
experience is one in which you imagine yourself going through what someone else is going through. A
vicarious thrill or vicarious pain comes from participating sympathetically in another person’s
experience. And when you live vicariously, you derive satisfaction or pleasure from someone else’s
experiencesoraccomplishments.Parentsareoftensaidtolivevicariouslythroughtheirchildren.
Word42:S TIPULATE(STIP-yuh-layt)
Inmakinganagreement:torequireasanessentialcondition,demandasarequirement.
Thenounisstipulation,anessentialconditionordemandinanagreement.
The verb to stipulate comes from the Latin stipulari, to demand a formal agreement, bargain. In
Romanlawthewordstipulatio(STIP-yuh-LAY-shee-oh)designatedanoralcontractinwhichoneparty
to the contract stipulated, made a formal requirement or demand of the other party in the form of a
question. When stipulate entered English in the 17th century, it did not stray far from this legal usage.
Sincethenwehaveusedthewordchieflytomeantospecifyasarequirementinanagreement,requireas
anessentialcondition.
Laws,rules,standards,andregulationsalltypicallystipulate,meaningthattheyestablishrequirements
orspecifycertainconditionsthatmustbemet.Atreatybetweennationsstipulatesthetermsofthetreaty.A
paroleboardcanstipulatearecordofgoodbehaviorasaconditionforaninmate’sreleasefromprison.
Andaperson’slastwillandtestamentcanstipulatehowtheassetsofanestatewillbedividedamong
inheritors.
Word43:DES POTIC(di-SPAHT-ik)
Rulingwithabsolutepower,orpertainingtosomeonewhohasunlimitedauthority.
Synonymsofdespoticincludedictatorial,tyrannical(ti-RAN-i-kul),authoritarian(uh-THOR-i-TAIRee-in),andautocratic(AW-tuh-KRAT-ik).
A despot (DES-put) is a person who has absolute or unlimited power, a tyrant or oppressor. The
absolutepowerthatthedespotexercisesiscalleddespotism(DES-puh-tiz’m).Likethewordtyrant,the
noun despot can be used of anyone who wields absolute power or authority, especially in a cruel and
oppressiveway.Acountrymayberuledbyadespot,acruelmonarchordictator.Butotheroppressive
authority figures, such as hard-nosed military officers or insensitive employers, can also be despots,
leaderswhooppressthosebeneaththem.
BothdespotandtheadjectivedespoticcomefromtheGreekdespótēs,master,lord,awordakinto
theGreekdómos,house,andpósis,husband.Soitcouldbesaidthatbyderivationadespotisthemaster
ofthehouse,acruelhusbandwholordsitovertherestofthefamily.
Despoticmeansrulingwithabsolutepower,orpertainingtosomeonewhohasunlimitedauthority.In
early2011theworldwatched,holdingitsbreath,asthecitizensofEgyptandTunisiatriedtopeacefully
overthrowtheirdespoticgovernmentsandestablishdemocracy.
Word44:UNS AVORY(uhn-SAY-vuh-ree)
Literally,disagreeableorunpleasanttotasteorsmell;figuratively,undesirable,offensive.
Thenounsavor(rhymeswithflavor)meansaparticulartasteorsmell,usuallyapleasantone.Asaverb
savormeanstoenjoythetasteorsmellofsomething,astosavoreverydropofsoup,ortogiveoneself
overtoenjoyment,astosavoreverymoment.
Unsavory combines the prefix un-, not, with the adjective savory, agreeable in taste or smell, as a
banquet of savory dishes. Something unsavory is not agreeable either to the physical sense of taste or
smellortothemoralsenseofwhatisproperorgood.Unsavoryfoodisunpleasantorunwholesometo
eat.Anunsavorypersonisunpleasantorunwholesometobearound.
Synonyms of unsavory in its literal sense of disagreeable to taste or smell include unappetizing,
unpalatable (uhn-PAL-uh-tuh-bul), and, when extremely disagreeable, disgusting and nauseating. The
closestsynonymofunsavory in its figurative sense of undesirable is objectionable; stronger synonyms
includebeastly,repugnant(word4ofLevel2),detestable,loathsome(LOHTH-sum),odious(OH-deeus),andabhorrent(ab-HOR-int).
Word45:INTIMATE(IN-ti-mayt,rhymeswithmotivate)
Toimply,hint,suggestorindicateindirectly,communicateobscurelyorremotely.
Thenounisintimation(IN-ti-MAY-shin),ahint,indirectsuggestion:“Shegavethemonlyintimationsof
hertruefeelings.”
Theverbtointimateandthefamiliaradjectiveintimate(IN-ti-mit)bothcomethroughtheLateLatin
intimāre,toannounce,makeknown,fromtheLatinintimus,innermost,deepest,mostsecret.Theoriginal
butnowarchaic4meaningoftheverbtointimateistoannouncepublicly,makeknownformally,asinthis
sentencefrom1759:“Thisresolutionsheintimatedtotheleadersofbothfactions.”Today,however,the
verbtointimatepertainsnottothatwhichisannouncedpubliclybuttothatwhichismadeknownina
carefullyindirectorprivateway,asinthisquotationfromSirWalterScott’snovelWaverley,publishedin
1814:“theopenavowal[word15ofLevel4]ofwhattheothersonlyventuredtointimate.”
To insinuate (in-SIN-yoo-ayt) and to intimate both mean to hint, suggest, but they connote different
waysofdoingso.Toinsinuateistosuggestinasly,subtle,andoftendeviousmanner;itmayalsomean
to bring oneself into a situation by artful or stealthy means. Radio talk show hosts routinely insinuate
derogatory (duh-RAH-guh-tor-ee, insulting, offensive) things about their ideological opponents;
undercover police officers insinuate themselves into criminal organizations to gather evidence. To
intimate is also to suggest subtly and indirectly, but it does not imply devious or stealthy motives or
behavior.Whenyoudon’twanttosaysomethingoutright,youcanintimate.Politicianswhodon’tyetwant
to announce their candidacy often intimate that they may run. And a good actor knows how to intimate
unspokenthoughtsandemotionsthroughfacialexpressionsandgestures.
Takecarenottowriteintimatedwhenyoumeanintimidated,amistakethatissurprisinglycommon
even in the edited prose of reputable publications. To intimidate—pronounced in four syllables—is to
frighten,makefearful.Tointimate—pronouncedinthreesyllables—istosuggestindirectly,hint,imply.
Word46:PREDIS POS E(pree-di-SPOHZ)
Toinclineortendtowardbeforehand,makesusceptibleorsubjectto.
Predispositionisthecorrespondingnoun.
To dispose is to give a natural tendency to, incline. It may be used either of positive or negative
inclinations, as a man disposed to spontaneous acts of charity, or a dog disposed to bark wildly at
strangers. To predispose is to dispose beforehand, usually well in advance of any opportunity for the
tendencyorinclinationtomanifestitself.Yourgeneticmakeupmaypredisposeyoutodiseaseortoliving
along,healthylife.PeoplewhogrowupinNewEnglandarepredisposedtobecomefansoftheBoston
RedSox.Andsociologicalstudieshaveshownthatmenwhogrowupinfamiliesplaguedbydomestic
violenceoftendevelopapredispositionfordomesticviolencethemselves.
Word47:APACE(uh-PAYS,rhymeswithaface)
Swiftly,quickly,withspeed.
Apace,whichdatesbacktothe14thcentury,meansataquickpace.Awell-knownuseofthewordoccurs
intheopeninglinesofShakespeare’sMidsummerNight’sDream,whenTheseussaystohiswife-to-be,
“Now,fairHippolyta,ournuptialhour/Drawsonapace.Fourhappydaysbringin/Anothermoon;but,
O,methinks,howslow/Thisoldmoonwanes!”(Waneisword39ofthislevel.Theadjectivenuptial,
properly pronounced NUHP-shul—nup- rhyming with cup and -tial as in partial—means pertaining to
marriageortothemarriageceremony.)
The New Oxford American Dictionary labels apace poetic or literary, which it is, but that doesn’t
meanapacewouldbeinappropriateinanordinarysentencetoday.Infact,theverbstocontinue,proceed,
andgrowareoftenpairedwithapace,asinthissentence:“Iransaysitsnuclearprogramisproceeding
apace”(TheWallStreetJournal).
Althoughsomedictionariesrecognizeabreastasasecondarymeaningofapace,mostdonot,andthe
twowordsshouldnotbeusedinterchangeably.Abreast,whichischieflyusedinthephraseto keep (or
stay)abreast,meanstokeepupwith,maintainaparticularlevelofunderstandingorrateofprogress,as
tokeepabreastofthelatestnews.Youmaykeepabreastofdevelopmentsintechnology,orkeep pace
withthosedevelopments,butyoudonotkeepapacewiththem.That’ssimplynotgoodEnglish.Reserve
apaceforwhenyoumeanswiftly,quickly,withallduespeed:“Effortstorebuildthecommunityafterthe
earthquakecontinueapace.”
Word48:VERDANT(VUR-dint)
Greenincolor,orgreenwithvegetation:verdanthillsides.
Theadjectiveverdant,whichenteredEnglishinthe16thcentury,comesfromtheLatinviridis,green.It
hastwoolderEnglishcousinsthathailfromthesameLatinsource:thenounsverdure(VUR-jur)andvert
(VURT).Verdure,whichdatesbacktothe13thcentury,denotesthegreennessofflourishingvegetation,or
the vegetation itself. Vert, which dates from the 15th century, was used in English forest law to mean
anythinginaforestthatbearsagreenleaf,especiallyvegetationthatprovidescoverorfoodfordeer.
Averdantlawnisgreenandfresh,andverdantfieldsarecoveredwithgrowingplantsorgrass.
Word49:CAJOLE(kuh-JOHL)
Topersuadewithrepeatedurging,flattery,orfalsepromises.
Thenouniscajolery(kuh-JOH-luh-ree),theactoraninstanceofcajoling.
Cajole,whichenteredEnglishinthemid-17thcentury,comesfromtheFrenchwordcajoler,tochatter
orsinglikeajayoramagpieinabirdcage.Jaysandmagpiesarenotoriouslynoisyandgarrulous5birds,
so it’s easy to see the connection between the French verb and the English one. When you cajole, you
figuratively chirp and chatter and sing insistently in an effort to persuade a reluctant or unresponsive
persontodoorgiveyouwhatyouwant.Inshort,cajoleryisakindofartfulnagging.Itsobjectisusually
human,asinthisquotationfromtheEnglishpoetJohnMiltonin1649:“Thatthepeoplemightnolonger
beabusedandcajoled…byfalsities.”Butsometimestheobjectofcajoleryisanentity:apresidentwho
cajoledthenationintowar.
Synonyms of the verb to cajole include to coax, wheedle, blandish, beguile, and inveigle (in-VAYgul). All these words mean to persuade, win over, or lure, but they imply the use of more flattery and
enticementthancajole,whichimpliesrepeatedurging.
Word50:BANE(BAYN,rhymeswithsaneandmain)
Acauseorsourceofruin,harm,ormisery;acurse.
Thenounbaneisoneoftheoldestwordsinthelanguage,datingbacktothe9thcentury.Itfirstmeanta
murdererorslayerofanother,thenthatwhichcausesdeath,thenmurderordestruction,andthenpoison—
which is why a number of poisonous plants incorporate bane in their names: for example, dog’s-bane,
wolfsbane,ratsbane,andhenbane.
By the 16th century bane had come to be used figuratively of something that causes ruin, harm, or
misery, or that is like a curse, and this is the word’s ordinary sense today. Bane is often paired with
existence, as in “He was the bane of her existence.” This well-worn construction is best avoided. But
bane can be artfully paired with many other words, as in “Corruption is not the bane of Nigeria’s
development” and “Snowed-in hydrants are the bane of firefighters.” And bane is often juxtaposed
(placedsidebyside)withtheantonymsblessingandboon,asin“Timewilltellifit’sabaneoraboon
fortheeconomy.”Theadjectiveisbaneful,ruinous,destructive,pernicious,malign(word41ofLevel3).
The words baneful and baleful are close in spelling, and they share the notion of evil, but their
connotationsshouldbedistinguished.Balefulmeansmenacing,ominous,threateningevil:abalefulstare;
baleful clouds. Baneful means causing harm or evil, ruinous: a baneful influence; baneful
consequences.
ReviewQuizforKeywords41–50
Let’sreviewthetenkeywordsyou’vejustlearned.Thistimethereviewwordwillbefollowedbythree
wordsorphrases,andyoumustdecidewhichcomesnearestthemeaningofthereviewword.Answers
appearhere.
1.Doesvicariousmeansilentlyunderstood,experiencedsympathetically,orundertakeninsecret?
2.Whenyoustipulate,doyoudemandasarequirement,agreeonspecificterms,orrefusetonegotiate?
3.Doesadespoticpersonmakeunreasonablerequests,actfoolishly,orrulewithabsolutepower?
4.Issomethingunsavoryunpleasant,flavorless,orbeyondredemption?
5.Whenyouintimate,doyouspeakhonestly,speakindirectly,orspeakprivately?
6.Ifsomethingispredisposed,isitdiscardedfirst,inclinedbeforehand,oralreadycommitted?
7.Ifsomethinghappensapace,doesithappenfirst,unexpectedly,orswiftly?
8.Issomethingverdantgreen,gold,orgleaming?
9.Doescajolemeantoridicule,tocomfort,ortopersuade?
10.Isabaneacurse,anherbalremedy,oranordertostop?
TheStyleFile:Theatervs.Theatre
Nodoubtyouhavemanytimesseentheaterspelledtheatre,withthefinal-erflippedaroundto-re.Many
reputabletheaters,infact,usethevariantspellingwith-re,and,asMarkDavidsonobservesinhisstyle
guideRight,Wrong,andRisky,eventhestoriedNewYorkermagazinehasalwaysspelledittheatre.
So which is correct: -er or -re? Usage experts unanimously agree that theater is the preferred
Americanspelling,whiletheatreisBritish.(ThesamedistinctionbetweenAmericanandBritishusage
applies with center/centre, caliber/calibre, and meter/metre.) So why is American usage so divided?
Davidsonoffersthisexplanation:“America’stheatricalworldwasunderconsiderableBritishinfluence
whentheBroadwaystagewasfounded,andAmericantheaterownerstodayseemtothinkthattheBritish
theatreaddsatouchofclass.”That’swhy,intheUnitedStates,yousooftenseemallswithpretentious
names like Ye Olde Towne Centre that have twelve-screen movie theatres instead of plain old movie
theaters. Nevertheless, you should use the -er spelling unless you are citing the name of a theater that
callsitselfatheatreorquotingTheNewYorker.
Finally,theaterisoftenmispronouncedthee-AY-turorTHEE-ay-tur.TheRandomHouseDictionary
callsthesevariants“characteristicchieflyofuneducatedspeech.”Theproperpronunciationoftheateris
THEE-uh-tur.
AnswerstoReviewQuizzesforLevel1
KEYWORDS1–10
1.No.Stealingbreadbecauseyouarestarvingisaforgivableoffense.Depravitymeanswickedness,moralperversion,corruptorevil
characterorbehavior.
2.No.Askingfordirectionswhenyou’relostisnormal.Presumptuousmeansoverlyforward,takingundueliberties,actingorspeakingtoo
boldly.
3.Yes.Grandiosemeansshowyandgrandinanexaggerated,artificialway;also,elaborate,extravagant,overblown.
4.No.Thatwouldbeunsanitary.Todisseminateistospreadwidely,scatterasifsowingseed.
5.Yes.Eclecticmeansvariedordiverseinaninterestingway.
6.No.Servilemeanslikeaslave,submissive,obedient.
7.Yes.Voraciousmeansextremelyhungry,havingalargeappetiteorintensecravings.
8.Yes.Convolutedmeansintricate,complicated,veryinvolved,hardtounravel.
9.Yes,often.Torantistospeakinanexcitedmanner,tospeakferventlyorfuriously.
10.No.Ifitisunsuccessfulyouwouldbeatadisadvantagebecauseastratagemisacleverschemeorartfulmaneuverusedtodeceive,
outwit,orgainanadvantageoveranenemy,adversary,orrival.
KEYWORDS11–20
1.False.Sumowrestlersareabnormallyfat.Emaciatedmeansabnormallythin,wastedawayfromdiseaseorstarvation.
2.True.Amisgivingisafeelingofdoubt,hesitation,uneasiness,suspicion,ordread.
3.False.Adulationisneversubtle.Itmeansexcessiveadmiration,praise,orflattery.
4.True.Adevoteeisapersondevotedtosomething;anenthusiasticorardentfollower,admirer,orpractitioner.
5.False.Anexhaustedpersonisenervated,worn-out.Vivaciousmeanstheopposite:vigorous,high-spirited,energetic.
6.True.Anachronisticmeansmisplacedintime,notinproperchronologicalplaceororder;hence,byextension,out-of-date,outmoded,
obsolete.
7.False.Garishmeansexcessivelyshowyorbright;attractingattentioninaloudandtastelessway.
8.True.Aqualmisasuddenuneasy,disturbing,orsickeningfeeling,especiallywhenaccompaniedbyatwingeofconscienceorapangof
guilt.
9.False.Consummatemeansofthehighestorgreatestdegree,complete,utmost,utter,andmayapplytothosewhopossessaqualitytothe
greatestdegreeorwhoareskilledtothehighestdegree:aconsummateprofessional,aconsummateliar.
10.False.Aservilepersonissubmissive,subservient.Impertinentmeansoverlyforwardorbold;rude,meddlesome,orinappropriatein
speechorbehavior.
KEYWORDS21–30
1.Synonyms.Aramificationisafar-reachingeffect,relateddevelopment,orconsequenceofsomething;hence,animplication.
2.Antonyms.Tomuddleistoconfuseormakeamessof.Toelucidateistomakeclear,explain.
3.Synonyms.Anadageandaproverbarebotholdsayings,expressionsofpopularwisdom.
4.Antonyms.Temperatemeansmoderate,notexcessiveorindulgent.Besottedmeanseitherverydrunkorinfatuated,obsessed.
5.Antonyms.Buoyant(BOY-int)meanscheerful.Ruefulmeanssorrowful,mournful.
6.Synonyms.Spasmodicmeanssudden,violent,andbrief,orhappeninginfitsandstarts.Intermittentmeanshappeningatintervals.
7.Synonyms.Detritusisdebris,disintegratedmaterial.
8.Synonyms.Awrymeansoffcourse,amiss,inanunintendeddirection,inawrongorunfortunateway.
9.Antonyms.Toencumberistoburden,weighdown,placeaheavyloadupon;also,tofrustrateorobstructtheactionormotionof.To
expediteistospeedup,hasten.
10.Synonyms.Toblemishistodamageordiminishthebeautyorsoundconditionofsomething.Tosullyistostainortarnish.
KEYWORDS31–40
1.Obligationdoesn’tfit.Animpedimentisanobstacle,hindrance,somethingthatslowsdownmovementorstandsinthewayofprogress.
2.Morethanenoughdoesn’tfit.Amodicumistheopposite:alittlebit,modestportion.
3.Secretdocumentdoesn’tfit.Althoughadossier—acollectionofpaperscontainingdetailedinformation,acomprehensivefile—is
sometimeskeptsecretbecausetheinformationinitisconfidential,thereisnothingaboutthewordthatimpliessecrecy.
4.Familiarsoundsdoesn’tfit.Alliterationistherepetitionofthesameletterorsoundatthebeginningoftwoormoreneighboringwordsor
stressedsyllables.
5.Opennessdoesn’tfit.Rectitudeisvirtue,righteousness,moralintegrity.
6.Frivolousdoesn’tfit.Frivolousmeanslackingseriousnessorimportance.Vexatiousmeanstroubling,disturbing,annoying,irritating.
7.Cleverremarkdoesn’tfit.Anepithetisanicknameordesignation,awordorphrasethatdescribessomequalityorcharacteristicofa
personorthing.
8.Gravemisfortunedoesn’tfit.Atravestyisanabsurdimitationorgrotesquelikeness.
9.Disappeardoesn’tfit.Towaneisnottopassoutofview,notice,orexistence,buttodecreaseordiminish.
10.Excessivegreeddoesn’tfit.Hubrismeansexcessiveprideorself-confidence.
KEYWORDS41–50
1.Vicariousmeansexperiencedsympathetically,sharingthefeelingsorexperienceofothersinone’sownimagination.
2.Stipulatemeanstorequireasanessentialcondition,demandasarequirement.
3.Despoticmeansrulingwithabsolutepower,orpertainingtosomeonewithunlimitedauthority.
4.It’sunpleasant.Literally,unsavorymeansdisagreeableorunpleasanttotasteorsmell;figuratively,itmeansundesirable,offensive.
5.Youspeakindirectly.Tointimatemeanstohint,imply,communicateindirectly.
6.It’sinclinedbeforehand.Topredisposeistoinclineortendtowardbeforehand,makesusceptibleorsubjectto.
7.Ithappensswiftly.Apacemeansswiftly,quickly,withspeed.
8.It’sgreen.Verdantmeansgreenincolor,orgreenwithvegetation.
9.Cajolemeanstopersuadewithrepeatedurging,flattery,orfalsepromises.
10.Abaneisacauseorsourceofruin,harm,ormisery;acurse.
LEVEL2
Word1:DIATRIBE(DY-uh-tryb,likedieatribe)
Bitter,abusivespeechorwriting;violentcriticismordenunciation.
Diatribe comes from the Greek diatribé, which meant employment, study, or discourse, literally a
wearingawayoftime.ThisGreeknouncomesinturnfromtheverbdiatríbein,torubthroughoraway.
When diatribe entered English in the late 16th century it was used to mean a discourse, dissertation,
criticaltreatise,asadiatribeonthesubjectofdescriptivepoetryoradiatribeonthenoisesofinsects.
Around1800,peoplealsobeganusingdiatribeinanunfavorablewayofabitter,abusivediscourseor
dissertationdirectedagainstapersonorthing.Bytheearly20thcenturytheoriginal,neutralmeaninghad
becomearchaicandtheunfavorablesensebecamethemodernmeaningoftheword.Todaydiatribe,when
properlyused,alwaysimpliesrageorbitternessexpressedinabusive,violentlycriticallanguage.
Synonymsofdiatribeincludeinvective(in-VEK-tiv),harangue(huh-RANG),tirade(liketie raid),
andphilippic(fi-LIP-ik).Let’stakeamomenttodiscusstheseinterestingwords.
Invective, from the Latin verb invehere, to attack with words, is vehement or abusive language
involving bitter accusations or denunciations. An invective is an abusive and denunciatory attack in
speechorwriting.
Harangue, from an Old Italian word meaning to speak in public, may mean a pompous, tedious,
sermonizingspeechorlecture;avehementandpassionatespeech,especiallyonedeliveredinpublic;or,
initssenseclosesttodiatribe,ascoldingorrantingverbalattack.Theverbtoharanguemeanstodeliver
aharangue—tolecturetediously,tospeakpassionatelyatlength,ortoattackverbally.
A tirade, from the Italian tirare, to draw, pull, hurl, shoot, is a prolonged speech, especially a
vehement and abusive one. A tirade is longer and more intense than a harangue. Generally speaking,
harangueandtiradeareusedofvehementspeeches,whileinvectiveanddiatribeapplytodenunciatory
speechorwriting.
Finally,aphilippicisanespeciallyscathingtirade,usuallyavehementformalspeech,forhistorically
philippic refers to the speeches made by the ancient Greek orator Demosthenes (di-MAHS-thuh-neez)
attackingPhilipIIofMacedon(MAS-i-dahn).
Antonyms of diatribe include eulogy (YOO-luh-jee), an oration honoring a deceased person or any
offeringofhighpraise,andencomium(word25ofLevel9).
Word2:EVOCATION(EV-uh-KAY-shin)
Theactofsummoningorcallingforth.
Thenounevocationandtheverbtoevoke,tocallforth,elicit,comefromtheLatinēvocātiōnem,acalling
forth,whichinturncomesfromēvocāre,tocallordrawout.TheEnglishverbtoevokecomesfromthis
sameLatinēvocāreandmeanstocallforth,drawout,elicit,asonline ads that evoke only frustration
andannoyance.Theadjectiveisevocative(i-VAHK-uh-tiv),callingforth.Inmodernusageevocativeis
usedofmemories,emotions,images,sensations,andtheliketomeantendingtocallforthorevoke,asa
bookfilledwithlushandevocativedescription.
Inoneofitsearliestsenses,evocationwasusedofthesummoningorcallingupofaspirit,andthe
rareverbtoevocate(EV-uh-kayt)meanstocallupspiritsfromthedead.Todayevocationstillmeansa
calling up, but it refers to the summoning of thoughts and feelings from the imagination. The historical
noveliststrivestocreateaconvincingevocationofatimeandplaceinthepast.PabloPicasso’sfamous
painting Guernica—which depicts the bombing of the town of Guernica in northern Spain by German
warplanesin1937,duringtheSpanishCivilWar—isadisturbingevocationofthehorrorandtragedyof
war.
Word3:IMBUE(im-BYOO)
Tosaturateorspreadthrough,soakorpenetratedeeply.Also,toinfluenceorinspiredeeply,asifbysoaking.
Synonymsofimbueinthesenseofsaturateorspreadthroughincludeinfuse,suffuse(word17ofLevel
3),pervade,permeate,andimpregnate.Synonymsofimbue in the sense of influence or inspire deeply
includeinstill,ingrain,endow,implant,indoctrinate(word28ofthislevel),inculcate,andinoculate.
ImbuecomesfromtheLatinimbuĕre,towet,steep,saturate,averbakintotheLatinbibere,todrink,
from which we inherit the English word imbibe, to drink, especially to drink alcoholic beverages.
Figurativelyimbibemeanstodrinkin,absorb,soakup,astoimbibethecultureofaforeigncountry.
Imbue may be used literally of anything that is saturated with moisture, color, or perfume. But it is
perhaps most often used figuratively of something that has been influenced or inspired deeply, as if by
soaking.Aperson’smindcanbeimbuedwithalmostanythingitcansoakup:literature,fineart,music,
opinions,orcoldhardfacts.Andaperson’sheartcanbeimbued,saturated,withemotion.
Thewordsimbueandimbrue(im-BROO)differinspellingbyoneletterandarecloseinmeaning.
Imbrue,whichcomesultimatelyfromtheaforementionedLatinbibere,todrink,meanstowet,stain,or
drench, especially with blood: “These hands in murder are imbrued,” wrote the English poet Matthew
Prior in 1704. Imbue has no such gory implication, and is used of anything that soaks, penetrates, or
influences deeply. You can be imbued with ambition, imbued with power and grace, or imbued with
geekiness.
Althoughimbueandinstillaresynonyms,theyareusedindifferentways.Somethingisinstilledinor
intosomethingelse,whilesomethingisimbuedwithsomethingelse.
Word4:REPUGNANT(ri-PUHG-nint)
Disgusting,offensive.
Because there are so many things that can be described as disgusting or offensive, repugnant has no
shortage of synonyms. Among the better-known are objectionable, disagreeable, repulsive, detestable,
loathsome,contemptible,andrepellent.Amongthelesser-knownareodious,abhorrent,heinous(HAYnis),opprobrious(uh-PROH-bree-us),flagitious(fluh-JISH-us),andexecrable(EK-si-kruh-buul),which
comesfromaLatinwordmeaningaccursedandisusedtodayofthatwhichissohorribleordetestableas
tobecursedordamned.
Repugnant comes from the Latin repugnans, opposed, contrary, and for several centuries opposed,
contrary, hostile, antagonistic was the core meaning of the word, as in repugnant laws or actions
repugnant to God’s word. But this sense is now rare and today repugnant is used of anything that
provokesdistaste,aversion,orloathing.
Repugnant may be used with or without the preposition to. Something may be repugnant to you or
someoneelse,oritmaysimplyberepugnant,disgusting,offensive,disagreeable.
Word5:INS OLENT(IN-suh-lint)
Boldlyinsultinganddisrespectful;rudelypresumptuous(word2ofLevel1).
The words impertinent, impudent, and insolent are close in meaning. All refer to rude, disrespectful
behavior.
Impertinent,whoseliteralmeaningisnotpertinent,inappropriate,istheleastinsultingofthethree.
Impertinentreferstobehaviorthatisuncalledforbecauseitistooforwardorintrusive.Peoplewhosay
ordosomethingthattheyknow,oroughttoknow,isrudeoroutofplaceareimpertinent.Someonewho
failstoshowproperrespecttoasuperiorisimpertinent,andaninappropriatelypersonalquestioncanbe
impertinent.
ImpudentcomesfromtheLatinimpudens,shameless,andreferstobehaviorthatisshamelesslybold
or rude. An impudent reply is rude or insulting, and an impudent person is boldly disrespectful.
Incidentally, impudens, the Latin source of impudent, comes in turn from the verb pudēre, to make
ashamedortobeashamed,thesourceoftheunusualEnglishwordspudency(PYOO-din-see), modesty,
bashfulness, and pudendum (pyoo-DEN-dum), which means literally “that of which one ought to be
ashamed”anddenotestheexternalgenitalorgans,especiallyofawoman.
Whileimpertinentisusedofinappropriatelyforwardbehavior,andimpudentisusedofshamelessly
boldbehavior,ourkeyword,insolent,isstrongerstill.ItcomesfromaLatinadjectivethatmeantproud,
haughty, arrogant, and it applies to behavior that is arrogantly and contemptuously disrespectful and
insulting. An insolent soldier invites disciplinary action. Parents often punish an insolent child. And an
insolentcoworkerorcolleagueisonewhorevels,takespleasure,ininsultingyouorgivingyougrief.
The corresponding nouns are impertinence, impudence, and insolence, boldly insulting and
disrespectfulbehavior.
Word6:IMPUNITY(im-PYOO-ni-tee)
Freedomfrompenaltyorpunishment,exemptionfromharmorloss.
ImpunitycomesfromtheLatinimpūnitās,exemptionfrompunishment,whichcomesinturnfrompoena,a
punishment,fine,thesourceoftheEnglishwordspenal,penalty,andpain.
The prefix im- is really the prefix in- in disguise. Why the alteration in spelling? It’s difficult to
articulate in- before words that begin with the letters b, m, or p, so we use im- instead for ease of
pronunciation.Ratherthansayinginbalance,inmoral,andinpossible,wesayimbalance, immoral, and
impossible.
The Random House Dictionary explains that the words exemption, immunity, and impunity all
“imply special privilege or freedom from imposed requirements.” Exemption refers to freedom from a
dutyorburden:“Becauseofhisdisabilityhewasgrantedexemptionfrommilitaryservice.”Immunity(in
itslegalsense)referstofreedomfromliabilityorresponsibility,especiallyforwrongdoing:wespeakof
diplomatic immunity or immunity from prosecution. Our keyword, impunity, implies freedom from
penaltyorpunishment:“WarandanatmosphereofimpunitymakeAfghanistanoneofthemostdangerous
placesintheworldtobeajournalist”(Reuters).Impunityisoftenprecededbywith:“Whenthereisno
authoritytoenforcetherules,thosewhobreakthemwilldosowithimpunity.”
Word7:S TAGNATE(STAG-nayt)
Tostoprunningorflowing;becomestaleorfoul;ceasetogrow,develop,oradvance.
Theadjectiveisstagnant(STAG-nint),inactive,still,notflowingorrunning,asstagnant water, or not
advancing,growing,ordeveloping,asastagnanteconomyorastagnantrelationship.
Theverbtostagnate,theadjectivestagnant,andthenounstagnation—astagnantconditionorstate—
all come through the Latin stagnāre, to form a pool, from the noun stagnum, a pool of standing water,
marsh,swamp.Andallthesewordsimplythestillnessandstalenessofwaterthathaspooledanddoes
notflow.Ifyouneverstimulateyourmindwithinterestingthingstothinkandtalkabout,yourbrainwill
stagnate,becomestale;yoursociallifewillbecomestagnant,ceasetogrowordevelop;andeventuallyit
willbecomehardertoextricateyourselffromyourstagnation,anunhealthyabsenceofenergyoractivity.
(Toextricate,pronouncedEKS-tri-kayt,meanstoreleaseorfreefromanentanglement.)
Word8:EMBLEMATIC(EM-bluh-MAT-ik)
Symbolic,servingasasymbol,representative,typical.
An emblem is a symbol or sign that represents or stands for something: “The dove is an emblem of
peace.” Emblematic is the adjective, and means serving as an emblem or symbol. Generally speaking,
wherever you can use the words symbolic, representative, and typical you can also use emblematic,
whichisusuallyfollowedbytheprepositionof: the rampant greed so emblematic of Wall Street; the
emblematicchaosofNewYorkCity.
Word9:PLAINTIVE(PLAYN-tiv)
Mournful,melancholy,expressingsadnessorsorrow.
The adjective plaintive and the noun plaintiff (PLAYN-tif) look and sound similar because they are
closely related etymologically. Both entered English in the late 14th century from the Middle French
plaintif,thefeminineformofwhichwasplaintive.ThisMiddleFrenchplaintifreferredtothepersonor
party that brings a civil suit to court, the complainant—the same meaning that plaintiff has today. But
plaintifwasalsousedtomeanhavingthecharacterofalament,mournful,sad—themodernmeaningof
plaintive.
ThesesametwocoexistingsensescanbeseenintherelatedbutunusualEnglishnounplaint, which
maymeanacomplaint;agrievancesubmittedtoacourtoflaw;alament;orthesoundoflamentation—a
wailingormoaning,asinthissentencefromT.C.Boyle’s1987novelWorld’sEnd:“Theplaintofbass
andguitarwasamplifiedbytheadditionofamuddyquaveringvocaltrack.”
Although it is not uncommon in journalism, plaintive is what is often called a “literary word,” one
usuallyfoundinliterature,poetry,andsophisticatednonfiction,suchascriticismofthefinearts.Music,
voices,andvarioussounds—thewindoranechoorthecallofabird—areoftendescribedasplaintive,
expressingsadnessorsorrow.Theearly20th-centuryEnglishnovelistVirginiaWoolfevenuseditofa
facialexpression:“Theworryofnursingherhusbandhadfixedaplaintivefrownuponherforehead.”
Word10:RAPACIOUS (ruh-PAY-shus)
Excessivelygreedyorpredatory;inclinedtoseizewhatonewants.
Synonyms of rapacious include plundering, grasping, acquisitive, covetous, ravenous, and voracious
(word7ofLevel1).
Rapacious comes through the Latin rapāx, greedy, predatory, from rapere, to seize. Also from this
Latinverbrapere,toseize,cometheEnglishnounrape;theadjectiveraptorial,adaptedforseizingprey,
predatory;andtheadjectiverapt,whichmeanseitherseizedwithpowerfulemotion,asraptwithjoy,or
deeplyabsorbed,engrossed,asraptwithattention.
Thewordsravenous,voracious,andrapaciousarecloseinmeaning.Ravenous “implies excessive
hunger and suggests violent or grasping methods of dealing with food or with whatever satisfies an
appetite,” says Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. You can be ravenous at the dinner table or
ravenousformoney.Voraciousmayalsobeusedofgreatphysicalhunger,asavoraciouseater,oritmay
be used figuratively to mean having a great appetite or greed for something: a voracious reader; a
voracious, gas-guzzling engine. Our keyword, rapacious, suggests greedy desire and a selfish,
aggressiveimpulsetoseizewhatonewants.Wespeakofrapaciouspiratesonthehighseas,therapacious
destructionoftheAmazonrainforest,orbanksthatoffercreditcardswithrapaciousinterestrates.
ReviewQuizforKeywords1–10
Considerthefollowingquestionsanddecidewhetherthecorrectanswerisyesorno.Answers appear
here.
1.Isadiatribeevercomplimentary?
2.Canapoembeanevocationofapoet’semotions?
3.Ifyouareimbuedwithsomething,areyouobsessedwithit?
4.Issomethingrepugnanteverpleasing?
5.Cananinsolentremarkbeflattering?
6.Ifyoudosomethingwithimpunity,willyoubepunished?
7.Whensomethingstagnates,doesitstarttomove?
8.Cansomethingsymbolicbeemblematic?
9.Canthecallofabirdbeplaintive?
10.Israpaciousbehavioraggressive?
DifficultDistinctions:RecurorReoccur?
When something happens more than once, should we say that it recurs or that it reoccurs? Both words
meantohappenagain,butinslightlydifferentways.
Toreoccuristohappenagainonlyonce;areoccurrenceisaonetimerepetition.Torecuristohappen
morethanonceorrepeatedly,oftenatfixedintervalsoronaschedule;recurrenceisregularrepetitionor
apatternofoccurrence.
A traffic accident that reoccurs at a particular intersection might go ignored by city officials. But
recurringaccidentsatthatlocationwouldprobablymakethecityinstallastoplight.Andaheadachethat
reoccursisnotnecessarilycauseforalarm,butonethatrecursmayindicateaseriousproblem.
DifficultDistinctions:AlludeandRefer;AllusionandReference
In their literary senses, the verbs to refer and to allude are often confused—so much so that some
dictionaries give refer as a synonym of allude. But the words should be carefully distinguished. Both
implydirectingtheattention,butindifferentways.
Torefer is to mention or introduce specifically, to direct to a source that is named: “The professor
referredtheclasstothebibliographyformoreinformation.”Toalludeistotouchonsomethingindirectly
orbysuggestion,withoutspecificallymentioningthesource:“Whentheprofessorsaid,‘Wehavemilesto
gobeforewesleep,’MarjorieknewitwasanallusiontoRobertFrost’spoem‘StoppingbyWoodsona
SnowyEvening.’”
Inshort,toreferistoindicateorpointtodirectly,whiletoalludeistohint,suggestindirectly.
Likewise with the nouns reference and allusion. Both imply directing the attention to a source,
especially something literary or cultural. But in a reference the source is identified, mentioned
specifically,whileinanallusionthesourceisnotstateddirectly.AsMarkTwainobserved,“Itisbetter
to support schools than jails” is a reference. “Ay, there’s the rub,” she said is an allusion to
Shakespeare’sHamlet.
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabularyforanothertenkeyworddiscussions.
Word11:PEON(PEE-ahn)
Anunskilledlaborer;apersonoflowsocialstatuswhodoesphysicallydemandingandsometimesdegradingwork.
Synonymsofthenounpeonincludemenial,drudge,andlackey.
Thewordspeonandpawnarerelatedetymologically,forbothgobacktotheMedievalLatinpedo,a
walker, pedestrian, hence a foot soldier, member of the infantry. Peon came into English in the early
1600sthroughPortugueseandFrenchwordsmeaningfootsoldier.Andinthegameofchessapawnisa
footsoldier,theleastvaluedandmostexpendablepieceontheboard.
Over the centuries peon has denoted various types of workers, all of them lowly. A peon was
originallyafootsoldierorlow-rankingpoliceofficerinIndia,SriLanka,andMalaysia;latertheword
wasappliedtoanyservant,attendant,orderly,ormessenger.InLatinAmericaintheearly19thcenturya
peonwasalowlymemberofsocietywhowasforcedtodohardlabortopayoffadebttoacreditoror
satisfyotherobligationstoamaster.Peonwasthenusedofanyunskilledlaborer,suchasafarmworker
oradomesticworker,andbytheearly20thcenturythewordcametobeappliedaswelltoanylowlyor
unimportantpersonwhoservesothers.
Thenounpeonage(PEE-uh-nij)meansthestateofbeingapeonortheuseofpeonsforservice.Inthe
fairy tale “Cinderella,” the title character lives in peonage to her malevolent1 stepmother—until, of
course,shemarriestheprince.
Word12:INTUIT(in-T[Y]OO-it)
Toknoworunderstandinstinctively,withoutdeductionorreasoning.
Intuitistheverbcorrespondingtothefamiliarnounintuition,instinctiveknowledgeorinsight,andthe
adjective intuitive, perceived by or involving intuition. All three words come from the past participle
intuitus of the Latin verb intuēri, to gaze at, look at attentively, contemplate. To intuit is to know by
intuition, instinctive knowledge, and to have an intuitive understanding of something is to know it
immediately,“withouttheinterventionofanyreasoningprocess”(OED).
Anything that you know immediately or instinctively, without thinking logically about it, is intuited.
Forexample,weoftenintuitthroughoursenses,aswhenweknowit’sgoingtorainbysmellingtheair
andlookingatthesky,orwhenwemakesnapjudgmentsaboutpeoplebasedonourfirstimpressionof
howtheylookorspeak.
Theantonymofintuitiveiscounterintuitive,ausefulwordthatwasinventedinthe1950s.Thatwhich
iscounterintuitiveiscontrarytowhatintuitionwouldleadyoutoexpect,asintheexpressionyouhaveto
spendmoneytomakemoney.
Word13:OPINE(oh-PYN,likeohpine)
Tohaveorexpressanopinion;especially,toexpressaformalopinion.
TheverbtoopinecomesfromtheLatinopīnāri,tohaveanopinion,believe,suppose,thesourcealsoof
the noun opinion and the adjective opinionated, having strong opinions, stubbornly believing in the
superiorityofone’spointofview.Aclosesynonymofopinionatedistheworddogmatic,whichmeans
expressing an opinion, usually in an arrogant manner, as if it were fact. “When people are least sure,”
wrotetheeconomistJohnKennethGalbraith(GAL-brayth)in1955,“theyareoftenmostdogmatic.”
Ourkeyword,opine,hasbeenusedsincethe15thcenturytomeantohaveorexpressanopinion,asin
this1881quotationfromTheAcademy:“Youmayopineuponeverythingunderthesun.”Buttoday,says
Garner’s Modern American Usage, the word “often connotes the forming of a judgment on insufficient
grounds,” and “it can suggest the giving of an idle or facetious (fuh-SEE-shus) opinion.” (Facetious
meansnotmeanttobetakenseriously,intendedasajoke.)Nevertheless,themostcommonandenduring
sense of opine in American English is to express a formal or authoritative opinion. It is used this way
frequently in the law, where an expert witness opines in testimony and a judge or a court opines in a
ruling.
Youcanopineonorupon:“In1929,thereadersofTheManchesterGuardianwereaskedtoopine
onthe‘novelistswhomaybereadin2029’”(NewYorker). You can opine that: “Legal scholars opine
that Microsoft faces deep trouble” (CNN). You can opine about: “Pundits [word 10 of Level 4] and
politicianswhoopineabouttheso-calledwaronwomen…”(TheWashingtonPost).Oryoucansimply
opine, without a preposition: “The pressroom has closed-circuit video footage of the proceedings,
allowingtheTwitterpeanutgallerytoopineinwhateverfashionitdesires”(NewYorkDailyNews).
Word14:LANGUIS H(LANG-gwish)
Tobeorbecomeweakorfeeble,losestrengthorvitality.
Synonymsoflanguishincludedecline,droop,wither,andflag.
The adjectives languid (LANG-gwid), languor (LANG-gur, rhymes with anger), and languish all
implyweaknessorinactivity.
The adjective languid comes from the Latin languidus, faint, weak, feeble, and has a number of
meanings: lacking energy, exhausted, listless (word 39 of this level), as a recent illness had left him
languid;orslow,leisurely,unhurried,asmovingforwardatalanguidpace;orlackingspiritorconcern,
indifferent, as a languid look or a languid gesture; or characterized by inactivity, idle, relaxed, as a
long,hot,languidsummer;orfinally,lifeless,lackingforceorinterest,asadisappointingthrillerwith
alanguidplot.
ThenounlanguorcomesfromtheLatinlanguor,languoris,faintness,weariness,feebleness.Itmay
mean a lack of energy, physical or mental fatigue, as in this quotation from Jack London’s 1907 story
“LoveofLife”:“…thisdeadlylanguor,thatroseandroseanddrownedhisconsciousnessbitbybit”;or
itmaymeanapleasurablestateofdrowsinessoridleness,asthedeliciouslanguoroflyingonatropical
beach. The corresponding adjective is languorous (LANG-gur-us), characterized by or producing
languor:“Theatmospherewas…languorousandheavywiththerichscentofflowers”(AnneElliot,An
OldMan’sFavour,1887).
Our keyword, the verb to languish, comes from the Latin languēre, to be faint or weak, or to be
inactive, sluggish, languid. The primary meaning of languish is to be or become weak or feeble, lose
strengthorvitality,weaken,wither,fade,astofallillandlanguishinbed,orflowerslanguishinginthe
midday heat. But languish also has several other useful meanings. It may mean to be ignored or
neglected,asforweekshisreportlanguishedunreadontheboss’sdesk.Itmaymeantosufferhardship
orliveindistressingconditions,astolanguishinprisonorlanguishinginpoverty.Anditmaymeanto
yearnfor,pine,sufferwithlonging.Inhisfamouspoem“TheRaven,”EdgarAllanPoelanguishesforhis
“lostLenore.”
Word15:VES TIGIAL(ve-STIJ-ee-ul)
Being,orpertainingto,aremnantortraceofsomethingthathasdisappeared,beenlostordestroyed,orthatnolongersurvives.
Theadjectivevestigialandthenounvestige (VES-tij) both come from the Latin vestīgium, a footprint,
trace, mark. A vestige is a mark or trace of something that has disappeared, that has been lost or
destroyed,orthatnolongerexists.Vestigemaybeusedofsomethingactual,aremnantofsomethingpast
andgone,asvestigesofanancientcivilization.Oritmayreferfigurativelytosomethinglostorgone,as
avestigeofwarmth,ortothesmallesttraceoramount,aparticleorscrap:avestigeofanaccent.
Vestigialmeansofthenatureofavestige,beingorpertainingtoatraceorremnantofsomethingthat
nolongerexists.Forexample,intheageofscienceandreason,superstitionssuchasabeliefinfairiesor
afearofthenumberthirteen2arevestigial,reminiscentofsomethingthatispastorthathasdisappeared.
Inbiology,avestigialbodypart,suchasanorganoratail,isonethatissmallandimperfectlydeveloped
butthat,inanearlierstageofevolution,wasoncefullyformedanduseful.
Word16:S OMNOLENT(SAHM-nuh-lint)
Tendingtocausesleeporinclinedtosleep.Also,drowsy,sleepy,heavywithsleep.
SomnolentcomesfromtheLatinsomnus,sleep,slumber,awordakintotheLatinsopor,deepsleep,the
sourceoftheEnglishwordsoporific(SAH-puh-RIF-ik),anexactsynonymofsomnolent.
TheLatinsomnusisalsothesourceofsomeinterestingandunusualEnglishwords.Somnambulate
(sahm-NAM-byuh-layt), a combination of somnus and ambulate, to walk, means to sleepwalk, and
somnambulism (sahm-NAM-byuh-liz’m) is the act of walking in one’s sleep. Somniloquist (sahm-NILuh-kwist) combines the Latin somnus, sleep, and loqui, to speak, and means a person who talks while
asleep.Theadjectivesomniloquent(sahm-NIL-uh-kwint)meanstalkinginone’ssleep.
Anythingthatissleepyorthattendstocausesleepcanbedescribedassomnolent.Adullbookora
boring lecture can be somnolent. Soft, relaxing music, or any sleep-inducing sound, can be somnolent.
Andasmalltownorvillagethatisquiet,withlittleactivity,maybecalledsleepyorsomnolent.
Synonyms of somnolent include weary, fatigued, lethargic (le-THAHR-jik), languid, torpid, and
oscitant (AHS-i-tint), a fancy word from the Latin ōscitāre, to yawn, gape, and ōs, mouth, that means
drowsy,inattentive,yawningfromsleepiness.
Antonyms of somnolent include stimulating, invigorating, bracing, animating, exhilarating,
revitalizing,andrevivifying(ree-VIV-i-fy-ing).
Word17:S UPPLANT(suh-PLANT)
Totaketheplaceof,replace;especially,totaketheplaceofanotherbydishonestmeans,suchasbyforce,scheming,ortreachery.
Synonymsofsupplantincludeoverthrow,dispossess,undermine,subvert,andsupersede,whichcomes
fromtheLatinsuper,above,andsedēre,tosit,thesourcealsoofsedentary(SED-in-TER-ee), given to
sitting;sediment(SED-i-mint),thatwhichsitsonthebottom;andsedate(suh-DAYT,word9ofLevel3),
calm,composed,serious.Thatwhichsupersedesbyderivationsits,sedēre,above,super,andsotakesthe
placeof.
SupplantcomesfromtheLatinverbsupplantāre,totripup,causetostumbleorfall,whichcomesin
turnfromsub-,under,beneath,andplanta,thesoleofthefoot.Supplantoncemeantliterallytotripup,
causetofall,anditalsooncemeanttouproot,aswhenShakespearewroteinTheTempest,“Trinculo,if
youtroublehimanymore…Iwillsupplantsomeofyourteeth.”Butthesesensesareobsolete,andsince
the 14th century the chief meaning of supplant has been to supersede, take the place of, especially by
dishonest or treacherous means—as when Shakespeare, also in The Tempest, wrote, “You three from
MilandidsupplantgoodProspero.”
Word18:EUPHEMIS M(YOO-fuh-miz’m)
Thesubstitutionofamilder,nicer,moreagreeablewordorexpressionforoneconsideredunpleasant,blunt,oroffensive;also,amorepoliteor
pleasantwordorphraseusedinplaceofanotherfelttobeimpoliteorunpleasant.
Euphemistic(YOO-fuh-MIS-tik)istheadjective.Toeuphemize(YOO-fuh-myz)istheverb.
Euphemisms are what we use when we want to avoid a word or phrase that seems impolite or too
direct, or that is socially unacceptable. When we feel uncomfortable expressing something outright, in
straightforward or earthy language, we resort to euphemism. In How Not to Say What You Mean: A
DictionaryofEuphemisms,R.W.Holderobservesthat“weuseeuphemismwhendealingwithtabooor
sensitivesubjects.”
Euphemismshavebeenwithusforaslongaswehavebeenabletospeak.Whenpeoplesaydarnfor
damnandbygollyorbygoshforbyGod,that’seuphemism.Whenpeoplesaythatsomeonehaspassed
awayorgonethewayofallfleshinsteadofdied,orthatawomaniswithchildorexpectinginsteadof
pregnant, that’s euphemism. And when we call the place where we urinate and defecate a bathroom,
restroom,orlavatory,that’seuphemism.
TheVictorianera—VictoriawasqueenofGreatBritainfrom1837to1901—isrememberedinlarge
partforitsprudery,3andthereforealsoforitsfondnessforeuphemisms.Forexample,properVictorians
nevercalledthelegofapieceoffurniturealeg;theycalleditalimb.Andthewordunderwearwastoo
indecent to be uttered in public, so those intimate articles of clothing were referred to as nether
garments.4
My grandmother, who was born in 1883, was a fiercely progressive woman for her times, but her
proper New England upbringing had taught her to use the euphemism second joint for a chicken thigh
becausethighwasanindelicateword.Shepassedthisbitofdaintinessalongtomymother,whousedit
everytimesheservedusroastchickenwhenIwasgrowingup,soitcameasabitofasurprisetome
whenIeventuallydiscoveredthateveryoneelsecalledthemchickenthighsandnooneoutsidemyfamily,
exceptJuliaChild,hadeverheardofasecondjoint.
Euphemism comes from the Greek euphēmismós, the use of words of good omen, from eu-, well,
good,andphémē,speaking.InEnglish,thesameGreekeu-,good,well,isacombiningformthatappears
inanumberofinterestingwords.Thenouneuphony(YOO-fuh-nee),thequalityofhavingapleasantor
sweet sound, and the adjective euphonious (yoo-FOH-nee-us), having a pleasant or sweet sound, both
combineeu-andtheGreekphōné,voice,sound.Euthanasia(pronouncedlikeyouthinAsia) combines
eu-withthánatos,death,tomeanliterallyagooddeath;specificallyitdenotestheactofputtingtodeath
orallowingtodiewithaslittlepainaspossible.AndtheEucharist(YOO-kuh-rist),whichcombineseu-,
well, good, and the Greek charisma, favor, gift—the direct source of the English word charisma, a
specialpersonalappealorcharm—isthesacramentofHolyCommunionintheChristianchurch.
Theantonymofeuphemismisdysphemism(DIS-fuh-miz’m),“thesubstitutionofadisagreeableword
or phrase for a neutral or even positive one; or a word or phrase so substituted” (Garner’s Modern
AmericanUsage).Examplesofdysphemismsincludebean-counter for accountant; grease monkey for
mechanic; gumshoe for detective; sawbones for surgeon; egghead for intellectual; and shrink for
psychiatrist.
Word19:VIS CERAL(VIS-uh-rul)
Oforpertainingtothegutorbelly;hence,guidedbyinstinctorintuitionratherthanbythemindorreason.
TheEnglishnounviscera(VIS-ur-uh)comesdirectlyfromLatinand,inanatomyandzoology,isusedof
theinternalorgansofthetrunkofthebody,especiallythoseintheabdominalcavity,alsoknownasthe
entrails(EN-traylz).Theverbtoeviscerate(i-VIS-ur-ayt)meanstoremovetheentrails,disembowel,or
figuratively, to empty of essential or vital parts: “Critics said the proposed cost-cutting plan would
evisceratefundingforpubliceducation.”Innontechnicalusageviscerareferstothebowelsorintestines,
forwhichthesimplerwordisguts.Theadjectivevisceralmeansaffectingorpertainingtotheviscera,
theguts.
Becauseaperson’sgutorbellyisconsideredthesourceofbasicinstinctandemotion,visceralcame
to mean instinctive or intuitive rather than intellectual or rational. Thus, a gut feeling and a visceral
feeling are the same: a strong emotion that seems to come more from your bowels than your brain. A
visceralreactionisagutreaction,onethatproceedsfrominstinct.Andifyoufeelsomethingonavisceral
level,ittouchesyouemotionallyinafundamentalway.
Anactororsingercanhavevisceralappeal.Loverscanfeelavisceralconnectionwitheachother.
Andparentsoftenhaveavisceralbondwiththeirchildren.
Word20:DIS PAS S IONATE(dis-PASH-uh-nit)
Notaffectedbypassion,emotion,orprejudice;havingnostrongemotionorbias;notpersonallyoremotionallyinvolved.
Synonyms of dispassionate include disinterested, unbiased, indifferent, and impartial. The impartial
person remains neutral and does not take sides: an impartial review of the evidence; an impartial
mediatorofadispute.Theindifferentpersonshowsnointerestorconcernandoftendoesnotcareto:an
indifferentshrug;indifferenttotheopinionsofothers.Abiasisapreferenceorinclination—eithera
reasonable preference or an unfair one, a prejudice—so an unbiased opinion is free of bias, without
prejudice,andanunbiasedpersondoesnothavehismindalreadymadeup.Thedisinterestedpersonis
notselfishlymotivatedandhasnopersonalinterestorstakeintheoutcomeofanevent:a disinterested
observer.Theuninterestedperson,bycontrast,simplyhasnointerestanddoesn’tcare.
To remember the distinction between disinterested, having no personal interest, and uninterested,
lacking interest, just ask yourself whether, if you were on trial for your life, you’d rather have a
disinterestedjuryoranuninterestedone.
Our keyword, dispassionate, which combines the privative5 prefix dis-, not, with passionate, may
apply to people, actions, qualities, or opinions. A dispassionate mind is a calm, composed mind,
unmoved by strong emotion. Dispassionate views are fair-minded, neutral, unbiased views. And a
dispassionatejudgmentisonethathasnotbeeninfluencedinanywaybyemotion,personalinterest,or
prejudice.
ReviewQuizforKeywords11–20
Considerthefollowingstatementsanddecidewhethereachoneistrueorfalse.Answersappearhere.
1.Apeonisahigh-ranking,powerfulperson.
2.Whenyouintuitsomething,youanalyzeitandfigureoutwhatitmeans.
3.Toopineistogivealengthyandoftenboringspeech.
4.Somethingthatlanguishesbecomesweaker,isignored,orsuffershardship.
5.Therotarytelephoneisnowavestigialcommunicationdevice.
6.Lyinginahammockonawarmdaycanmakeyousomnolent.
7.Whenonethingsupplantsanother,itsupportsit.
8.Euphemismisdirect,blunt,andsometimesimpolite.
9.Avisceralreactionisthesameasagutreaction.
10.Peoplewhoputtheiremotionsondisplayaredispassionate.
OnceUponaWord:DecadeWords
Oneofthepleasuresofbeingalanguageloverandtheauthorofvariousbooksaboutwordsisthatpeople
askmelotsofinterestingquestions.AndthemostinterestingkindofquestionIgetisfromsomeonewho
iswondering,“Isthereawordforthis?”
One correspondent, who had heard me opine (word 13 of this level) on his local radio station,
emailedmetosaythatheknewthewordoctogenarian (AHK-toh-juh-NAIR-ee-in), which begins with
thecombiningformocto-,eight,meantapersoneightytoeighty-nineyearsold,andhewaswonderingif
therewereother“decadewords”forpeople’sages.Thereareindeed,butapparentlynotforfolksintheir
twentiesandthirties.Itseemsthat’stooyoungtowarrantahighfalutinword.
Allthesedecadewordsbeginwithacombiningformthatdenotesacardinalnumberandendwiththe
suffix-arian,whichdesignatesapersonwhoisordoessomething—suchasalibrarian, someone who
worksinalibrary.
The combining form quadr(i)- means four, so when you’re forty or in your forties, you’re a
quadragenarian(KWAH-druh-juh-NAIR-ee-in).Quinqu(e)meansfive,sowhenyouhitfiftyyoubecome
a quinquagenarian (KWIN-kwuh-juh-NAIR-ee-in). When you hit sixty, you’re a sexagenarian (SEKsuh-juh-NAIR-ee-in)becausethecombiningformsex-meanssix.Sept(i)-meansseven,sowhenyou’re
in your seventies you’re a septuagenarian (SEP-t[y]oo-uh-juh-NAIR-ee-in). You already know about
aboutoctogenarian,solet’stalkaboutnona-,nine,whichgivesusnonagenarian(NAHN-uh-juh-NAIRee-in), a person who’s made it to ninety. And if you make it to one hundred, congratulations. The
combiningformcent(i)-meanshundredorhundredth,soyou’reacentenarian(SEN-tuh-NAIR-ee-in).
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabularyforLevel2.
Word21:INDEFATIGABLE(IN-di-FAT-i-guh-buul,stressonfat)
Tireless,neverlackingenergy,notcapableofbeingfatigued.
Thefamiliarwordfatigue,whichasanounmeanswearinessandasaverbmeanstotireout,comesfrom
theLatinfatīgāre,totire,whileindefatigablecomesfromasimilarLatinverb,dēfatīgāre,withthesame
meaning,toweary,tire,wearout.
TheunusualEnglishworddefatigable(di-FAT-i-guh-bul),whichyou’llfindonlyinafewunabridged
dictionaries,meanscapableofbeingwearied,apttogettired,as“TheolderIget,themoredefatigableI
become.”Grafttheprivativeprefixin-,not,ontodefatigableandyouhaveindefatigable,notapttoget
tired,incapableofbeingwearied.
Indefatigableimpliesperseverance,strongcommitment,orunwaveringeffort—whatyoumightcall,
informally,stick-to-it-iveness.Thewordmaybeusedofpeople,asanindefatigableseekerofjustice;of
qualities,asherindefatigablepassionforhelpingothers;orofactions,astheirindefatigableeffortsto
rescuethetrappedminers.
Word22:ARCHETYPE(AHR-kuh-typ)
Anoriginalmodel,form,orpatternafterwhichallthingsofthesamekindarecopied,oronwhichtheyarebased.
ArchetypecomesthroughtheLatinarchetypum,anoriginal,fromtheGreekarchetypon,amodel,pattern,
fromarche-,first,original,andtypos,astamp,mold,pattern.Inmodernusage,archetypeusuallyimplies
notonlyanoriginalmodelorpatternthatcanbecopiedbutalsoaperfectexampleofsomething,anideal
form: “Although most critics agree that Edgar Allan Poe invented the detective story, Arthur Conan
Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes is generally considered the archetype of the private detective in fiction.”
Archetypal(AHR-kuh-TYP-ulorAHR-kuh-typ-ul)istheadjective:“ThemoviestarsGaryCooperand
JohnWayneoftenplayedarchetypalheroesoftheAmericanWest.”
The words archetype and prototype are close in meaning. Although both denote original types,
archetype usually refers to qualities, characteristics, or concepts based on mythical examples or ideal
forms,whileprototype“mostoftenreferstoaphysicalmodelofamechanicalinvention,”saysGarner’s
ModernAmericanUsage.Michelangelo’sstatueofDavidisanarchetypeofmalephysicalstrengthand
beauty. Thomas Edison’s prototypes for the lightbulb and the phonograph have been preserved in a
museum.
In psychology, archetype has a specialized meaning popularized by the Swiss psychologist Carl
GustavJung(1875–1961),whoselastnameispronouncedYUUNG,withtheuofputorfull.“ForJung,
there were several layers to the unconscious mind, among which are the personal unconscious and the
collective unconscious,” explains Herbert Kohl in From Archetype to Zeitgeist (word 16 of Level 7).
“The personal unconscious contains … material derived from one’s experience,” while the collective
unconscious contains “archetypes of the unconscious” that “are part of an individual’s inheritance from
thehistoryofthehumanrace”and“expressdeepandofteninaccessiblelevelsofhumanexperience.”
Word23:VERACITY(vuh-RAS-i-tee)
Truthfulness,correctness,accuracy,conformitywithtruthorfact.
The noun veracity, truthfulness, and the adjective veracious (vuh-RAY-shus) both come from the Latin
vērāx, vērācis, speaking the truth, truthful. A veracious statement or story is true, accurate, or honest
becauseitischaracterizedbyveracity,truthfulness.
FromthisLatinvērāx and the related Latin words vērus, true, and vēritās, truth, come a number of
usefulEnglishwords.
Theverbtoverifycombinesvērus,true,withfacere,todo,make,andmeanstoestablishorprovethe
truth of something, confirm, substantiate, as to verify that the painting was genuine. The unusual noun
verity(VER-i-tee)isafancysynonymoftruth,ashistoricalverity.Itmayalsomeananestablishedfact
orfundamentaltruth,asphilosophyisthesearchfortheveritiesofexistence.Theadjectiveisveritable
(VER-i-tuh-bul),genuine,actual,beingtrulyorcorrectlyso,asaveritablewhizatmathorthisbookisa
veritablegoldmineofwords.
The common word very is also from the Latin vērāx, truthful, as are its old-fashioned cousins, the
words verily, truly, really, indeed, as in the biblical phrase verily I say unto you, and veriest, utmost,
greatest,asinthislinefromNathanielHawthorne’snovelTheScarletLetter(1850):“Hehadspokenthe
verytruth,andtransformeditintotheveriestfalsehood.”
Finally, we have the noun verisimilitude (VER-i-suh-MIL-i-t[y]ood), which comes from the Latin
vērus,true,andsimilis,like,resembling,andinEnglishmeanstheappearanceoftruth,asadramawith
ampleverisimilitude(appearanceoftruth)butlittleverity(actualtruth).
Our keyword, veracity, traditionally means a habitual observance of or devotion to truth, as a
research scientist must have a passion for veracity. And in its least common sense veracity may also
meanatruth,somethingthatistrue,asinthis1867quotationfromthehistorylecturesofWilliamStubbs,
bishopofOxford:“Aworldwhosefalsehoodsandveracitiesareseparatedbysothinabarrier.”Butmost
commonly today veracity is used to mean truthfulness, correctness, accuracy, as the prosecution
questionedtheveracityofhertestimony.
Theantonymofveracity is mendacity (men-DAS-i-tee), lying, untruthfulness, deceit, from the Latin
mendāx,mendācis,giventolying.
Word24:MINION(MIN-yun)
Aservilefollowerorassistant.(Servileisword6ofLevel1.)
Synonymsofminionincludeunderling,subordinate,hanger-on,andhenchman.
MinioncomesfromtheFrenchandMiddleFrenchwordmignon,delicate,dainty,familiartoEnglish
speakersinthenameofthesmallandtendercutofbeeffiletmignon.ButthisFrenchmignonisalsoan
Englishadjective,pronouncedmin-YAHN,thatmeansdelicatelyformed,smallandpretty;itisperhaps
moreoftenusedinitsfeminineform,mignonne(alsomin-YAHN),asinhergraceful,mignonnefigure.
WhenthenounminionenteredEnglishinthe16thcenturyitwasusedtomeananumberofthings:an
effeminate man; a person kept for sexual favors; a specially favored person, a darling; and a person,
usually male, who is favored by and dependent on someone powerful, usually another male. This last
meaningevolvedintothemodernsenseoftheword—aslavishfollower,subservientattendant—whilethe
othersenses,withtheirconnotationsofdaintinessandsexualintimacy,becameobsoleteorrare.
Todayminionisusedchieflyofanysubordinatepersonwhounquestioninglyfollows,assists,ortakes
orders from someone more powerful, as the movie star with her fawning minions. The word is also
sometimesusedtodenoteaminororlow-rankingofficial,asintheidiomminions of the law, meaning
policeofficers.
Word25:INVETERATE(in-VET-ur-it)
Fixedinahabitorcustom,firmlyestablishedbyhabitorpractice.
Synonyms of inveterate include confirmed, deep-rooted, long-standing, chronic, dyed-in-the-wool,
ingrained,habituated(huh-BICH-oo-ay-tid),inured (i-N[Y]UURD), and incorrigible (word 44 of this
level).
Inveterate comes from the Latin inveterātus, of long standing, firmly rooted, established, the past
participle of inveterāre, to age, become old, and is related to the noun veteran. In modern usage,
inveterateapplieschieflytoanunpleasant,offensive,orevenevilhabit,custom,attitude,orfeelingthat
has been fixed or settled for so long that it cannot be changed, improved, or eradicated. We speak of
inveteratedruguse,aninveterateliar,inveteratechildabuse,orinveteratehostilitybetweenfamilies.
Word26:EXTOL(ek-STOHL)
Topraisehighly.
ExtolcomesfromtheLatinextollĕre,toraise,liftup,andextoloncehadthisliteralmeaninginEnglish,
asinthislinefromabookofpsalmspublishedin1549:“UntotheeLordIextoll,Andliftmysouleand
minde.”Butsincetheearly16thcenturyextolhasalsomeant“toraisehighwithpraise”(OED),andthat
istheonlymodernmeaningoftheword.
Synonyms of extol, to praise highly, include glorify, magnify, exalt, laud (rhymes with Maude),
eulogize (YOO-luh-jyz), and panegyrize (PAN-i-juh-ryz). You may extol or laud a person or thing in
private or in public, in writing or in speech, and in formal or informal language. But eulogize and
panegyrizeapplychieflytoformal,lofty,publicexpressionsofpraise,usuallyonsomesolemnoccasion
suchasafuneralorinauguration.
Antonyms of extol include discredit, disparage, denounce, denigrate, and stigmatize (STIG-muhtyz),tobrandasshameful,setamarkofdisgraceupon.In1712,JosephAddisonwroteinTheSpectator,
“TofindVirtueextolled,andVicestigmatized.”
Word27:GAFFE(GAF,rhymeswithlaugh)
Aconspicuousmistake,obviousblunder;“aninstanceofclumsystupidity”(OED).
Gaffe is an early 20th-century borrowing of the modern French gaffe, a blunder, especially the kind of
blunderwhereyouputyourfootinyourmouth.Beyondthattheoriginofthewordisuncertain.InEnglish
gaffe may apply to any kind of obvious mistake, but it is most often applied to a conspicuous social
blunder, and in this sense it is virtually interchangeable with another borrowing from French, faux pas
(foh-PAH), which means literally a false step. Both gaffe and faux pas may apply either to saying the
wrongthing(suchasbeingrudeortactless)ortodoingthewrongthing(suchasviolatingacustomora
ruleofetiquette).
Word28:INDOCTRINATE(in-DAHK-tri-nayt)
Toinstructinaparticulardoctrine,setofprinciples,orbelief.
A doctrine, from the Latin doctrīna, knowledge, learning, that which is imparted by teaching, is
somethingthatistaught,specificallyasystemofbelieflaiddownastrueorasetofprinciplestofollow.
Toindoctrinateistoinstructinadoctrine,teachaspecificwayofthinkingorbelieving.
To instill, to imbue (word 3 of this level), to implant, to inculcate (in-KUHL-kayt), and to
indoctrinate all mean to teach or introduce into the mind. To instill and to imbue suggest gradual and
usually gentle instruction: to instill good values; imbued with a love of reading. To implant may be
gradual or swift, and suggests firmly fixing something (such as a principle, opinion, or desire) in the
mind:thefirstplayheeversawimplantedinhimadeepambitiontobecomeanactor. To inculcate,
fromtheLatincalcāre,totreadon,trample,andcalx,theheel,isliterallytostampwiththeheel,andso
figurativelytoimpressorurgeonthemindwithpersistentandoftenemphaticinstruction,asa training
programknownforinculcatingdisciplineinitsgraduates.
Ourkeyword,toindoctrinate,maymeantoteachthebasicsorfundamentalprinciplesofsomething,
butmoreoftentodayitisusedtomeantoinstructinaparticularwayofthinking,oftenabiasedpointof
view. For example, a person can be indoctrinated with political ideology or religious dogma.6 In this
sense indoctrinate is close in meaning to brainwash, except that brainwashing involves coercion and
sometimesforce,whileindoctrinationusuallydoesnot.
Word29:NUANCE(N[Y]OO-ahnts)
Aslightdifferenceorsubtlevariation,asinmeaning,expression,feeling,tone,etc.;asubtleshadingordistinction.
In one of its many senses, the word nicety (NY-suh-tee), a fine point, subtle or minute distinction, is a
closesynonymofnuance.
The English noun nuance is a direct borrowing from French, in which nuance means a shade or
gradation of color, a hue. This modern French nuance goes back through the Middle French nuer, to
shade, cloud, to the Latin nūbēs, a cloud. From the same source comes the unusual English adjective
nubilous(N[Y]OO-bi-lus),cloudy,foggy,orvague,obscure,indefinite,asadense,elaborate,nubilous
styleofwriting.
A nuance can be literal, as in French, and denote a slight variation in color, a shade or hue: “The
roomwasunhappilydecoratedwitheverypossiblenuanceofbrown.”Moreoften,though,nuanceisused
figurativelyofanyslightdifferenceorfinedistinction.Ifyoucandiscernasubtleshadeofmeaning,tone,
expression,orfeeling,that’sanuance.Wespeakofthenuances,orslightdifferencesinmeaning,between
words,orthenuancesofexpressioninapoem,apainting,oradramaticormusicalperformance.Facial
expressionsandgesturescanalsohavenuances.Inhis1956novelAnglo-SaxonAttitudes,AngusWilson
aptly uses nuance of social interaction: “She knew that every relationship had a hundred overtones, a
thousandnuancesthatmadeituniqueandutterlyfascinating.”
Theadjectiveisnuanced,havingdelicateandsubtlegradationsofexpression,tone,ormeaning,asa
nuancedinterpretationoranuancedapproach.
Word30:PLACATE(PLAY-kayt)
Tosoothethefeelingsof,makelessupsetorangry.
Synonymsofplacateincludepacify,appease,mollify,assuage(uh-SWAYJ),propitiate (pruh-PISH-eeayt),andconciliate(kun-SIL-ee-ayt).Antonymsofplacateincludealienate,offend,antagonize,estrange
(word8ofLevel4),anddisaffect.
Placate comes from the Latin plācātus, soothed, appeased, pacified, the past participle of the verb
plācāre, to soothe, calm, quiet. In Latin, plācāre was akin to another verb, placēre, to please, be
agreeable to, which is the source of the English word placid (PLAS-id), calm, free of disturbance,
peaceful,tranquil,serene,asinthissentencefromPhilipLarkin’s1947novelGirlinWinter: “The sea
wassoplacidthatonlyanoccasionalheave…showedshewasnotonland.”
ThemeaningsoftheseLatinverbsplācāre,tosoothe,andplacēre,toplease,combineintheEnglish
verbplacate, which implies soothing hurt or angry feelings by attempting to please. When you placate,
you calm someone down by being agreeable or making concessions. The ancients placated their angry
godsbyofferingthemasacrifice.Amediatorofadisputetriestoplacatebothsidessotheywillcometo
anagreement.
Thepreferredadjectiveisplacatory(PLAY-kuh-TOR-ee),servingorintendedtoplacate,soothethe
feelingsof,makelessupset,asaplacatorysmile.
ReviewQuizforKeywords21–30
Decideifthepairsofwordsbelowaresynonymsorantonyms.Answersappearhere.
1.Indefatigableanddebilitatedare…synonymsorantonyms?
2.Archetypeandprototypeare…
3.Veracityandmendacityare…
4.Minionandunderlingare…
5.Inveterateandhabituatedare…
6.Extolandstigmatizeare…
7.Gaffeandfauxpasare…
8.Inculcateandindoctrinateare…
9.Gradationandnuanceare…
10.Irritateandplacateare…
TheStyleFile:NoneIsorNoneAre?
“What’sproperwiththewordnone?”asksacorrespondentonmywebsite.“ShouldIsay‘Noneofmy
friendsisgoing’or‘Noneofmyfriendsaregoing’?Ibelievethatnoneisanoldcontractionofnotone.If
that’struethennoneisseemscorrect.Butareseemsmoreidiomatic.I’mconfused.”
What’sconfusinghere,Iresponded,isthatwecontinuetodeludeourselvesthatbecausenonecomes
fromanOldEnglishcontractionthatmeantnotoneitmusttakeasingularverbinmodernEnglish.Butit
ispointlessandmisguidedtoinsistthatnonealwaysmeansnotoneandthereforetakesasingularverb,
asin“Noneoftheseatswasempty.”Insuchacontext,nonemoreoftenmeansnot any, and idiom and
customaryusagecallforapluralverb:“Noneoftheseatswereempty”;“Noneoftheweaponshavebeen
found”;“Noneofthepicturesweresubjecttothearchitect’sapproval”(TheNewYorkTimesMagazine);
and“Noneofmyfriendsaregoing.”Theonlytimenonemusttakeasingularverbiswhenitmeansno
part,asin“Noneofthedebthasbeenpaid.”
***
HerearethenexttenkeywordsinWordWorkout:
Word31:DEIFY(properlyDEE-i-fy,notDAY-)
Tomakeagodof,ortoadoreorworshipasagod.
Thenounisdeity(DEE-i-tee,notDAY-),agodorgoddess,orsupremebeing.
TheverbtodeifycomesfromtheLateLatindeificāre,tomakeadeity,whichinturncomesfromthe
Latindeus,god,andthesuffix-ficāre,thesourceoftheEnglishsuffix-fy,whichmeanseithertomake(as
insimplify,tomakesimple,orbeautify,tomakebeautiful)ortobecome(asinsolidify,tobecomesolid).
Todeifyfirstmeanttomakeagodof,rendergodlikeordivine,butlatercametomeantotreatasa
god, regard as godlike, and that is the more common meaning of the word today. We typically deify
celebritiesandsuperstars.Dictatorsofteninsist,withforcetobackitupifnecessary,thattheirpeople
deifythem,treatthemasiftheywereagodordivinelyinspired.Andwhenmyyoungerdaughter,Judith,
was fourteen she deified the pop singer Justin Bieber by dubbing herself a “Belieber” and turning her
bedroomintoaposter-filledshrine.
Synonymsofdeify include exalt, immortalize, consecrate (word 42 of this level), and apotheosize
(uh-PAH-thee-uh-syz,discussedunderapotheosis,word50ofLevel9).
Word32:RECAPITULATE(REE-kuh-PICH-uh-layt)
Torepeatorrestatebriefly;summarize.
Recapitulate comes from the Late Latin recapitulāre, to sum up, from re-, again, and capitulum, a
division of a book, chapter. The English chapter also comes from capitulum, which in classical Latin
meantalittlehead,fromtheLatincaput,thehead,thesourcealsooftheEnglishwordscapital,aplace
thatistheheadofgovernment;decapitate,tocutoffthehead;andcapitulate,tolistthetermsofsurrender
undervariousheadingsinadocument.TheLatinphrasepercapita(pur-KAP-i-tuh)meansbyorforeach
person,literallybyheads,asthestatewiththelowestpercapitaincome.
Byderivation,torecapitulateistogobackagaintotheheadortop;inmodernusageitmeanstogo
over the theme or principal points in a concise manner. The noun recapitulation may be a brief
restatement,concisesummary,orspecificallyinmusic,thethirdsectionofacompositioninsonataform,
aftertheexpositionanddevelopment,inwhichanearlierthemeisrepeatedinsomewhatdifferentform.
Toreiterate(ree-IT-ur-ayt)andtorecapitulatebothmeantorepeatorrestate.Butreiterate,fromthe
Latin reiterāre, to repeat, means to say or do something again or repeatedly, often insistently or in a
tiresomemanner.Torecapitulateisneverinsistentortiresomeandalwaysimpliesbrieflyrepeatingor
reviewingsoastosummarize.Poorspeakersreiteratetheirmessage,sayitagaininanunoriginalway.
Goodspeakersrecapitulatetheirmainpoints,summarizeorbrieflyrestatethem,attheendofaspeech.
The word recap (REE-kap) is an informal, shortened form of both the verb to recapitulate and the
noun recapitulation. A TV news program can recap the day’s events or provide a recap of the day’s
events.
Word33:LUMINARY(LOO-mi-ner-ee)
Animportantpersonwhoisasourceoflightorinspirationtoothers.
LuminarycomesfromtheLatinlūmen,lūmĭnis,light,thesourcealsooftheEnglishwordsluminous,full
oflight,shining,brilliant;luminosity,thequalityorstateofbeingbrightorluminous;andlumen,aunitof
lightortherateoftransmissionofluminousenergy.Thereisalsoarareadjectiveluminary,pertainingto
light.
ThenounluminarybeganlifeinEnglishmeaningsomethingthatgivesofflight,especiallyacelestial
bodysuchasthesunormoon,andforcenturiesthephrase“theluminaries”hasmeantthesunandmoon.
Butforjustaslongthewordhasbeenusedinafigurativesenseofanimportantorprominentpersonwho
forothersis“asourceofintellectual,moral,orspirituallight”(OED).
What’s the difference between a leader and a luminary? A leader is a person who shows or tells
otherswhattodoorwheretogo.Aleadermayplayahelpingrole,asaguideorconductor,oraleader
mayhavepowerandcontrol,asamanagerorcommander.Bycontrast,aluminarydoesnotactivelylead
butsetsanexampleforothersthroughbrilliantachievement.Aluminaryisasourceoflightintheworld
and an inspiration to others. Rosa Parks was a luminary of the civil rights movement; the Colombian
writerandNobellaureateGabrielGarcíaMárquezisaluminaryofLatinAmericanliterature;andJames
D.WatsonandFrancisCrick,whodiscoveredthestructureofDNA,aretwoofmodernscience’sgreatest
luminaries.
Word34:CONFOUND(kun-FOWND)
Toconfuse,perplex,bewilder,throwintoconfusionordisorder.
Synonyms of the verb to confound include to astound, mystify, baffle, rattle, dumbfound, flabbergast,
nonplus(nahn-PLUHS,word14ofLevel3),anddisconcert(dis-kun-SURT).
ConfoundcomesfromtheLatinconfundĕre,topourtogether,mixup,andsotoconfuse,throwinto
disorder.Inmodernusageconfoundstillhewscloselytothisderivation,forthewordisusedchieflyto
meantomixuporconfuse.Forexample,confoundmaymeantomixupinthemindsoastobeunableto
discernthedifferencebetween,astoconfoundfantasywithreality.Itmaymeantomixupormingleso
thattheelementscannotbedistinguished,asaturbulentcrowdofprotestersconfoundedinallwaysbut
intheircollectiveoutrage.Perhapsmostoften,itmaymeantothrowthemindorfeelingsintoconfusion
ordisorder,renderunabletospeakoract,asherreplycaughthimoffguardandconfoundedhim.
Confoundisalsousedasamildcurseorimprecation(IM-pruh-KAY-shin,word50ofLevel6)inthe
old-fashioned and now chiefly British expression confound it (or confound him, her, them, etc.), in
whichconfoundmeanstodamnorsendtohell.
Word35:S OJOURN(SOH-jurn)
Toremainorliveinaplaceforawhile,staytemporarily.
YoucanseepartofthewordjourneyinsojournbecausebothwordsincorporatetheFrenchjour,aday,
whichcomesfromtheLatindiurnus,belongingtoorlastingforaday,thesourceoftheEnglishadjective
diurnal, daily, happening each day, as diurnal kitchen chores or the diurnal rotation of the earth. By
derivationajourneyisaday’stravel,whiletosojournistospendanumberofdays—afewormany—in
aplace:“TheysojournedinItalyforthesummer.”
Asojournisavisit,temporarystay:asojourninastrangeland.Andasojourner(SOH-jur-nur)isa
personwhostopsorstaysforawhileinaplaceandthenmoveson.
Word36:AS KEW(uh-SKYOO)
Crooked,slanted,distorted,outoflineorproperposition.
Straight,even,anddirectareantonymsofaskew.
Theverbtoskewmeanseithertoturnaside,swerve,ortodistort,slant,representunfairlysoasto
give a false impression, as to skew the data in their favor. Askew combines the verb to skew with the
prefixa-,whichwasoftenusedtoformanadverboradjectivefromanounorverb,asinasleep,ashore,
aside,afoot,aglow,andablaze.
Thethreewordsaskew,awry(likearye),andaskance(rhymeswiththe pants) all imply a lack of
straightness,evenness,ordirectness.Askancemaymeanindirectly,obliquely,withasidewaysglance,but
more often it is used with verbs such as look, view, and eye to mean with disapproval, suspicion, or
mistrust: “She looked askance at her son’s dubious financial transactions.” Awry suggests a twisting or
turningtooneside:“Thewindhadblownherhatawry”;figuratively,itsuggestsaturningawayfromthe
right course, position, or order: “When the dastardly Parlabane crashed the wedding, everything went
awry.” Askew suggests a lack of alignment and may be used of anything that is slanted, uneven, or
distortedinsomeway,asinthislinefromCharlesDickens’s1856novelLittleDorrit:“lattice-blindsall
hangingaskew.”
Word37:HIS TRIONIC(HIS-tree-AH-nik)
Overlydramatic;excessivelyaffectedoremotional.
HistrioniccomesfromtheLatinhistrionicus,oforpertainingtothetheater,fromhistrio(n),anactor,and
thewordhasalsolongbeenusedtomeanoforrelatingtoactorsoracting,asthehistrionicart or the
histrionic tradition. But histrionic has come to be used more often of any behavior that is overly
dramaticoremotional.Ahistrionicperformance,whetheronstageornot,isexaggerated,fullofshowy,
feignedemotion.Thesameistrueforthepluralhistrionics,whichoncemeantsimplyactingbutnowis
almostexclusivelyusedofexaggeratedemotionalbehaviordesignedtoattractattention,asaquarrelsome
citycouncilpronetohistrionicsandhissyfits.
Thewordsdramatic,theatrical,melodramatic,andhistrionicallrefertoactingortobehaviorthat
resemblesacting.
Dramatic is the most general and least negative word, and applies to “that which is emotionally
strikingandexciting,”saysCrabb’sEnglishSynonymes,“inwhichthenormaleffectofactionandfeeling
isheightenedandemphasizedwithouttranscendingtheboundsofreality.”Unliketheotherthreewords,
dramaticdoesnotsuggestexaggerationorartificiality.Anythingthatstirstheemotionsortheimagination
can be dramatic: a movie, a novel, a daring rescue at sea, or even a family dinner can be dramatic,
characterizedbyheightenedorintensefeelingandaction.
Theatricalmaybeusedneutrallytomeanoforpertainingtothetheater,butthewordoften“implies
something falsely dramatic,” says Crabb’s, in which “the effect does not arise naturally, but is created
simplybyamethodofpresentation,”usuallyonecharacterizedbyelements—suchasmannerofspeaking,
gestures,andfacialexpressions—thataresuggestiveofthestageandplainlyartificial.Inthe1939film
The Wizard of Oz, the actor Frank Morgan plays several characters—including the Wizard—with
charmingtheatricalbrio.(Brio,pronouncedBREE-oh,comesfromtheItalianbrio,fire,life,andmeans
vigor,liveliness,enthusiasm.)
Melodramatictakestheatricaltothenextlevelofexaggerationandpretense.FormedfromtheGreek
melós, song, melody, and dramatic, melodramatic means like a melodrama, a dramatic form
characterized by exaggerated emotions and an emphasis on plot and action rather than on character
development.Ifastoryisportrayedinanoverlyemotionalway,withasensationalplotandcharacters
whooverstatetheirfeelings,it’smelodramatic.
Our keyword, histrionic, suggests excessive theatricality. It applies to any behavior that is
deliberately affected so as to have an overly dramatic effect, and especially to an extravagant or
flamboyantdisplayofemotion:thehistrionicwailingofthewidowatherhusband’sgrave.
Word38:COALES CE(koh-uh-LES)
Togroworcometogether,unite,blend,merge,combineintoonemassorbody.
Synonymsoftheverbtocoalesceincludefuse, amalgamate (uh-MAL-guh-mayt), and commingle (kuhMING-gul,kuh-asincommenceandcommit).
TheverbtocoalescecomesfromtheLatincoalescere,togrowtogether,becomeone,thesourcealso
oftheEnglishwordcoalition,aunion,alliance.
Coalescemaybeusedofpeopleorgroupsofpeopletomeantounite,cometogetherasone,forma
whole,ashostiletribesthatputasidetheirdifferencesandcoalescedintoanation.Oritmaybeused
ofthings,eitherliving,asmalignantcellscancoalesceintoatumor,orabstract,asthewriter’srandom
thoughtseventuallycoalescedintoanovel.
Coalescenceisthenoun.Theadjectiveiscoalescent.
Word39:LIS TLES S (LIST-lis)
Showingnointerestoreffort,lackingenergyordesire.
ListlesscomesfromMiddleEnglishandcombinesthearchaicwordlist,whichmeantpleasure,joy,or
desire,appetite,withthesuffix-less,without,devoidof.Byderivation,thatwhichislistlessiswithout
pleasure,devoidofdesire,andsolackingenergyorinterest.
Since the 17th century—when the British physician Nathaniel Fairfax, in his Philosophical
Transactions,wrote,“Hewaseveralistless,dull,andmelancholyfellow”—listlesshasbeenusedboth
ofpeopleandofthingstomeanlackingenergyordesire.Todosomethinginalistlessmanneristodoit
withaslittleeffortandaslittleconcernaspossible.Wespeakoflistlessstudents,listlessreaders,ora
listlessaudience,meaningthattheyshownointerestoreffort.Apersoninalistlessmoodhasnodesireto
act,apersonwithalistlesshandshakeoffersyoualimpandlifelesshand,andapersonwithalistless
mindhasnointellectualenergyorcuriosity.
Synonymsoflistlessincludesluggish,spiritless,indolent(word48ofLevel4),lethargic, languid,
phlegmatic (fleg-MAT-ik), apathetic, impassive, and indifferent. All of these words suggest a lack of
energyordesire,oralackofinterestorconcern,orboth.
Word40:ABATE(uh-BAYT)
Tolessen,diminish,reduceinamount,force,degree,orintensity.
Synonymsoftheverbtoabateincludetodecrease,weaken,subside,wane,andebb.Antonymsofabate
include increase, intensify, swell, amplify, magnify, and redouble, as “They redoubled their efforts to
findthelostchild.”
AbatecomesfromMiddleEnglish,OldFrench,andLatinwordsmeaningtobeatorknockdown,and
intheapproximatelyeighthundredyearssincethewordenteredEnglish,thisforcefuloriginhasgradually
abated,beenreducedorlessened,sothatabatenowmeanstodiminishinvariousways.Youcanabatea
tax by lessening or suspending it. You can abate a nuisance, make it less troublesome, by reducing or
removingit.Youcanabatethecostofsomethingbyreducingorsubtractingfromit.Youcanabateyour
appetite,curbordecreaseit,orabateyourpain,reduceitsamountorintensity.Andusedintransitively
(meaning that the verb does not perform its action directly on something), abate can mean to weaken,
diminish, subside, lose force or intensity, as eventually the storm abated or his drunken fury will not
soonabate.
ReviewQuizforKeywords31–40
In each statement below, a keyword (in italics) is followed by three definitions. Two of the three are
correct;oneisunrelatedinmeaning.Decidewhichonedoesn’tfitthekeyword.Answersappearhere.
1.Todeifyistoexalt,exhume,glorify.
2.Torecapitulateistosumup,spellout,reviewbriefly.
3.Aluminaryisaprominentperson,respectedperson,unusualperson.
4.Toconfoundistobelittle,perplex,confuse.
5.Tosojournistostaytemporarily,vacation,liveinexile.
6.Somethingaskewisdistorted,crooked,untrustworthy.
7.Histrionicmeansextremelysloppy,extremelyemotional,extremelydramatic.
8.Tocoalesceistocometogether,worktogether,unite.
9.Listlessmeanssluggish,vivacious,languid.
10.Toabateistodiminish,decrease,discontinue.
ALittleLatinIsaLovelyThing
Andnowforafewwordsaboutadeadlanguage:Latin.
Goodoldveni,vidi,vici(WAY-nee,WEE-dee,WEE-kee).Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.Thatfamous
LatinsentencewaspennedbyJuliusCaesarafterhisvictoryoverPharnaces(FAHR-nuh-seez),kingof
Pontus,in47 B.C.It’stheonlysentenceIcanrememberfrommytwoyearsofhighschoolLatin,during
whichIcame,Isaw,andIstumbled.HowIstruggledwiththattwistedsyntaxandrigidgrammartowarda
miserable C− and, the next year, a slightly less miserable C+. I never made it over the pons asinorum
(PAHNZAS-i-NOR-um),theasses’bridge,whichWebster2definesas“acriticaltestofabilityimposed
upontheinexperiencedorignorant.”
Butlookingback,Idon’tregretaminuteofit.Why?BecauselearningsomeLatinisoneofthebest
waystobuildyourknowledgeofEnglish.Latinmaybeadeadlanguage,butitssoullivesoninthousands
of English words—not a few of which you have already come across in Word Workout. In medicine,
literature,philosophy,theology,science,andlaw,Latinwordsandphrasesabound.ButdozensofLatin
phraseshavealsomadetheirwayintoeverydayEnglish.
Forexample,caveatemptor(KAY-vee-at,KAV-ee-at,orKAV-ee-ahtEMP-tororEMP-tur)meanslet
thebuyerbeware.Inbusiness,caveatemptoristheprinciplethatthesellerofaproductcannotbeheld
responsiblefordefectsinqualityorworkmanshipunlesstheproductcarriesawarranty.Probono,short
forprobonopublico(prohBOH-nohPOO-bli-koh),meansforthepublicgood.Quid pro quo (KWID
prohKWOH)meansliterallysomethingforsomething;aquidproquo is something given in return for
somethingelse,anequalexchange,atitfortat.
Protempore (proh-TEM-puh-ree) means temporarily, for the time being; it is often abbreviated pro
tem,asinanofficialtitle:chairmanoftheboardprotem.Sine qua non (SIN-ay kwah NOHN) means
literallywithoutwhichnot;itreferstosomethingnecessaryorindispensable:“Theircooperationwasthe
sinequanoninthesuccessofthisproject.”Andthenthere’sthefamiliarviceversa (VY-suh-VUR-suh),
whichhasnothingtodowithvice,corruption,depravity(word1ofLevel1).Thisvicecomesfromthe
Latinvicis,achange,turn,alternation,andthephrasemeansconversely,withtheorderflipped.
TherearealsomanyEnglishabbreviationsderivedfromLatin:i.e.standsforidest,whichmeansthat
isornamely;e.g.standsforexempligratia,whichmeansforexample;q.v.standsforquodvide,meaning
whichsee;andcf.standsforconfer,meaningcompare.Thenthere’sthecommonetc.,whichstandsforet
cetera and should always be pronounced et-SET-uh-ruh, never ek-SET-uh-ruh. And don’t say or write
andetc.,whichisredundant.
IcouldgoonwiththeseLatinphrasesadinfinitum(ad-in-fi-NY-tum), forever, or ad nauseam (adNAW-zee-um), until it makes you nauseated, but instead I’ll close by saying verbum sat sapienti est
(WAIR-buumsahtSAH-pee-EN-teeEST),whichmeansawordtothewiseisenough.
***
And now, because tempus fugit (TEM-pus FYOO-jit), time flies, it’s time to get back to the Word
Workoutvocabularyforanothertenkeyworddiscussions.
Word41:PONDEROUS (PAHN-dur-us)
Largeandheavy,weighty,orhardtohandlebecauseofgreatsizeandweight.
Synonymsofponderousincludemassive,bulky,cumbersome,andunwieldy.
Ponderous comes from the Latin pondĕrōsus, heavy, weighty, which comes in turn from the noun
pondus,aweight,mass,burden,literallyaweightusedinapairofscales.FrompondusEnglishhasalso
inheritedtheverbtoponder,toweighinthemind,contemplate,meditate,considerdeeply,andthenoun
pound,aunitofweight,alsoamonetaryunitusedintheUnitedKingdom,so-calledbecausebeforewe
used paper money people would weigh precious metals such as gold and silver to determine their
monetaryvalue.That’swhywehaveexpressionslikeheisworthhisweightingold.
Ponderousmaybeusedinanumberofways,allofwhichsuggestweightorheaviness.Itmaybeused
to mean heavy with meaning or importance, serious, profound, as ponderous thoughts or ponderous
words.Itmaybeusedofmovementtomeanheavyandslow,deliberate,astheirponderoustrekupthe
mountain. And it may be used of style or expression to mean heavy and dull, boring, labored, as the
ponderouslectureputhertosleep.Butperhapsmostoftenponderousisusedtomeanlargeandheavy,
weighty,asaponderousgiantofaman,orhardtohandlebecauseofgreatsizeandweight,asponderous
suitcases or a ponderous tome. (A tome—rhymes with home—is a large and heavy book, especially a
scholarlyorlearnedone.)
Word42:CONS ECRATE(KAHN-suh-krayt)
Tomakeordeclaresacred,ortoregardasworthyofgreatrespectorreverence.
ToconsecratecomesfromtheLatinconsecrare,todedicatetotheserviceofagod,whichcomesinturn
from sacrare, to make holy, and sacer, holy, the source of the English words sacred, sacrifice, and
sacerdotal (SAS-ur-DOH-tul), priestly or pertaining to the priesthood, as sacerdotal functions or
sacerdotalgarments.
The verb to hallow, to make holy or sacred, comes from Old English and is a close synonym of
consecrate.AbrahamLincolnusedbothconsecrateandhallowforrhetoricalemphasisintheGettysburg
Address, delivered during the Civil War on November 19, 1863, at the dedication of the national
cemeteryatGettysburg,Pennsylvania:“But,inalargersense,wecannotdedicate—wecannotconsecrate
—wecannothallow—thisground.Thebravemen,livinganddead,whostruggledherehaveconsecrated
itfaraboveourpoorpowertoaddordetract.”
Word43:FLORID(FLOR-idorFLAH-rid)
Elaboratelyoroverlydecorated,flowery,showy.
Synonyms of florid include flamboyant, ornate, and ostentatious (AHS-ten-TAY-shus). Antonyms
includesimple,plain,natural,homely,andunaffected.
TheadjectivefloridcomesfromtheLatinflōrĭdus,flowery,blooming,whichcomesinturnfromthe
verb flōrēre, to bloom, flower. The southeasternmost state in the United States, Florida, is literally the
flowerystate.
WhenfloridenteredEnglishinthemid-1600s,itwasusedinseveralways.Itcouldmeanconsisting
offlowers,floral,asthefloridgloriesofspring.Itcouldmeancoveredwithoraboundinginflowers:a
floridbackyard.Itcouldmeanflushedwithred,rosy,ruddy,asafloridcomplexion.Anditcouldmean
elaborately decorated as if with flowers, full of flowery ornaments, as a florid speech. Of these four
sensesonlythelattertwohavesurvived,andthelastisthemorecommonofthetwo.
Today you will often see florid used of style, composition, or expression to mean flowery, showy,
overly adorned. Florid writing is excessively elaborate, overly rhetorical, “full of fine words and
phrases” (OED). Florid architecture is highly embellished, full of showy decoration and elaborate
details. And in music, florid is used of any highly decorated passage, especially one that elaborates a
themestatedearlierinasimplerform.
Word44:INCORRIGIBLE(in-KOR-ij-uh-bulorin-KAHR-)
Notcapableofbeingcorrectedorimproved;especially,ofaperson,badbeyondcorrectionorreform.
Incorrigiblecombinestheprivativeprefixin-,not,withtheunusualEnglishwordcorrigible,capableof
being corrected or reformed, which comes from the Latin corrigĕre, to correct, reform, make straight.
Thatwhichisincorrigibleiseithersobadthatitcannotbemadebetterorsofirmlyfixedthatitcannotbe
changed or controlled. We speak of incorrigible children whose behavior is so unruly that it is beyond
correctionorcontrol,incorrigiblecriminalswhoaresodepravedthattheyarebeyondhopeofreform,
andincorrigiblehabitsthataresoingrainedtheycannotbealteredorbroken.
Synonyms of incorrigible include irreformable, unmanageable, inveterate (word 25 of this level),
willful,delinquent,anddepraved.
Word45:AS S AIL(uh-SAYL)
Toattackviolently,eitherphysicallyorverbally.
TheverbtoassailcomesfromtheLateLatinadsalīre,whichcombinesad,to,andsalīre,toleap,spring,
jump.Sincethe13thcentury,whenitenteredEnglish,assailhasmeanttoleaporjumpon,“especially
withhostileintent”(OED).Apersonmaybeassailedeitherphysically,astheyassailedhimwithvicious
blows,orverbally,asthecriticsmercilesslyassailedhernewnovel.Whetherphysicalorverbal,assail
always implies a vigorous or vehement attack with a forceful effect: thunderous music assailed their
ears;theprosecutorassailedthedefendantwithpointedquestions.
Thewordsattack,assault,accost,andassailarecloseinmeaning.
Attack is the most general and implies initiating hostilities or conflict of any kind. You can attack
physicallyorverbally,withweaponsorwithwords.Toassaultistoattackphysicallyandsuddenlyinan
attempt to overpower, and it almost always implies unlawful, hand-to-hand violence. Thus, an army
attacksbutarobberorarapistassaults.
To accost means to approach and speak to, often in an aggressive manner: accosted by a stranger.
The word is sometimes used to imply force or violence, but this is merely a confusion with assault; a
panhandlerorapoliceofficercanaccostyouonthestreetwithoutlayingahandonyou.Sotakecareto
useaccostonlytomeantoapproachabruptlyandchallengeinsomeway.
Ourkeyword,assail,implieswearingdownanopponent’sresistancebyattackingrepeatedly,either
with physical violence or with vehement words. A boxer can assail an opponent with repeated jarring
blows,andthereputationsofcelebritiesareoftenslanderouslyassailedinthetabloidpress.Thenounis
assailant(uh-SAYL-int),anattacker,apersonwhoassails.
Word46:ELIXIR(i-LIK-sur)
Amedicinaldrinkorpotion;specifically,asweetenedliquidcontainingalcoholthatisusedasavehicletoadministeramedicinalsubstance,
suchasatinctureofherbs.
Elixirisaveryoldword,datingbacktothe14thcenturyandthepoetryofGeoffreyChaucer,whowrote
The Canterbury Tales. At the time it entered English—coming through medieval Latin and Arabic
ultimately from a Greek word meaning a drying preparation for wounds—elixir was used in the
pseudoscience of alchemy of a substance or preparation capable of turning base metals into gold. The
word was soon applied to any drug, preparation, or liquid supposed to be able to indefinitely prolong
life.
In the 17th century elixir came to mean a cure-all, a remedy for all diseases and difficulties, a
synonym of panacea (PAN-uh-SEE-uh), from the Greek pan-, all, and akos, cure. In this sense elixir
became associated with the quack medicines or nostrums commonly sold by the proverbial snake oil
salesman or mountebank. (A nostrum [NAHS-trum] is a remedy of dubious effectiveness, and a
mountebank[MOWN-tuh-bangk]isapersonwhomountsabenchorplatformanddeliversaflamboyant
salespitchtoattractcustomersandhawkwaresofdubiousvalue.)
Todayyoumayuseelixirtomeananymedicinaldrinkorconcoction,especiallyonesupposedtodo
wondrous things—such as change ordinary metal into gold, prolong life or youth, or miraculously cure
ailmentsanddiseases.
Word47:IMPRES ARIO (IM-pruh-SAHR-ee-oh)
Aproducerorsponsorofpublicentertainment,especiallytheorganizerormanagerofanopera,ballet,orconcert.
ImpresariocomesdirectlyfromtheItalianimpresario,onewhoundertakesabusiness,acontractor.The
word originally referred to someone who manages an opera, ballet, or symphony orchestra, and this
meaningisstillcurrent.Butincreasinglyimpresarioisbeingusedofaproducer,organizer,orsponsorof
any kind of public entertainment, as a literary impresario, a Broadway impresario, a pop music
impresario,oraTVimpresario.
Word48:S ENTIENT(SEN-shint,notSEN-tee-int)
Aware,conscious,capableoffeelingorperceivingwiththesenses.
Thenounissentience(SEN-shints),feeling,sensation,awareness.
SentientandsentiencecomefromthepresentparticipleoftheLatinverbsentire, to feel, perceive,
experience. The antonym of sentient is insentient (in-SEN-shint), lacking perception, incapable of
feeling, unconscious. Two related words from the same Latin source are sensate (SEN-sayt), having
physicalsensationorperceivedbythesenses,andinsensate(in-SEN-sayt),lackingsensation,feeling,or
consciousness:insensatestone.
Sentient often appears in the phrase sentient being, as “We must learn to live in harmony with all
sentientbeings.”Asentientbeingisaconsciousbeing,acreaturecapableoffeelingthroughthesenses,
whetherhumanoranimal.
Word49:LACKLUS TER(LAK-lus-tur)
Lackingbrillianceorenergy,dull,boring,lifeless.
Synonymsoftheadjectivelacklusterincludemediocre,uninspired,colorless,drab,andmonotonous.
ThenounlustercomesfromtheLatinlustrāre,tomakebright,andhasthreecommonsenses.Itmay
meansheen,gloss,polish,ashinefromreflectedlight,asthelusterofpreciousstonesorthe luster of
polishedwood.Itmaymeanradiance,brilliance,brightness,asinthislinefromCharlesDickens’snovel
BarnabyRudge(1841):“Thesunwasshiningwithuncommonluster.”Anditmaybeusedfigurativelyto
meanbrilliantdistinctionormerit,glory,excellence,asanawardthataddedlustertoherreputation.
Lackluster combines the verb to lack, to be without, be in need of, and the noun luster, polish,
excellence, brilliance. That which is lackluster is without excellence, in need of polish, lacking
brillianceorenergy,andthereforemediocre,uninspiring,lifeless.Youcanuselacklusterofanythingthat
fails to shine or stand out, either literally, as lackluster eyes or her lackluster evening gown, or
figuratively,asalacklusterperformanceoralacklusteressay.
Word50:BENEFICENT(buh-NEF-i-sint,notbuh-NIF-)
Markedbygoodwillandcharity,servingakindandworthypurpose.
Thefamiliaradjectivebeneficial,thelessfamiliarnounbeneficence(buh-NEF-i-sints),andtheadjective
beneficentallcomefromtheLatinbene,well,andfacere,todo.Beneficialmeanshelpful,havingagood
purpose,conferringbenefits:beneficialinsects;beneficialadvice.Beneficenceistheactorpracticeof
doing good, kindness, charity, and beneficent means doing good, charitable, serving a kind and worthy
purpose,asabeneficentinfluenceorthenonprofitorganization’sbeneficentgoals.
The combining forms bene- and male- (MAL-uh-) are antonyms, and both come from Latin—benefromtheaforementionedbene,well,whichisakintobonus,good;andmale-frommale,badly,ill,which
is akin to malus, evil, bad. Whenever you see a word beginning with bene- or male- you can safely
assumeitdenotessomequalityorthingthatisgoodorevil.Thus,abenediction,frombene-, well, and
dicere,tospeak,isaspeakingwellof,anexpressionofgoodwishes,ablessing,whileamalediction,
frommale-,badly,anddicere,tospeak,isaspeakingevilof,acurse.Likewise,abenefactor,frombene-,
well, and facere, to do, is a person who does good, especially through charitable giving, while a
malefactor,frommale-,badly,andfacere,todo,isapersonwhodoesharmorevil,acriminal.Andthat
which is beneficent, marked by goodwill and charity, is the opposite of that which is maleficent (muhLEF-i-sint,notmuh-LIF-),harmful,evil,malicious.
ReviewQuizforKeywords41–50
Inthisquizthereviewwordisfollowedbythreewordsorphrases,andyoumustdecidewhichcomes
nearestthemeaningofthereviewword.Answersappearhere.
1.Ifsomethingisponderous,isitlargeandheavy,hardtoexplain,orlively?
2.Whenyouconsecratesomething,doyoumakeitpermanent,makeitsacred,ormakeanexceptionforit?
3.Issomethingfloridcolorful,warm,oroverlydecorated?
4.Ifyouareincorrigible,areyouunhappy,unmotivated,orunmanageable?
5.Whenyouassail,doyouattack,plead,orquestion?
6.Isanelixiraprophecy,apotion,oramystery?
7.Isanimpresarioaproducer,asalesperson,oraperformer?
8.Aresentientbeingsharmless,unresponsive,orconscious?
9.Issomethinglacklusterold,imperfect,ormediocre?
10.Issomethingbeneficentbeautiful,kind,orperfect?
DifficultDistinctions:FamousandInfamous
Inabookbyawell-knownwriterIoncesawthephrase“Mom’sinfamousrecipeforpumpkinsoup,”in
whichonemischosenwordturnedthemeaningofthephrasearound.Somethingfamousiswellknownfor
itsgoodordesirablequalities;afamouspersonisoutstandingordistinguishedinsomeway,andtherefore
admired.Butsomethinginfamous(IN-fuh-mus)isremarkableforitsbadqualitiesandbadreputation;itis
notorious,scandalous,disgraceful,orevil.Thus,afamilywithafamousrecipeforsoupwouldcherish
that recipe for generations, while a family with an infamous recipe for soup would have a hard time
fillingthechairsatthedinnertable.
DifficultDistinctions:ShinedandShone
Consider this sentence from a contemporary novel: “When the sun shined directly on the bricks, they
seemedtojumpfromthebuildingandhangtogetherintheair,likearedsheet,hovering.”What’swrong
withit?
Theverbtoshine,meaningtopolishortoaimabeamoflight,istransitive,whichmeansitactson
something. You shine your shoes or shine a flashlight. But the verb to shine, meaning to emit light, be
radiant,ortostandout,excel,isintransitive,whichmeansitperformsitsactiononitsown,withoutan
object:thesunshines,adiamondnecklaceshines,andavirtuosomusiciancangiveaperformancethat
shines.
Butwhatdoyoudowhenyouwanttosaythatsomethingwasshininginthepast?Doyouwritethe
sunshinedorthesunshone?Thepasttenseandpastparticipleofthetransitiveshineisshined,soyou
shinedyourshoesyesterday.Butthepasttenseandpastparticipleoftheintransitiveshineisshone, so
the sun, that necklace, and that virtuoso musician shone. This sentence, from Mark Davidson’s Right,
Wrong,andRisky,illustratestheproperuseofshined and shone: “While Jonathan shined his shoes in
preparationforproposingtoRosie,henoticedthatthemoonshonebrightly.”
AnswerstoReviewQuizzesforLevel2
KEYWORDS1–10
1.No.Adiatribeisspeechorwritingthatisbitterandabusive.
2.Yes.Anevocationistheactofsummoningorcallingforth,andpoemsareoftenevocationsofapoet’semotions.
3.No.Tobeobsessedistobeexcessivelypreoccupiedwithsomething.Imbuemeanstosaturate,soakdeeply,ortoinfluenceorinspire
deeply,asifbysoaking.
4.No.Somethingrepugnantisdisgusting,offensive,andneverpleasing.
5.No.Flatterymaybeinsincere,butitisalwayscomplimentary.Insolentmeansboldlyinsultinganddisrespectful.
6.No.Impunitymeansfreedomfrompenaltyorpunishment.
7.No.Whensomethingstagnates,itstopsmovingandeitherbecomesstaleorfoulorceasestogrowordevelop.
8.Yes.Emblematicmeanssymbolic,representative.
9.Yes.Tohumanearsmanybirdcallssoundplaintive,mournful,melancholy,expressiveofsadnessorsorrow.
10.Yes.Rapaciousmeansgreedy,predatory,aggressivelyseizingwhatonewants.
KEYWORDS11–20
1.False.Apeonisanunskilledlaborer,apersonoflowsocialstatus.
2.False.Tointuitistoknoworunderstandinstinctively,withoutdeductionorreasoning.
3.False.Toopineistohaveorexpressanopinion,especiallyaformalopinion.
4.True.Tolanguishmeanstobeorbecomeweakorfeeble,tobeneglectedorignored,tosufferhardshiporliveinoppressiveconditions,or
tolongfor.
5.True.Vestigialmeansbeing,orpertainingto,aremnantortraceofsomethingthathasdisappeared,beenlostordestroyed,orthatno
longersurvives.
6.True.Somnolentmeanstendingtocausesleeporinclinedtosleep,ordrowsy,sleepy,heavywithsleep.
7.False.Tosupplantistotaketheplaceof,replace,overthrow.
8.False.Euphemismisthesubstitutionofamilder,moreagreeablewordorexpressionforoneconsideredunpleasant,blunt,oroffensive.
9.True.Visceralmeansoforpertainingtothegutorbelly;hence,guidedbyinstinctorintuitionratherthanbythemindorreason.
10.False.Dispassionatemeanshavingnostrongemotionorbias;notpersonallyoremotionallyinvolved.
KEYWORDS21–30
1.Antonyms.Debilitatedmeansweak,exhausted,wornout.Indefatigablemeanstireless,neverlackingenergy,notcapableofbeing
fatigued.
2.Synonyms.Anarchetypeisanoriginalmodel,form,orpatternafterwhichallthingsofthesamekindarecopied,oronwhichtheyare
based.Aprototypeisusuallyanoriginalmodelofamechanicalinvention.
3.Antonyms.Mendacityisuntruthfulness,lying.Veracityistruthfulness,accuracy.
4.Synonyms.Aminionisaservilefollowerorassistant,anunderling.
5.Synonyms.Inveteratemeansfixedorfirmlyestablishedinahabitorcustom.
6.Antonyms.Tostigmatizeistosetamarkofdisgraceupon.Toextolistopraisehighly.
7.Synonyms.Agaffeisaconspicuousmistake,obviousblunder,fauxpas.
8.Synonyms.Toindoctrinatemeanstoinstructinaparticulardoctrine,setofprinciples,orbelief;toinculcate.
9.Synonyms.Anuanceisaslightdifference,asubtlevariation,gradation,ordistinction.
10.Antonyms.Toplacateistosoothethefeelingsof,makelessupsetorangry.
KEYWORDS31–40
1.Exhume,todigup,doesn’tfit.Todeifyistomakeintoortreatasagod,exalt,glorify.
2.Spellout,toexplainindetail,doesn’tfit.Torecapitulateistorevieworrestatebriefly,sumup.
3.Unusualpersondoesn’tfitbecauseit’stoovague.Aluminaryisanimportant,prominent,respectedpersonwhoisasourceoflightor
inspirationtoothers.
4.Belittle,tomakelessof,doesn’tfit.Toconfoundistoconfuse,perplex,bewilder.
5.Liveinexiledoesn’tfit.Tosojournistoremainorliveinaplaceforawhile.
6.Untrustworthydoesn’tfit.Askewmeanscrooked,slanted,distorted.
7.Extremelysloppydoesn’tfit.Histrionicmeansoverlydramaticoremotional.
8.Toworktogetherdoesn’tfit.Tocoalesceistounite,blend,merge,cometogether.
9.Vivacious,high-spirited,energetic,doesn’tfit.Listlessmeansshowingnointerestoreffort,lackingenergyordesire.
10.Discontinuedoesn’tfit.Toabateistolessen,diminish,decrease.
KEYWORDS41–50
1.Somethingponderousislargeandheavy,orhardtohandlebecauseofitssizeandweight.
2.Toconsecrateistomakeordeclaresacred,ortoregardasworthyofgreatrespectorreverence.
3.Somethingfloridisflowery,showy,overlydecoratedorelaborate.
4.Incorrigiblemeansirreformableorunmanageable.
5.Toassailistoattackviolently,eitherphysicallyorverbally.
6.Anelixirisamedicinaldrinkorpotion.
7.Animpresarioisaproducerorsponsorofsomepublicentertainment.
8.Sentientmeansaware,conscious,capableofsensationorfeeling.
9.Somethinglacklusterhasnoenergyorbrilliance,andisthereforemediocreanddull.
10.Beneficentmeansservingakindandworthypurpose,charitable.
LEVEL3
Word1:TRIBULATION(TRIB-yuh-LAY-shin)
Greatdistress,trouble,orsuffering,oracauseofgreatdistressortrouble,atrial.
Synonyms of tribulation include misery, anguish, adversity, affliction, oppression, persecution,
calamity,andwoe.
TribulationcomesfromtheLatintrībulāre,topress,squeeze,alsotooppress,afflict.ThisLatinverb
comes in turn from the noun trībulum, a sledge—a strong, heavy sled—used for threshing grain. The
trībulum,saysTheCenturyDictionary,consistedof“awoodenblockstuddedwithsharppiecesofflint
orwithironteeth.”Imaginewhatitwouldbeliketobethreshedbyatrībulumandyouprobablywon’t
forgetthattribulationmeansgreatdistressortroubleoracauseofgreatdistressortrouble.
Incidentally,Englishhassomehomegrownexpressionsthatevokethetribulationofbeingthreshedby
a trībulum. To put through the mill, or to go through the mill, comes from the days when grain was
groundbymillstones.Todayweusethisexpressiontomeantosubjectorbesubjectedtoseverehardship
ordistress,asifweourselvescouldbegroundupinamill.Weusetheexpressiontoput(orgo)through
the wringer in the same way—the wringer in this case being a machine with rollers used to squeeze
liquidoutofwetclothing.
Tribulationdatesbacktothe14thcenturyandthepoetGeoffreyChaucer,whowroteinTroilus and
Criseyde, a love poem, “Myn herte is now in tribulacion.” Life certainly has its pleasures and its
momentsofjoy,butitalsohasplentyoftribulation,andtheBible,notsurprisingly,isfilledwithit:“In
the world ye shall have tribulation, but be of good cheer” (John 16:33); “Rejoicing in hope, patient in
tribulation”(Romans12:12);“Whocomfortethusinallourtribulation,thatwemaybeabletocomfort
themwhichareinanytrouble”(2Corinthians1:4).
Tribulationmaymeangreatdistressortrouble,oritmaymeanacauseorinstanceofgreatdistressor
trouble,apainfultrial,asheenduredthehumiliatingtribulationofafraternityhazing.Thewordalso
often appears in the expression trials and tribulations, as the trials and tribulations of motherhood.
This common pairing is both a cliché and redundant, and careful writers avoid it. Other common and
redundant pairings that careful writers avoid include if and when, unless and until, compare and
contrast,firstandforemost,variousandsundry,andeachandevery.
Word2:DERIDE(di-RYD)
Toridicule,makefunof,laughatscornfullyorcontemptuously.
Synonymsoftheverbtoderideincludemock,jeer,flout,scoff,taunt,gibe,heckle,andlampoon (lamPOON).Apersonwhoderides,ridicules,makesfunof,isaderider;thenounderision(duh-RIZH-in)is
the act of deriding, ridicule, mockery; and the adjective derisive (di-RY-siv, not di-RIS-iv) means
expressingderision,mocking,scornful,contemptuous.
DeridecomesfromtheLatinverbdērīdēre,tolaughat,mock,scorn,makefunof.Dērīdērecombines
theLatinprefixde-,whichinthiscaseservestointensifythemeaning,andrīdēre,tolaugh,thesourceof
theEnglishwordsridicule,ridiculous,and,fromtheLatinpastparticiplerīsus,thewordrisible(RIZ-ibuul),provokingorcapableofprovokinglaughter,asarisiblefaceorrisibleremarks.
Theverbtoridicule“impliesadeliberate[and]oftenmaliciousbelittling,”saysMerriam-Webster’s
CollegiateDictionary.Inotherwords,someonewhoridiculesyounotonlywantsalaughatyourexpense
but also wants to put you down, make you look bad in front of others. The verb to deride “suggests
contemptuousandoftenbitterridicule,”saystheCollegiate.Thus,whenyouridiculeyoumakefunofina
deliberatelymeanway,butwhenyouderideyoutakeridiculetoanastierlevel,makingfunofsomeoneor
somethinginasneering,condescendingway.
Word3:NEFARIOUS (ne-FAIR-ee-us)
Extremelywicked,infamouslyevil.
NefariouscomesfromtheLatinnefārius,wicked,vile,abominable,whichcomesinturnfromthenoun
nĕfas, a sin, crime, abomination, offense against divine law. By derivation, that which is nefarious is
horribleorevilbecauseitviolatesourmoralcode.
Nefarious has been used in English for more than four hundred years to describe people, things, or
deeds that are extremely or unspeakably wicked. We speak of a nefarious plot, a nefarious crime,
nefariousactivities,anefariouscult,oranefarioustyrant.Thewordmayalsobeusedwithoutmodifying
afollowingnoun,asinsomethingnefariousisafoot.
Synonymsofnefarious—andtherearemanybecausehumanbeingshavesuchalongandregrettable
historyofbeingwicked—includevillainous,sinful,vicious,heinous(HAY-nis),abominable,atrocious,
diabolical, depraved, egregious (i-GREE-jus), flagitious (fluh-JISH-us), odious, execrable, and
iniquitous(i-NIK-wi-tus;iniquityisword2ofLevel4).
Word4:IDEOLOGUE(EYE-dee-uh-lahgor-lawg)
Azealous,uncompromisingadvocateorfollowerofanideology.
Ideologueisbuiltfromtwocombiningforms,orword-formingelements:ideo-,idea,and-logue, which
comesfromtheGreeklógos,word,anddesignateseitheratypeofspeaking—asindialogue(aspeaking,
dia-,across)andprologue(aspeaking,pro-,before)—or,muchlessoftenandinthiscase,aperson.By
derivation,then,anideologueisan“ideaperson,”butspecificallyapersonwhoispassionatelyoreven
fanaticallydevotedtoanideology.
While the word ideology can be neutral, denoting “a set of beliefs governing conduct” (OED), the
word ideologue usually has a pejorative, or negative, connotation, suggesting an overly opinionated
personwhoadherestoandpromotesasetofbeliefsinafervent,uncompromisingway.Ifyouareolder
than about ten, no doubt you have encountered ideologues of all stripes: political, social, economic,
religious, racial, artistic, scientific, and so on. And because the world is full of people who hold
passionatelyandrigidlytoasetofbeliefs,ortoatheoryordoctrine,wewillprobablyforeverlookupon
thosewhodonotagreewithus,orwhorefusetocompromisewithus,asideologues,neverrealizingthat
wemaybeideologuesourselves.
Word5:DALLIANCE(DAL-ee-ints)
Frivolousplay,especiallyamoroustoyingorflirtation.
InmodernEnglish,todallymaymeantodelay,wastetime,dawdle,oritmaymeantoactplayfullyina
flirtatiousorfrivolousway.Adallianceisanactofdallyinginthislattersense,aflirtationorplayful,
trifling involvement. The word is traditionally applied to love affairs, especially brief affairs in which
oneorbothparticipantshavenointerestinaseriousrelationship.Forexample,thetabloidpresstakes
great interest in the dalliances of celebrities, and the dalliance between President Bill Clinton and
MonicaLewinskywasperhapsthemostscandalousinAmericanhistory.Butdalliancemayalsobeused
of any frivolous involvement with or trifling interest in something. For example, a person can have a
dalliancewithfameorpoliticsordrugs,oraforeignlanguage;theworldoffashionoftenhasdalliances
with styles from bygone eras; and a brutal dictator, under pressure from the free world, may have a
dalliancewithdemocraticreform.
Word6:FATUOUS (FACH-oo-us)
Silly,foolish,idiotic.
FatuousenteredEnglishinthemid-1600sdirectlyfromtheLatinfatŭus,whichhadthesamemeaning—
silly,foolish,idiotic.LikeitsLatinsource,fatuousmaybeusedeitherofpeopleorofthings.Someone
canhaveafatuoussmileorsimplybefatuous.Anidea,anargument,oraquestioncanbefatuous.And
thereisnoshortageoffatuoustelevisionshowsthesedays.Butperhapsthearenainwhichfatuity (fuhT[Y]OO-i-tee,thenoun)flourishesthemostistheonlineworld,wherefatuouscommentsandpostsand
tweetsabound.
The words witless, inane, asinine, sophomoric, and fatuous all suggest foolishness, silliness, and
stupidity.
Witisoftenusedtomeanasenseofhumor,andapersonwhoisaclevertalkerwithaquicksenseof
humorisoftencalledawit.Butinitsmostbasicsense,wit denotes intelligence, understanding, mental
capability.Thustobeahalfwitordim-wittedistobefoolish,stupid,animbecile.Andtobewitlessisto
bewithoutwitaltogether,completelylackingintelligenceorunderstanding,asawitlessboreorwitless
smalltalk.
Inane(i-NAYN,rhymeswithinsane)comesfromtheLatininānis,empty,void,andismostoftenused
in English to mean empty of sense or substance, devoid of meaning or intelligence, and therefore silly,
frivolous,pointless:aninaneconversation.
Asinine(AS-i-nyn)comesfromtheLatinwordforanass,asĭnus,andmeans“havingthequalitiesby
whichtheassischaracterized:obstinate,stupid,doltish”(OED).Asininebehaviororspeechisnotonly
stupidbutstubbornly,idioticallystupid;TheRandomHouseDictionarysaysthewordalsosuggests“a
lackofsocialgraceorperception.”
Sophomoric(SAHF-uh-MOR-ik)maymeanoforpertainingtoasophomore,astudentinthesecond
year of high school or college, but more often it is used disparagingly to mean characteristic of the
traditional sophomore: intellectually pretentious, conceited, and immature: “John was nauseated every
timeMartyopenedhismouthinclasstoofferyetanothersophomoriccomment.”
Our keyword, fatuous, is distinguished from the more general words silly, foolish, and stupid by
suggesting not only dim-witted pointlessness but also smug self-satisfaction. The fatuous person is
unconsciouslysilly,foolishlyconceited,orself-importantlystupid.“Here’ssomethingthatdidendtoday,”
writes Richard Valeriani in The Huffington Post. “Donald Trump’s fatuous, laughable flirtation with
runningforpresident.”
Word7:MEANDER(mee-AN-dur)
Toproceedbywindingandturning,takeanindirectorintricatecourse.Also,towanderaimlesslyoridly,ramble.
The verb to meander comes from the ancient name of a river in Asia Minor (now called Büyük
Menderes)thatfollowsawindingandwanderingcourseasitflowswestthroughoneoftheworld’smost
fertilevalleysandemptiesintotheAegeanSea.
Meandercanbeusedofpeopleorthingsthatwind,turn,ortakeanindirectorintricatecourse.For
instance,atraincanmeanderthroughmountains,andacrackcanmeanderacrossaceiling.Visitorstoa
museumcanmeanderthroughitsgalleries,andtravelerswithtimeontheirhandscanmeanderalongthe
streets of an unfamiliar city. Meander can also be used figuratively of any sort of idle wandering or
rambling.Yourthoughtscanmeander,aspeakercanmeanderfromonetopictoanother,andyoungpeople
oftenmeanderforawhilebeforediscoveringwhattheywanttodoinlife.
Whenyouwanderyougofromplacetoplaceoftenwithoutaplanorpurpose:“Shewasalarmedby
allthecreepypeoplewanderingthestreetsatnight.”Whenyouroamyoutravelorwanderfreely,often
out of restlessness or curiosity: “The bird-watchers roamed the countryside, on the lookout for rare
specimens.”Whenyourambleyouwanderforpleasurewithoutcaringwhereyougo:“Aschildren,they
lovedtoramblethroughthefieldsonsummerdays.”Whenyouroveyougofromplacetoplaceusually
for a specific reason: “The frigate roved the seas in search of enemy warships.” When you range you
wander over a large area, like cattle on the prairie, or you cover a lot of ground: “A fascinating
discussionthatrangedovermanytopics.”Whenyoutraipse(rhymeswithdrapes)yougofromplaceto
placewithoutfindingwhatyouseekorreachingyourgoal:“TheytraipsedalloverAmericalookingfora
bagel like the ones they loved back in New York.” And finally, when you meander you wander idly,
taking a winding, indirect course: “Footpaths that meander through verdant woods and beside bubbling
brooks.”(Verdantisword48ofLevel1.)
Word8:CULPABLE(KUHL-puh-bul)
Guilty,blameworthy,responsible;deservingblame,reprimand,orpunishment.
Synonyms of culpable include reprehensible, censurable (SEN-shur-uh-bul), and peccable (PEK-uhbul),liabletosinordowrong,theoppositeofthemorecommonimpeccable,incapableofsin,unableto
dowrong.
CulpablecomesfromtheLatinculpābilis,guilty,blameworthy,fromculpāre,toblame,accuse,and
culpa, fault, blame. The Latin phrase mea culpa (MAY-uh KUHL-puh or -KUUL-puh), which means
literally “my fault, I am to blame,” has been used in English for centuries to acknowledge guilt or
responsibilityforanerror.Meaculpamayalsobeanacknowledgmentofguilt:“Hisspeechwasapublic
meaculpa.”
Anyactforwhichyoucanbeblamed,punished,orfoundresponsibleissomethingforwhichyoucan
beculpable.Haveyouevermadeanillegalleftturnbecauseyoudidn’tseetheroadsignprohibitingit?
Thatkindofmistake,ablameworthyactthatcouldhavebeenavoidedhadyouknownsomethingthatyou
didn’tknow,iscalled“culpableignorance.”Althoughguiltyandculpableareingeneralinterchangeable,
guiltyisthestrongerwordandusuallyappliestoseriouscrimes,whileculpableusuallyappliestolesser
offensesinvolvingmisconductornegligence.
Word9:S EDATE(si-DAYT)
Calm,quiet,composed,unexcited,undisturbedbypassion.
Synonyms of sedate include unruffled, placid, serene, sober, unperturbed, and staid (pronounced like
stayed).Antonymsofsedateincludeexcited,frantic,high-strung,frenzied,disconcerted,perturbed(to
perturbisword25ofLevel6),ruffled,andoverwrought.
Theadjectivesedate,calm,quiet,comesfromtheLatinsēdāre,tocalm,soothe,settle,averbakinto
the Latin sedēre, to sit, the source of the English words sedentary, sediment, supersede, and sedulous
(word28ofLevel7).Sedateisalsoaverbusedinmedicinetomeantocalmorquietbyadministeringa
sedative, a drug designed to soothe nervousness or excitement, a tranquilizer. Sedation is the state of
beingcalmedorsettleddownbyasedative.AllthesewordsalsocomefromthesameLatinsēdāre, to
calm,soothe,settle.
The adjective sedate may refer to something that is untroubled or undisturbed, as a safe, sedate
neighborhood.Thewordisalsooftenappliedtothatwhichissolemnordignifiedbynatureordesign,as
sedatearchitecture,sedatemusic,orasedate,soft-spokenoldlady.
Word10:IMPROPRIETY(IM-pruh-PRY-i-tee)
Thestateorqualityofbeingimproper,incorrectnessorinappropriateness.
Impropriety,whichcomesfromtheLatinimproprius,unsuitable,combinestheprivativeprefixim-, not,
and propriety, appropriateness, suitability, conformity with a rule or custom: “Elsie questioned the
proprietyofthegruffandsometimeshostilewayinwhichherhusband,Max,spoketothesolicitorswho
knocked on their door.” Thus, impropriety is a lack of propriety, and refers to something improper,
incorrect,orinappropriate.
Improprietymaybeusedofsomethingunsuitable,astheimproprietyofwearinginformalclothingtoa
funeral. It may also be used of unsuitable or incorrect behavior: “Harold tried to teach his two young
sons, to no avail, that licking their soup bowls was an inexcusable impropriety.” But impropriety is
perhaps most often used of unseemly, indecent, or illegal behavior: “After a lengthy investigation, the
company was sued for financial impropriety”; “We must at all costs avoid the appearance of
impropriety.”
Improprietyisalsooftenusedofanimproperorunacceptableuseoflanguage.Forexample,itisan
improprietytopronouncemischievous in four syllables (mis-CHEE-vee-us) instead of the proper three
(MIS-chi-vus),ortosay“Ifeelbadly”—whichmeansyoudon’tdoagoodjoboffeeling—insteadofthe
correct“Ifeelbad.”
ReviewQuizforKeywords1–10
Considerthefollowingquestionsanddecidewhetherthecorrectanswerisyesorno.Answers appear
here.
1.Wouldatribulationbehardtoendure?
2.Whenyouderidesomeone,doyoumakefunofthatperson?
3.Wouldanefariouspersonbeinclinedtohelpothers?
4.Wouldanideologuebewillingtocompromise?
5.Iftwopeoplehavealong,unhappyaffair,isthatadalliance?
6.Isafatuousspeakerlikelytobeboring?
7.Doesameanderingspeakersticktothemainpoint?
8.Ifyouareculpable,areyoublameless?
9.Isanideologuelikelytobesedate?
10.Wouldtheappearanceofimproprietybeagoodthingforyourreputation?
TheStyleFile:Me,Myself,andI
Considerthefollowingphrasesanddecidewhichonesusemyselfcorrectlyandwhichdonot:“someone
likemyself”;“formywifeandmyself”;“neitherJoshuanormyself”;“myselfandafewotherfolks”;“Mr.
Smith,Ms.Jones,andmyself.”
Ifyouguessedthatallofthemarewrong,you’reright.Myself is continually misused for me and I.
Some attribute this mistake to a desire to sound sophisticated; others claim the misuser is affecting
modesty.Whateverthemotivation,thesourceoftheproblemisBritishEnglish.
In The New Fowler’s Modern English Usage, a style guide geared toward British English, R. W.
BurchfieldsaysusingmyselftomeanIis“beyondreproach,”aslongasmyselfisplacedaftertheother
elementsinthesentence.Heevenoffersoneofhisownpublishedsentencestoillustratethepoint:“This
booklet … [was] undertaken by Professor Denis Donoghue, Mr Andrew Timothy and myself.” To
Burchfield, “the rift between myself and Lord Hailsham” is bad British English, but “his nervousness
communicateditselftoIsaacandmyself”isgoodBritishEnglish.Hefailstonote,however,thatbothare
objectionable in American English. For years American usage experts have railed against using myself
forIandme,and88percentoftheAmericanHeritageDictionary’susagepanelfindsitunacceptablein
thesentence“ThebossaskedJohnandmyselftogiveabriefpresentation.”
InAmericanEnglishthereareonlytwoproperwaystousemyself:intensively,foremphasis,asinI
did it myself or I myself have been there; or reflexively, to turn the action back on the grammatical
subject,asinIdressedmyselforIwillexcludemyself.
SowhentheactorHarrisonFord,ofIndianaJonesfame,saysthat“StevenSpielberg,GeorgeLucas,
and myself are agreed on what the fifth adventure will concern,” he’s wrong; it should be “Spielberg,
Lucas,andIareagreed…”AndwhenatrusteeoftheUniversityofCaliforniawrites,inalettertothe
editor,“Iassureyouthatnoone,including…myself,wasanythingotherthancandidandfrank,”he’salso
wrong;itshouldbe“noone,including…me.”
***
Areyoureadyforanothertenkeyworddiscussions?Heretheyare:
Word11:MEGALOMANIA(MEG-uh-loh-MAY-nee-uh)
Amentaldisordercharacterizedbyexaggeratedfeelingsofgreatnessorpower;inageneralsense,anobsessionwithdoinggrand,extravagant
things.
Megalomaniaisthemedicaltermforwhatinlayterms1isoftencalleddelusionsofgrandeur (GRANjur).Amegalomaniacisapersonafflictedwithmegalomania,anexaggeratedandoftendelusionalbelief
in one’s own importance, or an obsession with grandiose ideas or plans. Adolf Hitler was a
megalomaniacwhothoughthecouldruletheworld,andinliterature,CaptainAhab,inHermanMelville’s
1851novelMoby-Dick,wasamegalomaniacobsessedwithhuntingdownthewhitewhale.
MegalomaniaisacombinationoftwoGreek-derivedcombiningforms:megalo-,large,great,grand;
and-mania,unreasonableorexcessiveenthusiasm.Megalo-appearsintheEnglishmegalopolis (MEGuh-LAHP-uh-lis),alarge,denselypopulatedareaconsistingofseveraladjoiningcitiesandsuburbs;in
megalocardia(MEG-uh-luh-KAHR-dee-uh), enlargement of the heart; and in the rare word megalopod
(MEG-uh-luh-pahd), which incorporates the combining form -pod, foot, and means a person with very
large feet. The combining form -mania appears in many words for delusions and obsessions, including
bibliomania,apassionforbooks(thecombiningformbiblio- means book); Anglomania, a passion for
England and all things English; trichotillomania (TRIK-uh-TIL-uh-MAY-nee-uh), a compulsion to pull
outone’shair;andbruxomania(BRUHKS-uh-MAY-nee-uh),compulsivegrindingoftheteeth.
Word12:VOCIFEROUS (voh-SIF-ur-us)
Cryingoutnoisily;makingaloudandvehementoutcry;uproarious.
Vociferous comes from the Latin vōcĭfĕrāri, to cry aloud, shout, the source also of the English verb to
vociferate(voh-SIF-ur-ayt),tocryoutloudly,shout,clamor,utterinaloudvoice,asinthissentencefrom
Emily Brontë’s 1847 novel Wuthering Heights: “He entered, vociferating oaths dreadful to hear.” The
Latinvōcĭfĕrāricomesinturnfromvocāre,tocall,andvox, vōcis, a voice, cry, call, the source of the
Englishwordsvocal,pertainingtoorproducedwiththevoice,andvocation,acalling,anoccupationthat
one feels called upon to pursue. The phrase vox populi (vahks PAHP-yuh-ly), borrowed directly from
Latin,meansthevoiceofthepeople,popularopinion.
Boisterous, clamorous, strident, obstreperous (uhb-STREP-ur-us), raucous (RAW-kus), and
vociferousallmeanstrikingly,insistently,orunpleasantlyloud.
Boisterous suggests the noise that comes from being rowdy or having fun: a boisterous party.
Clamoroussuggestsnoisethatisloudandcontinuous:clamorousmusiccomingfromnextdoor.Strident
appliestonoisethatisdisagreeablyloud,harsh,andshrill;apiercingscream,screechingbrakes,andthe
whining of a power tool are all strident. Obstreperous suggests noisiness accompanied by unruly
behavior: an obstreperous child; the obstreperous mob. Raucous may suggest the noisy unruliness of
obstreperous(raucouslaughter,araucouscrowd)ortheharshnessandroughnessofstrident(araucous
voice). Vociferous applies to any noisy outcry, especially a prolonged and vehement one: “Republican
Congressman Todd Akin’s ill-advised comments about ‘legitimate rape’ sparked an immediate and
vociferousresponsefromliberalsandconservativesalike.”
Word13:CONTRIVE(kun-TRYV)
Toinventordevisewithingenuity;todesign,plan;also,tomanage,bringaboutbyaplan,especiallybysomeschemeorstratagem(word10of
Level1).
Theverbtocontrivesuggestsinventing,designing,planning,ormanaginginaningeniousorcleverway.
The word may be neutral, implying ingenuity of design or management, as to contrive solutions for a
difficult problem; the generals contrived a strategy for war; or a campaign contrived to win over
people’s hearts. Or contrive may have a negative connotation, implying trickiness or deviousness in
inventing something or making something happen, as they contrived to defraud innocent people; the
lovers contrived to meet secretly once a week; or a campaign contrived to strike terror in citizens’
hearts.
Theparticipialadjective2contrivedalwayshasanegativeconnotationandmeansdevisedorplanned
inanobvious,artificial,forcedway.Acontrivedanswerisabogus,insincereanswer;acontrivedplotis
laboredorstrained;contrivedinterestisforcedorfakeinterest;contrivedoutrageisshamoutrage;anda
contrivedrelationshipisartificialandunconvincing.
Theadjectiveill-contrivedmeansbadlydesignedorplanned,asill-contrivedapproachestosocial
reformoranill-contrivedprojectthatwassoonabandoned.
Word14:NONPLUS (nahn-PLUHS)
Topuzzleorperplexcompletely;bringtoastandstill;renderutterlyconfusedsoastobeatalossforwhattosayordo.
TheverbtononpluscomesfromtheLatinphrasenōnplūs,notmore,nofurther.ThisLatinphrasewas
firstusedinEnglishinthelate16thcenturyasanoun,stressedonthefirstsyllable,tomean“astatein
whichnomorecanbesaidordone…astandstill”(OED).Inmodernusage,tobeinoratanonplus,or
tobringorreducetoanonplus,meanstorenderutterlyconfusedsoastobeatalossforwhattosayor
do,asinthisquotationfromJ.M.Dillard’s1989novelTheLostYears:“Reducedtoaperfectnonplus,
McCoyhalf-rosefromhischair.”
The participial adjective nonplussed—which is the preferred spelling over nonplused, with one s,
because the stress falls on the second syllable—has in recent years been used to mean unimpressed,
undisturbed, undaunted, as in “[Bill] Gates seemed nonplussed by the Net until late 1995.” This usage,
whichisperhapsaconfusionofnonplussedwithunfazed,isaslipshodextensionofthewordthatshould
beavoided.Nonplussedisproperlyused,asTheNewYorkTimesManualofStyleandUsagetellsus,to
mean“bewilderedtothepointofspeechlessness,”asinthiscitationfromtheSanFranciscoChronicle:
“Atfirst,[Clint]Eastwoodseemedtosuckmostoftheexcitementoutoftheconventioncenter,leavingthe
crowdabitnonplussed.”
You may use nonplus whenever you mean to puzzle or perplex completely, confound (word 34 of
Level2),renderspeechless,bringtoastandstill,asinthissentencefromLouisaMayAlcott’s1875novel
EightCousins:“Rosewasoneofthechildrenwhoobserveandmeditatemuch,andnowandthennonplus
theirfriendsbyawiseorcuriousremark.”
Therarewordnonplussationmeansthestateofbeingnonplussed,atalossforwhattosayordo.
Word15:IMPERIOUS (im-PEER-ee-us)
Domineering,overbearing,dictatorial,commanding.
Synonymsofimperiousincludetyrannical, despotic (word 43 of Level 1), high-handed, supercilious,
magisterial (word 28 of this level), and overweening (word 46 of Level 6). Antonyms include
submissive, meek, passive, deferential, tractable (TRAK-tuh-bul), which means willing to be led, and
acquiescent(AK-wee-ES-int),whichmeanswillingtoagree.
TheadjectiveimperiouscomesfromtheLatinimperiōsus,commanding,possessingpower,whichin
turn comes from impĕrium, command, power, mastery, the direct source of the unusual English word
imperium(im-PEER-ee-um),whichmeanseitherabsolutepoweroranareaofdominion,anempire.The
better-known adjective imperial, pertaining to an empire or befitting the commanding aspect of an
emperororempress,andthefamiliarnounempirealsocomefromtheLatinimpĕrium.
Imperiousismostcommonlyusedtodaytomeancommandinginanarrogant,arbitrary,overbearing
way,asinthissentencefromTheNewYorkTimes:“AboutadozenmembersofWikiLeaksleftthatmonth,
accusingMr.Assangeofimperiousbehaviorandofjeopardizingtheproject…”Atyrantwhoruleswith
an iron fist, a domineering boss who rides roughshod over the employees, a dictatorial teacher who is
condescendingandoverlydemanding,adespoticparentwhoimposesunreasonablerulesandmetesout
unfairpunishment—allareimperious.
Imperiousnessisthecorrespondingnoun.
Word16:PRIVATION(pry-VAY-shin)
Astateofextremehardship;specifically,alackoffoodorothernecessitiesforsurvival.
PrivationcomesfromtheclassicalLatinprīvātĭo,prīvātiōnis,afreeingfrom,takingaway.Throughthe
Latinverbprīvāre,whichinagoodsensemeanstofreefromandinabadsensemeanstotakeaway,strip
of,privationisrelatedtotheEnglishwordsdeprive,totakeaway,remove;private,whichbyderivation
means set apart from the state, and therefore individual; and privative, which means taking away,
depriving.3
The words privation and deprivation (DEP-ri-VAY-shun) have often been used interchangeably to
meantheactofdeprivingorthestateofbeingdeprived.Butinmodernusagedeprivationistheordinary
wordeitherforthetakingawayofsomethingenjoyed(suchasapossession,aposition,oraprivilege)or
foradeprivedcondition(suchassleepdeprivationoroxygendeprivation),whileprivation,theliterary
word,appliesspecificallytothestateofbeingdeprivedofwhatisnecessaryforsurvival.
Tosufferprivationistoliveinastateofextremehardship,whereitiscontinuallydifficulttoprocure
adequate food, clothing, and shelter. Privation is a heartrending consequence of poverty and political
oppression,anditisoftenatragicby-productofwar.ThesciencefictionwriterRayBradbury(1920–
2012)oncewrote,“Whileourartcannot,aswewishitcould,saveusfromwars,privation,envy,greed,
oldage,ordeath,itcanrevitalizeusamidstitall.”
Word17:S UFFUS E(suh-FYOOZ)
Tooverspread;tofillorcoveraswithlight,aliquid,orcolor.
Synonymsofsuffuseincludeimbue(word3ofLevel2),infuse,permeate,andpervade.
Suffuse comes from the Latin suffūsus, the past participle of suffŭndere, to spread through, steep,
stain,cover,fromsub-,under,andfŭndere,topour.
Suffusemayapplytoanythingthatisoverspreadorimbuedwith,orasifwith,color,liquid,orlight.
Forexample,facesareoftendescribedasbeingsuffused.Afacesuffusedwithrageisanangry,redface,
andafacesuffusedwithbeautyisalovelyface.Elementsinthenaturalworldarealsooftendescribedas
being suffused. The Century Dictionary quotes the English poet Alexander Pope (1688–1744), who
wrote, “When purple light shall next suffuse the skies”; and the English poet Matthew Arnold (1822–
1888),whowroteof“Alpinemeadowssoft-suffused/Withrain.”
Word18:DIS CONS OLATE(dis-KAHN-suh-lit)
Extremelysadorunhappy,completelymiserable,utterlydiscouragedordistressed.
Because unhappiness, misery, and distress are regrettably common emotional states, synonyms for
disconsolate abound. If it is your heart that is disconsolate, deeply unhappy, you can be downhearted,
heartbroken,brokenhearted,orheavyhearted.Andifit’syourmindthat’sdisconsolate,utterlymiserable
ordiscouraged,youcanbesorrowful,melancholy,downcast,dejected,desolate,dispirited,despondent,
inconsolable (IN-kun-SOH-luh-bul), forlorn, doleful, or lachrymose (LAK-ri-mohs), a literary word
thatmeanstearful,mournful.
The verb to console (kun-SOHL) means to comfort, lessen someone’s sorrow or trouble. It comes
fromtheLatinconsōlāri,tocomfort,alleviate,thesourcealsooftheEnglishnounconsolation,something
thatcomfortsortheactofcomforting:“ThefruitcakesandcasserolestheneighborsleftforNancyafter
herhusband’sfuneralwerelittleconsolationforhergrief.”Disconsolate combines the privative prefix
dis-, which takes away or negates the meaning of the word that follows, with consolation to mean
literallywithoutcomfort,andthereforemiserable.
Whatevermakesyoufeelextremelysadorhopelessmakesyoudisconsolate.Losingapokergameor
a tennis match may make you feel discouraged or distressed, but losing something important that you
depend on, such as a job or a place to live, or losing a loved one, can make you disconsolate. Not
surprisingly, unrequited lovers (because their love is un-, not, requited, returned in kind, reciprocated)
areoftendisconsolate.
Word19:CONUNDRUM(kuh-NUHN-drum)
Ariddleorpuzzle,theanswertowhichinvolvesapunoraplayonwords;also,anyperplexingquestionorproblem.
The origin of conundrum has been lost. Most authorities agree that it is pseudo-Latin, like the word
hocus-pocus,whichwasoriginallyusedbyjugglersandmagicians.Conundrummayhavebeenaslang
termusedinthe16thcenturybystudentsatthegreatEnglishuniversities,OxfordandCambridge,andthe
OEDsuggeststhatitmayhaveoriginatedinajokeoraparodyofLatin.
Funk & Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of the English Language defines conundrum as “a riddle
foundedonsomeoddresemblancebetweenunlikethingsortheirnames,orsomeodddifferenceoflike
things or their names, often depending on a pun; as ‘What kind of fruit does the electric plant bear?’
‘Currents.’” One of my favorite books as a child was Bennett Cerf ’s Book of Riddles, a collection of
conundrumspresentedinlanguagesuitableforyoungreaders.Theanswertoeachriddle,orconundrum,
alwaysinvolvesanamusingand—atleastforachild—unpredictableplayonwords.Forexample:“What
goes up when the rain comes down?” “An umbrella.” “What dog keeps the best time?” “A watchdog.”
“Whatgetslosteverytimeyoustandup?”“Yourlap.”
Althoughconundrumisstillusedtomeanariddlewhoseanswerinvolveswordplay,currentusage
favorsthemoregeneralsenseoftheword:anyquestionorproblemthatpuzzlesorperplexes.Thereare
all sorts of conundrums, from mathematical, technological, and metaphysical conundrums to ethical,
financial, and legal conundrums. Sometimes just figuring out the right thing to do or say can be a
conundrum,aperplexingquestionorproblem.
You may come across conundrum used in the phrase in a conundrum, as in this sentence from the
OshkoshNorthwestern:“WithaNo-Tippinglaw,customerswouldneveragainfeelembarrassedorina
conundrumabouttipping.”Strictlyspeaking,thisisamisuse,aconfusionofconundrumwiththewords
dilemma,predicament,andquandary(KWAHN-duh-ree).Thosethreewordsallrefertoacomplicated,
perplexingsituationfromwhichitishardtodisentangleoneself,whileconundrumproperlyreferstoa
complicated,perplexingquestionorproblem.“Onecorpse.Ninenames,butnoidentity,”beginsastoryin
theIndependentOnline.“ThisistheconundrumNorthWestpolicearedealingwithwhentheytriedto
identifyadeadmanbyrunninghisfingerprintsthroughthesystem—andcameupwithninedifferentnames
andagesforhim.”
Inadditiontoriddle,puzzle,andmystery,thenounenigma(i-NIG-muh)—somethingorsomeonehard
tounderstandorexplain—isaclosesynonymofconundrum.
Word20:DOTAGE(DOH-tij)
Senility;thementaldeclineassociatedwitholdage,sometimescalledsecondchildhood.
DotagecomesfromtheMiddleEnglishdoten,tobehavefoolishly,becomefeebleminded,andisrelated
totheverbtodote(rhymeswithcoat),whichmaymeantoexhibitthefeeblemindednessofoldageorto
befoolishlyfondof,bestowexcessiveattentionon,asamotherwhodotesonheronlychild.
Dotagecanalsomeanexcessivefondnessorfoolishaffection,theactofdotingonsomeone,butmore
oftentodayitisusedofthedeclineinmentalabilityassociatedwitholdage,orsometimes,loosely,of
old age itself: “It seems a handsome male lead can be a handsome male lead well into his dotage, but
therearefewerchancesforbeautifulfemaleleadactressestofollowsuit”(bbcamerica.com).
Theexpressioninone’sdotagemeansinoldage,especiallyinthetimeofoldagewhenthemental
faculties decline, and the noun dotard (DOH-turd) is a person in his or her dotage, a feebleminded or
foolisholdperson.
ReviewQuizforKeywords11–20
Considerthefollowingstatementsanddecidewhethereachoneistrueorfalse.Answersappearhere.
1.InHermanMelville’snovelMoby-Dick,CaptainAhabsuffersfrommegalomania;heisobsessedwithhuntingdownthewhitewhale.
2.Thesofthumofadishwasherorwashingmachineisvociferous.
3.Whenyoucontrivetodosomething,youtrybutdon’tsucceed.
4.Apersonwhohasbeennonplussedislikelytoobjectvociferously.
5.Itwouldn’tbeunusualforamegalomaniactomakeanimperiousremark.
6.Privationistheactofsavingforarainyday,frugality.
7.Tosuffuseistouseupcompletely,consumeordevour.
8.Beingunemployedforalongtimecouldmakeapersondisconsolate.
9.Aconundrumisacomplicated,perplexingsituation.
10.Peopleintheirdotageoftenhaveexceptionalmentalpowers.
SynonymDiscrimination
Thewordspredicament,dilemma,andquandary—mentionedinthediscussionofconundrum, word 19
ofthislevel—allapplytosituationsorconditionsthataredifficultandperplexing.Apredicament is a
difficultsituationthatisespeciallyunpleasantorunfortunate:“LosinghisjobleftPeteinapredicament.”
Dilemmaisoftenusedlooselyofanydifficultproblemortroublesomesituation,butinthebestusageitis
used only of situations in which one faces a choice between equally undesirable alternatives. When
you’re“damnedifyoudoanddamnedifyoudon’t,”that’sadilemma.Aquandaryisastateofuncertainty
orconfusionthatrendersoneunabletoact.Tobeinaquandarymeanstobepuzzled,fullofdoubts,and
notsurewhattodo.
***
Let’sreturnagaintotheWordWorkoutvocabulary.
Word21:VACUOUS (VAK-yoo-us)
Empty,withoutcontentorsubstance;hencefiguratively,emptyofideasorintelligence.
Synonyms of vacuous meaning without content or substance include blank, void, vacant, hollow,
insubstantial, and depleted. Synonyms of vacuous meaning lacking ideas or intelligence include
thoughtless,pointless,purposeless,expressionless,inane,andfatuous(word6ofthislevel).
The noun is vacuity (va-KYOO-i-tee), emptiness, absence, vacancy of matter or of mind, as in this
quotationfromMarionHarland’s1854novelAlone:“Sheheardandsawallthatpassed;butinplaceof
heartandsensewasadeadvacuity.”
The adjective vacuous comes from the Latin vacuus, empty, void, vacant, the source also of the
Englishnounvacuum,aspacedevoidofmatter,andtheverbevacuate,tovacate,leaveemptyorvoid.
Althoughvacuousmaybeusedliterallyofsomethingthatisempty,ashestoodinthevacuous,echoing
corridorofthevacantstadium,todaythewordisfarmoreoftenusedfigurativelytomeanemptyofideas
orintelligence,devoidofsubstance,sense,orinterest.Wespeakofvacuousfools,avacuousspeech,a
vacuouslookorstare,vacuousrealityTVshows,vacuouscelebrities,vacuousnovels,and—perhapsthe
most vacuous thing on earth—that horrible, ubiquitous, vacuous Muzak. (Ubiquitous, pronounced yooBIK-wi-tus,meansexistingorseemingtoexisteverywhereatthesametime.)
When you think of the adjective vacuous, think of a vacuum cleaner sucking all the substance or
intelligenceoutofsomething.
Word22:INTEMPERATE(in-TEM-pur-it)
Withoutmoderation,extremeorexcessive,goingbeyondreasonablebounds.
TheadjectivetemperatecomesfromtheLatintemperāre,toexerciserestraint,andmeansmoderate,not
excessive,keepingwithinreasonablelimits,asatemperateclimate,onewithmoderatetemperatures,or
temperatecriticism,meaningcriticismthatismildormoderateratherthanextremeorviolent.Tackthe
privative prefix in- onto temperate and you get its antonym, intemperate, lacking moderation,
immoderate,excessive:“Hewascautiousinhiswritingbutintemperateinhisspeech.”
Intemperate may be used of anything that is extreme or goes beyond reasonable bounds, as
intemperateremarksorintemperatelust.Butitisalsooftenusedtomeanexcessivelyindulgent,going
beyondreasonablelimitstosatisfyanappetiteordesire,especiallyadesireforalcoholordrugs,asin
this1793quotationfromJamesBeattie’sElementsofMoralScience:“Menhabituallyintemperatejustly
forfeittheesteemoftheirfellow-citizens.”
Thenountemperancemaymeanmoderation,restraint,orabstinencefromalcoholanddrugs,whileits
antonym, the noun intemperance, may mean a lack of moderation or habitual indulgence in alcohol or
drugs.
Synonymsofintemperatemeaningwithoutmoderation,excessive,includeextravagant,uncontrolled,
unbridled, and inordinate (in-OR-di-nit). Synonyms of intemperate meaning overly indulgent include
besotted(word24ofLevel1),dissolute(word7ofLevel6),dissipated,wanton,profligate (PRAHFli-git),anddebauched(theverbtodebauchisword30ofLevel5).
Word23:S TYMIE(STY-mee,rhymeswithtryme)
Toobstruct,block,thwart,standinthewayof,presentanobstacleto.
The precise etymology of the verb to stymie is uncertain, but we do know that its origin is probably
Scottish and it is probably related to the ancient Scottish game of golf. Consult any dictionary and you
willseethatingolfthenounstymiedenotesasituationinwhichaballontheputtinggreenobstructsthe
line of play of another ball on the green. From this notion of one player’s golf ball blocking another
player’sputtitiseasytoseehow,sinceabout1900,wecametousestymieasaverbtomeantoblockor
obstruct.
You can use stymie of almost anything that gets in the way, blocks progress, or thwarts success. In
politics,afactionmaytrytostymiediscussionofanissuesoastopreventavote.Inbusiness,acompany
cantrytostymiethecompetition,standinitsway,andadeepdipinthestockmarketcanstymie,present
anobstacleto,economicgrowth.Bureaucracy,informallycalledredtape,canstymieanattempttogain
approvalforaconstructionproject,andiftheprojectisapproved,amonthofheavyraincanstymiework
onit.Sportswriterscommonlyusestymietomeantodefeat,thwarttheeffortsof:“TheBeaversuseda
suffocatingdefensetostymieWisconsin10–7.”
Synonyms of stymie include frustrate, hinder, hobble, impede, inhibit, and encumber (word 29 of
Level1).Antonymsofstymieincludeaid,promote,encourage,accelerate,facilitate,disencumber,and
expedite(EKS-puh-dyt),fromtheLatinexpedire,tofreefromasnare,disentangle,hencetospeedupor
performpromptly.
Word24:AMBROS IA(am-BROH-zhuh)
InancientGreekandRomanmythology,thefoodofthegods,whichmadethemimmortal.Hence,somethingdivinelysweetandpleasingto
tasteorsmell.
Ambrosia comes directly from an ancient Greek word that meant both immortality and the food of the
gods. It was “a celestial substance, capable of imparting immortality,” says The Century Dictionary,
“commonly represented as the food of the gods, but sometimes as their drink, and also as a richly
perfumedunguent[anointmentoroil].”Becauseitwasunclearwhetherambrosiawasonlyafoodoralso
adrink,ambrosiaissometimesalsocallednectar,orthenectarofthegods.
When it is not used historically of the food of the gods, ambrosia is commonly used of something
sweetanddelicioustotasteorsmell.Thisusemaybeliteral—thereisasweetdessertcalledambrosia
that is made with oranges, shredded coconut, and sometimes pineapple, nuts, and whipped cream or
yogurtfordressing—orfigurative,assheinhaledthebouquet’sintoxicatingambrosiaorhetastedthe
ambrosiaofherlips.
Theadjectiveisambrosial(am-BROH-zhee-ul),whichmaymeaneitherimmortal,divine,worthyof
thegods,orexceptionallysweet,delicious,orfragrant.
Word25:VIVIFY(VIV-i-fy)
Togivelifeorrenewedlifeto,animate,stimulate.Also,tomakemorevividorstriking.
Synonymsofvivifyincludeenergize,quicken,enliven,andvitalize.Antonymsofvivifyincludeweaken,
exhaust,debilitate,enfeeble,andenervate.
VivifycomesfromtheLatinvīvus,alive,living,andfacere,tomake,andbyderivationmeanstomake
more alive. From the same Latin vīvus, alive, and the verb vīvĕre, to live, be alive, come the English
wordsrevive;vivid;vivacious(word15ofLevel1);andthelegaltermintervivos(IN-turVEE-vohsor
VY-vohs),whichmeansliterally“betweentheliving”andisusedofgiftsortruststhattakeeffectduring
thelifetimesofthepartiesinvolved.
Vivifycanbeusedwherevertheintendedmeaningistogivelifeto,stimulate,ortomakemorevivid,
striking,orbright.Paintersvivifywithbrilliantcolorsandboldbrushstrokes.Biographerstrytovivify
the people whose lives they chronicle, making their words and experiences come alive again. The
economy can be vivified, stimulated, given renewed life, by an increase in production and consumer
spending.Andbrightsunlightcanvivifyalandscape,makingitmoreclearandstriking.
Word26:PURLOIN(pur-LOYN)
Tosteal,makeawaywith,takedishonestly,oftenbyabreachoftrust.
Theverbstosteal,rob,plunder,andlootareusuallyusedofseriouscrimesinwhichsomethingvaluable
isseizedortakenunlawfully,oftenwithforceorviolence.Bycontrast,theverbstoswipe,filch,pilfer,
poach,andpurloinusuallyapplytopettytheftinwhichsomethingistakensecretlyandofteninacunning
ordeceptiveway.
Toswipeandtofilchbothimplysnatchingsomethingquicklywhilenooneislooking:“Sheswiped
some makeup from the drugstore”; “Every day the boy filched an extra cookie from the jar.” To pilfer
impliestakingsomethingrepeatedly,usuallyinsmallamounts:“Acleverfoxwaspilferingchickensfrom
thehenhouse.”Topoachistotrespassforthepurposeofstealinggameorfish:“Theypoachedelephants
for their ivory tusks.” Our keyword, to purloin, often suggests breaching another’s trust by taking
somethingdishonestlyforone’sownpurposes.InhisHistoryoftheEnglish-SpeakingPeoples (1956),
WinstonChurchillwrote,“Thisson,byanactofbadfaithwhichaftermanystormyyearswastocosthim
hislife,purloinedanotewhichhisfatherhadpreserved.”
Topurloinmayalsomeantoplagiarize,tostealsomeoneelse’swordsorideasandtrytopassthem
off as your own. In Roughing It (1872), Mark Twain wrote, “It has been purloined by fifty different
scribblerswhoweretoopoortoinventafancybutnotashamedtostealone.”
Word27:BULWARK(BUUL-wurk,likebullwork)
Apowerfuldefenseorprotection,strongsupportorsafeguard.
WhenbulwarkcameintoMiddleEnglishinthefirsthalfofthe15thcenturyitwasusedtomeanawallor
moundofearth,stones,orothermaterialusedfordefense,arampart,fortification.“Withbulwarksstrong
their city he enclosed,” wrote the English poet William Cowper (KOO-pur) in his 1791 translation of
Homer’sOdyssey.
In the 16th century bulwark took on another meaning: a breakwater or seawall, as in this 1865
quotationfromSirArchibaldGeikie’sSceneryofScotland:“Tocheckthefurtherravagesofthewavesa
stonebulwarkwaserected.”Andinthe19thcenturybulwarkalsocametobeusedofthelowwooden
wallrunningalongthesidesofashipabovethelevelofthedeck.InhisclassicnavalmemoirTwoYears
BeforetheMast(1840),RichardHenryDanawrote,“Ourshiphaduncommonlyhighbulwarksandrail.”
The figurative sense of bulwark, a powerful defense, strong support, came along in the late 16th
century.Itisinthissensethatthewordiscommonlyusedtoday—todenoteanyimportantsafeguard:a
thing, idea, or person that protects or gives support in time of need. Here are some examples of this
figurativeusefromnewsreports:“TheBombayHighCourt…hasbeenaspectacularbulwarkoffreedom
inindependentIndia”;“TheU.S.FifthFleetisbasedinBahrainasabulwarkagainstIran”;“TheAmazon
Basin,traditionallyconsideredabulwarkagainstglobalwarming,maybebecominganetcontributorof
carbondioxide.”
Bulwark may also be used as a verb to mean to safeguard, fortify, provide strong support or
protection:“Weofferstrategiesthatcanbulwarkinvestmentsagainstuncertaintyandincreasechancesof
makingaprofit.”
Word28:MAGIS TERIAL(MAJ-i-STEER-ee-ul)
Likeorbefittingamasterorsomeonewhospeakswithauthority;hence,authoritative,masterly,weighty,commanding.
Thenounmagister(MAJ-i-stur)isanoldandformalwordforamaster;itcomesdirectlyfromtheLatin
magister, a master. The adjective magisterial comes from the Latin magisterialis, of a magister or
master.
Magisterialmaybeusedinaneutralwaytomeanhavingorexhibitingtheauthorityofamaster,or
displaying the skill of a master: a magisterial work of scholarship; a magisterial speech; her
magisterialdebutontheconcertstage.Or,likeimperious,word15ofthislevel,magisterial may be
useddisparaginglyofapersontomeandomineeringordogmatic,forcingotherstoacceptyouropinions
orfollowyourorders.TheEnglishphilosopherJohnLockeusedmagisterialthiswayin1690:“Itwould
becomeustobe…lessmagisterial…andimperious,inimposingourownsenseandinterpretations.”
Magisterialhasoneothermeaningthatshouldbenoted.Amagistrate(MAJ-i-strayt)isajusticeof
the peace, a minor judicial officer with limited jurisdiction. Magisterial is sometimes used to mean
pertainingtoorbefittingamagistrate,asamagisterialinquiryoramagisterialcourt.
Word29:TALIS MAN(TAL-is-munorTAL-iz-mun)
Acharm,amulet;anobjectbelievedtohavethemagicalpowertowardoffevil,bringgoodfortune,orinfluencehowpeopleactorfeel.
Talisman,whichcameintoEnglishfirstthroughFrench,Spanish,andItalian,andbeforethatArabic,hails
ultimately from the Greek télesma, a religious rite, consecration, which in turn comes from telein, to
complete,fulfill,orperformareligiousrite.
Historicallyatalismanisastone,aring,orsomeothersmallobjectthathasbeencutorengravedwith
supposedly magical letters, figures, or celestial images. “The talisman is supposed to exercise
extraordinaryinfluencesoverthebearer,especiallyinavertingevils,asdiseaseorsuddendeath,”says
The Century Dictionary. Since the 18th century talisman has also been used figuratively of anything
believedcapableofproducingmagicalormiraculousresults,orthatexercisesanextraordinaryinfluence
onhumanactionsoremotions—inshort,agood-luckcharm.
Webster’sNewInternationalDictionary,secondedition,saysthatthewordstalisman, amulet, and
charmareofteninterchangeable,butamulet“appliesespeciallytoanobjectworntoavertevil,”while
charmcanalsobeusedof“amagicalcombinationofwords.”Talisman,bycontrast,“denoteswiderand
more positive powers,” as suggested by this quotation from the 19th-century novelist and short story
writerNathanielHawthorne:“Thelittlecircletoftheschoolboy’scoppercoin…hadprovedatalisman,
fragrantwithgood,anddeservingtobesetingoldandwornnext[to]herheart.”
Wouldyouliketolearnanunusualsynonymoftalisman,amulet,andcharm?Aperiapt(PER-ee-apt),
fromperi-,around,about,andtheGreekhaptein,tofasten,issomethingworntopreventorcureillness,
toavoidbadluck,ortowardoffspells.
Word30:S TUPEFY(STOO-puh-fyorSTYOO-puh-fy)
Todullthesensesof,makestupidorgroggy,putintoadaze,deaden.
Thenounisstupefaction(ST(Y)OO-puh-FAK-shin),thestateofbeingstupefied,groggyordazed,orthe
actofstupefying,renderinginsensible.
Synonyms of the verb to stupefy include daze, bemuse, benumb, and stun, all of which, says the
American Heritage Dictionary, “mean to dull or paralyze the mental capacities with or as if with a
shock.”Anunusualsynonymofstupefyishebetate(HEB-i-tayt),tomakeorbecomedullorstupid,from
theLatinhebes,blunt,dull.
Stupefy comes from the Latin stupefacĕre, to render senseless, stun, a combination of two verbs:
stupēre,tobestrucksenseless,astounded,stunned,andfacĕre,tomake.Facĕreisalsothesourceofthe
common English suffix -fy, which is used in creating verbs that mean either to make or render, as in
clarify,tomakeclear,andsimplify,torendersimple,ortobecome,asinliquefy,tobecomeliquid.The
LatinstupēreisalsothesourceoftheEnglishwordsstupid,stupendous,andstupor,aseverelydulledor
senselessmentalstate,adaze.
Tostupefyistoputintoastuporordaze,eitherwithorasifwithanarcotic,aspolitical rhetoric
designedtostupefythenationorstupefiedwithliquor.Thewordisalsooftenusedtomeantoshock,
stun,astonish,asstupefiedbythissuddentwistoffate.
Stupefyisoccasionallymisspelledstupify,withaniinsteadofaneinthemiddle,nodoubtthrough
confusionwithstupid.Takecarenottomakethismistake.
ReviewQuizforKeywords21–30
Decideifthepairsofwordsbelowaresynonymsorantonyms.Answersappearhere.
1.Voidandvacuousare…synonymsorantonyms?
2.Besottedandintemperateare…
3.Stymieandexpediteare…
4.Ambrosiaandnectarare…
5.Vivifyandenervateare…
6.Purloinandpilferare…
7.Menaceandbulwarkare…
8.Magisterialandimperiousare…
9.Amuletandtalismanare…
10.Stupefyandinvigorateare…
DifficultDistinctions:FartherandFurther
“Further.Farther,”beganthequeryonmywebsitecommentspage.“Shallwejustcallthewholething
off,orcanyouspecifytheirmeanings?
Noneedtocallthewholethingoff,Iresponded.Thedistinctionisn’thardtomaster.Fartherisliteral
and refers to physical distances, while further is figurative and refers to every other kind of distance.
Thus,youwalkfarthertowardyourdestination,takephysicalstepstowardit,butyoufigurativelytakea
stepfurthertowardyourgoal.Yougofartherdowntheroad,notfurther.Andwhilephysicalthingscan
driftfartherawayfromeachother,peopleinbadrelationshipsdriftfurtherapart.
Unfortunately,theBritishinsistonconfusingthingsbyusingfurtherforbothphysicalandfigurative
distance. And the Ford Motor Company isn’t helping, either. During the 2013 Major League Baseball
playoffs, Ford promoted its wares with the slogan Go further. Apparently the copywriters thought it
wouldbeaslicksalesgimmicktomergethenotionsofphysicalandfigurativedistance.AllIcansayis,
Gofigure.
***
HerearethenexttenkeyworddiscussionsinLevel3:
Word31:RANCOROUS (RANG-kur-us)
Feelingorexhibitingdeeplyrootedhostility,bitterness,orresentment.
Theadjectiverancorousandthenounrancor(RANG-kur)comefromtheLatinrancēre,toberottenor
putrid(PYOO-trid),thesourcealsooftheEnglishadjectiverancid(RAN-sid),rotting,stinking,havinga
disgusting smell because of decomposition, as rancid meat or rancid butter. The noun rancor means
bitterandlong-lastinghostilityorillwill,asinthis1767quotationfromaletterwrittenbytheAnglican
clergymanJohnWesley,whofoundedMethodism:“Suchhatred,malevolence,rancor,bitterness,asyou
showtoallwhodonotexactlyfallinwithyouropinionwasscarceeverseen.”Theadjectiverancorous
meansfulloforshowingrancor,bitterillwill,malice.
Unlike fury, which builds to a fever pitch and explodes, and unlike spite, which suggests petty
resentment or envy, rancor implies a deep-seated, long-lasting hatred or resentment that festers, causes
bitternessandirritation,overtime.Someonecanfeelrancorousangerforawrongdoneyearsago,orfeel
rancorous envy of someone who always gets the breaks but doesn’t deserve them. Rancorous parents
headed toward divorce often use their children as pawns in their ongoing rancorous drama. And many
societies throughout the world have suffered for generations, even centuries, from rancorous divisions
basedonrace,class,andreligion.
Word32:ENNUI(ahn-WEE)
Boredom,tedium;afeelingofwearinessanddiscontentbroughtonbyalackofinterestinwhatoneisdoingoralackofsomethinginteresting
todo.
Synonymsofennuiincludelistlessness(listlessisword39ofLevel2),languor(LANG-gur,discussed
in languish, word 14 of Level 2), and lassitude, weariness, fatigue, a sluggish relaxation of body or
mind.
EnnuicomesfromtheFrenchennui,boredom,annoyance,tediousness.Inmodernusageennuiusually
impliessomethingdeeper,morepervasive,andlonger-lastingthanboredomandtedium,whichareoften
temporary. Ennui suggests a persistent state of mind, an enveloping world-weariness, a chronic fatigue
withexistenceorboredomwiththeworldanditsmaterialpleasures.Toomuchofthesamething—orof
anything,goodorbad—cangetboring,andwhentheboredomandwhatcausesitshownosignsofgoing
away,welapseintoennui.
Wealthy people, who think they can afford everything, and fashionable people, who think they have
seen everything, are often described as experiencing ennui, a world-weary dissatisfaction with all the
privileges and creature comforts they enjoy. And these days many voters suffer from ennui, an
overwhelmingfatiguebroughtonbytheconstantsnipinganddivisivenessofpoliticaldiscourse.
Word33:CENS ORIOUS (sen-SOR-ee-us)
Severelycritical,blamingorcondemningharshly,expressingsterndisapprovalof.
TheadjectivecensoriouscomesfromtheLatincensōrĭus,whichmeantrelatingtothecensor, a Roman
magistrate who administered the census, a tally of the population and an assessment of property. This
ancient Roman censor was also charged with “the supervision of public morals” (OED), so the Latin
censōrĭusalsocametomeanstern,rigid,severe,andtheLatincensoralsocametomeanaseverejudge
orrigidmoralist.
FromthisimplicationofseverityandjudgmentweinherittheEnglishwordcensor(SEN-sur).Asa
noun censor means a person who suppresses any material (in books, movies, radio and television
programs, etc.) deemed objectionable, immoral, or offensive to the government. As a verb to censor
meanstosuppressordeletesomethingobjectionable,astocensorabookbyremovingwordsorpassages
consideredoffensive.
FromtherelatedLatinwordcensūra,theofficeofacensor,comestheEnglishcensure (SEN-shur),
which as a noun means strong disapproval or an official reprimand, and as a verb means to criticize
harshly, find fault with, often through a formal proceeding, as to censure a member of Congress for
unethicalconduct.
Censorious suggests behaving like a censor, a rigid and severe judge, and the act of censuring—
criticizing or condemning harshly. A censorious eye is an eye always on the lookout for something or
someonetocensure,todisapproveofsternly.Acensorioussocietyorcensoriousgovernmentsuppresses
anyactionorexpressionthatitdeemsoffensiveordangerous.AndthecensoriousHaysCode—namedfor
William Harrison Hays, president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America from
1922to1945—imposedstrictmoralguidelinesforHollywoodmovies.
Synonymsofcensoriousincludefaultfinding,denunciatory,captious,carping,andvituperative(vyT[Y]OO-pur-uh-tiv).
Word34:MARGINALIZE(MAHR-ji-nuh-lyz)
Toremovefromthemainstream,sendtotheborderorouteredge;specifically,toforceapersonorgroupintoaninferior,unimportant,or
powerlessroleorcondition.
Amargin,inoneofitsmanysenses,isaborderoredge,andspecificallythespacearoundwhatisprinted
or written on a page. The adjective marginal means pertaining to or placed at the margin, the border,
edge, or outer limit. Thus, when you marginalize something, you place it in a marginal position, on the
edgesorouterlimits,soastoignoreitorminimizeitsimportanceorinfluence.Usuallyitisunpopular,
powerless, or controversial individuals or groups that are marginalized by the mainstream, which is
alwaysbentonmaintainingstabilityandcontrol.Artistsanddissidentsthatchallengethestatusquoare
oftenmarginalized,andformuchofAmericanhistorythepowersthatbetookpainstoconsolidatetheir
powerbymarginalizingwomenandminorities.
Thepastparticiplemarginalizedmayalsobeusedasanountomeanremovedfromthemainstream
andplacedinaninferiororpowerlessroleorcondition:“Weallhaveworktodotoputthemarginalized,
thehungry,andthehomelessontheelectionagenda”(TimesofLondon).
Word35:REPROVE(ri-PROOV)
Tocriticize,scold,orcorrectgently;also,toexpressstrongdisapprovalof,condemn.
Thenounsreproofandreprovalbothmeantheactofreproving,acriticism,correction,orexpressionof
disapproval,asinthissentencefromSherwoodAnderson’s1911novelWinesburg,Ohio:“She…wrote
downaseriesofsharp,stingingreproofssheintendedtopouroutuponhim.”
TheverbtoreprovecomesfromtheLatinreprobāre,tocondemn,reject,disapproveofstrongly,the
source also of the English word reprobate (REP-ruh-BAYT), which may be a noun, an adjective, or a
verb.Asanounreprobatemeansacorrupt,unprincipledperson,ascoundrel.Asanadjectivereprobate
meansmorallyabandoned,lackingallsenseofdecencyandduty.Andasaverbtoreprobateisastrong
synonymofreproveandmeanstocondemn,disapproveof.
When you reprove, it may be relatively mild, a gentle and well-meaning scolding or correction, a
figurativerapontheknuckles:“Shewasagiftedteacherwhoknewpreciselywhentoreproveandwhen
toconsoleherstudents.”Orreprovemayimplyharsherdisapprovalorcondemnation:“Theletterwould
reproveMooreforallegedlyusinghisofficeforpersonalgain,dispensingfavors,andbringingdiscredit
againsttheHouse”(thehill.com).
Synonyms of reprove in the milder sense, to criticize or correct gently, include to lecture, chide,
admonish, caution, chasten (rhymes with hasten), and remonstrate (ri-MAHN-strayt). Synonyms of
reprove in the harsher sense, to express strong disapproval, include to rebuke, reprimand, denounce,
reproach,berate(word37ofLevel4),upbraid,reprehend,revile(word43ofLevel4),castigate,and
censure(discussedincensorious,word33ofthislevel).
Word36:RELEGATE(REL-uh-gayt)
Toassigntoaninferiororinsignificantposition,role,orcondition:outcastsrelegatedtothefringesofsociety.
TheverbtorelegatecomesfromtheLatinrelēgāre,tobanish,sendaway,andthiswasthemeaningofthe
word when it entered English in the 16th century. Although this sense survives in historical contexts
pertainingtobanishment,thecommonmeaningofrelegatesincethe18thcenturyhasbeentoremovetoan
inferior position or place, assign to an insignificant or obscure role: “Her noteworthy scientific
contributions have sadly been relegated to the dust-heap of history”; “The teacher relegated her
impertinent(word20ofLevel1)pupiltoaseatinthebackoftheroom.”
Theverbstodelegateandtorelegatehaveoftenbeenusedinterchangeably,butausefuldistinction
between them can and should be made. To delegate implies an assignment of equal responsibility, and
means to entrust or deliver to another’s care or management. You delegate your duties to someone you
trust. To delegate may also be to appoint as an agent or representative to act in your stead: “Henry
delegated Robert to speak for him at the council meeting.” To relegate implies giving an inferior or
insignificantassignment,placinginanobscureorunimportantpositionsoastoputoutofsightormind:
“The Balkans are dominated by patriarchal societies, in which men dictate morality and women are
relegatedtothehome”(TheNewYorkTimes).
Word37:BEHEMOTH(bi-HEE-muth)
Anythingofmontroussizeandpower;amassiveandmightycreatureorthing.
BehemothcomesfromaHebrewwordmeaningabeast,buttheOEDnotesthatitmaycomeultimately
fromanEgyptianwordthatmeantawater-oxandthatwas“assimilatedinHebrewmouthstoaHebrew
form.” That is perhaps why some dictionaries speculate that the original behemoth—mentioned in the
BibleinthebookofJob—wasprobablyahippopotamus.
“Beholdnowbehemoth,”beginsJob40:15,“…heeatethgrassasanox.”His“bonesarelikebarsof
iron,”“themountainsbringhimforthfood,”he“drinkethupariver,”and“noneissofiercethatdarestir
himup.”IliveinSanDiego,California,andatourcity’sfamouszootheyhaveabigpoolthatsomevery
bighippopotamusesfrolicin.I’veseenthesemonstrouscreaturesupcloseandpersonal,andIcanassure
youtheyarebehemoths—massive,powerful,practicallytoothless,andmorethanalittledauntingwhen
theysidleuptotheglassandsnortatyou.
Chapter41ofthebookofJobintroducesustoanotherformidable(FOR-mi-duh-buul, not for-MIDuh-buul)creature,leviathan(li-VY-uh-thin),amassiveandmenacingseamonster:“Canstthoudrawout
leviathanwithahook?…Whenheraisethhimselfup,themightyareafraid.Thearrowcannotmakehim
flee.…Helaughethattheshakingofaspear.…Hemakeththedeeptoboillikeapot.”Fromthislanguage
youcanseehowthisbiblicalleviathanbecametheinspirationfortheenormouswhitewhalethatCaptain
Ahab hunts obsessively in Herman Melville’s 1851 novel Moby-Dick. Even the hefty novel itself is
sometimesreferredtoasaleviathan:“Moby-DickistheleviathanofAmericanliterature—agreatwhite
whaleofabookthateveryonehasheardofbutfewhaveactuallyread”(TheGuardian).
Inmodernusagethewordsleviathanandbehemothmaybeusedofhugeanimals—leviathanofany
huge sea creature, such as a whale, and behemoth of any huge land creature. But probably more often
todaythesewordsareusedfigurativelyofthingsthatareimmense,powerful,andintimidating.Massive
buildingsandgiantcorporationsareoftenreferredtoasbehemothsorleviathans.Enormousathletes,such
as football players and weight lifters, are sometimes playfully called behemoths. And the Titanic was
calledaleviathan,untilitsank.
Word38:INCENDIARY(in-SEN-dee-er-ee)
Excitingpassion;tendingtoinflametheemotions;stirringupviolenceorrebellion.
The adjective inflammatory (in-FLAM-uh-tor-ee), exciting anger, hostility, or disorder, is a close
synonymofincendiary—whichisnotsurprisingbecausebothwordscomefromLatinverbsthatmeantto
kindle,setfireto,inflame.Inflammatorycommentsigniteangerorresentment,whileanincendiaryspeech
kindlesthesortofpassionateemotionthatcanleadtobloodshed.
Incendiary may be used literally to mean pertaining to or involving arson, the intentional and
malicioussettingonfireofpropertyorland.Oritmaybeusedofanythingdesignedtosetpropertyon
fire,asanincendiarydeviceorincendiarybomb.Butmoreoftenincendiaryisusedfigurativelytomean
igniting or inflaming the passions, stirring up strife or controversy, especially in regard to social or
politicalissues.
Incendiary ideas stir up people’s emotions and disrupt the status quo. Incendiary publications
disseminate incendiary ideas to ignite debate and shake up society. And incendiary radio shows and
incendiary rallies feature incendiary rhetoric that is designed to inflame people’s emotions and excite
them to action. But, all too often, incendiary speech can be so strong and inflammatory that it leads to
violence.
Incendiarymayalsobeusedasanountomeaneitheranarsonist,apersonwhomaliciouslysetsfires,
orapersonwhosetspeopleatoddswitheachother,anagitator,troublemaker,rabble-rouser,firebrand.
Word39:S TALWART(STAWL-wurt,rhymeswithfallhurt)
Stalwarthasthreesensesincommonuse:(1)stronglybuilt,sturdy,stout;(2)strongandbrave,bold,valiant;and(3)stronginone’spositionor
belief,firm,steadfast,resolute.
Perhapsyounoticedthatallthreesensesoftheadjectivestalwartinvolvestrength.Astalwartpersonmay
bestrongphysically,orhaveastrong,braveheart,orhaveastrong,unwaveringopinionorposition.
Astalwartoaktreeissolidandstrong,andastalwartfootballplayerisbigandstrong.Astalwartally
isonewhowillstickbyyou,whoisstronglyonyourside.Astalwartdogisstrong,brave,andloyal.A
stalwartcommitmentisastrong,solidcommitment.AndthestalwartpioneersoftheAmericanWesthad
tobebothphysicallystrongandstrongintheirresolvetosurvive.
Stalwart is frequently used to describe people who either strongly favor or strongly oppose
something: “Conservatives were stalwart supporters of the measure, while liberals were stalwart
opponentsofit.”Stalwartmayalsobeusedasanountomeanastalwartperson,eitheronewhoisstrong
and brave or one who is a loyal, unwavering supporter or member: “Jim Johnson, who … had been a
stalwartoftheValley’schoralmusicscenefordecades,diedFriday”(Canada.com).
Nowlet’stalkforamomentabouthownottousestalwart.Writersfondofsprinklingtheirprosewith
interesting words that they haven’t bothered to learn sometimes misuse the noun stalwart for the noun
staple,whichmeanseitherabasicornecessaryitemoffoodorabasicorprincipalelementorfeature.
Here’s a sentence where the writer mistakenly thought stalwart could denote a basic item of food:
“Traditionallyseenasastalwart[staple]ofthriftycookery,bacon…isincreasinglyseenasawaytoadd
a little zest to burgers and lunchtime dishes” (The Guardian). And here’s a sentence where the writer
mistakenly thought stalwart meant a basic element or feature: “The badger, a stalwart [staple] of BBC
natureprograms,isoneofBritain’smostbelovedanimalsandisaprotectedspecies”(npr.com).
Word40:ENMITY(EN-mi-tee)
Activehatredorhostility,deep-seatedillwill.
Hatred and dislike are such common human emotions that the English language is replete (ri-PLEET,
well-stocked,abundantlysupplied)withsynonymsforenmity. Many begin with the letter a: animosity,
aversion,antipathy,acrimony,andanimus(word20ofLevel4).Severalothersbeginwithm: malice,
malevolence,andmalignity.Andinword31ofthislevel,rancorous,wediscussedanothersynonymof
enmity:thenounrancor,whichmeansbitterandlong-lastinghostilityorillwill.
Antonyms of enmity include friendliness, warmheartedness, sociability, cordiality, harmony, and
concord,andtherearenofewerthanfourantonymsbeginningwitha:amiability,affability,amicability,
andamity.
Not surprisingly, the words enmity and enemy are related. Both come ultimately from the Latin
inimīcus,unfriendly,hostile,whichcombinestheprivativeprefixin-,not,andamīcus,afriend.Thus,you
harborenmity,hatred,hostility,foranenemybecauseanenemybyderivationisin-,not,amīcus,afriend.
Incidentally,theLatininimīcus,unfriendly,hostile,isalsothesourceoftheEnglishadjectiveinimical(iNIM-i-kul),whichmeanslikeanenemy,henceunfriendly,hostile,orunfavorable,harmful:“Singapore’s
censorshiplaws…areinimicaltotheliberalartsspirit”(YaleDailyNews).
Becausehavinganenemyisusuallyreciprocal—meaningthatthehostilitygoesbothways,andyour
enemy also considers you an enemy—the word enmity often implies a shared or mutual hatred. For
example, there can be long-standing enmity between two nations, or an entrenched enmity among rival
religioussects.
ReviewQuizforKeywords31–40
In each statement below, a keyword (in italics) is followed by three definitions. Two of the three are
correct;oneisunrelatedinmeaning.Decidewhichonedoesn’tfitthekeyword.Answersappearhere.
1.Rancorousmeansbitter,reluctant,resentful.
2.Ennuiisignorance,boredom,tedium.
3.Censoriousmeanscriticizing,condemning,dismissive.
4.Tomarginalizeistoforceintoapowerlessposition,givelittleornocreditto,removefromthemainstream.
5.Toreproveistocondemn,getbackat,criticizegently.
6.Torelegateistoassignaninferiorrole,toentrusttoanother’scare,togiveaninsignificantposition.
7.Abehemothissomethingmassive,somethingmonstrous,somethingmiraculous.
8.Incendiarymeansstirringupinterest,excitingpassion,inflamingtheemotions.
9.Stalwartmeanssturdy,steadfast,straightforward.
10.Enmityishatred,haughtiness,hostility.
TheStyleFile:ALotorAlot?AllRightorAlright?
“I would like to know if a lot should be spelled as one word or two,” asks a correspondent at my
website.Ilovegettingquestionslikethisbecausetheytakeonlyafewwordstoanswer,neveralot.So
yousee:alotisalwaystwowords,neverone.
Thesamegoesfortheexpressionallright.DespitetheusagenoteinMerriam-Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary, which claims that the one-word form alright “has its defenders and its users”—as if that
alonemakesitlegitimate—nousageexpertwithareputationtolosewouldtellyouit’sallrighttowrite
alright,andcopyeditorsroutinelychangetheone-wordformtotwo.Theone-wordformstrikesmeasan
affectation,abitofstylisticcutesiness,likewritingthruforthrough.Garner’sModernAmericanUsage
saysalright“hasneverbeenacceptedasstandard”inAmericanEnglish,andit“cannotyetbeconsidered
goodusage—orevencolloquiallyallright.”
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabulary.
Word41:MALIGN(muh-LYN,rhymeswithalign)
Tospeakevilorillof,utteruntruthsabout,sayharmfulormisleadingthingsabout.
Synonyms of the verb to malign include to slander, defame, disparage, denigrate, stigmatize, revile
(word 43 of Level 4), traduce (truh-D[Y]OOS), vilify, calumniate (kuh-LUHM-nee-AYT), and
vituperate(vy-T[Y]OO-pur-AYT).
MaligncomesfromtheLatinmalignus,wicked,malicious,disposedtodoevil.Fromthesamesource
comes the adjective malignant (muh-LIG-nint), which may mean showing ill will, malicious, as her
spiteful, malignant schoolmates; or having an evil or harmful nature or influence, injurious, as there’s
something malignant lurking in the house; or, perhaps most commonly today, tending to produce
deteriorationanddeath,asamalignanttumor.
Malign is also an adjective that may mean evil in effect, injurious, as no one was aware of the
teacher’smaligninfluenceonthestudents.Synonymsofmaligninthissenseincludedeleterious(DEL-
i-TEER-ee-us),noxious,baneful,andpernicious.Theadjectivemalignmayalsomeancharacterizedby
ill will, having an evil disposition, malicious, spiteful, as malign remarks or a malign stare. The
antonymoftheadjectivemalignisbenign(buh-NYN),kindly,gracious,mild,havingorshowingagentle
disposition,asabenignsmileorbenignintent.
Sincethe15thcenturytheverbtomalignhasbeenusedtomeantospeakillorevilof,andtheword
implies doing so by saying subtly misleading things intended to insult or belittle. An author can be
maligned by a malicious book reviewer. The tabloid press specializes in maligning celebrities and
politicians.Andpoliticianscommonlyairattackadsdesignedtomalignanopponent.
Word42:LIBATION(ly-BAY-shin)
Adrink-offering;thepouringoutofwineorsomeotherliquidinhonorofagod;hence,theliquidpouredout,adrink,beverage,potation(pohTAY-shun).
Libation comes ultimately from the Latin verb lībāre, to give a taste of, pour out as an offering to the
gods.AspracticedbytheancientGreeksandRomans,libationwas“theactofpouringaliquid,usually
wine, either on the ground or on a victim in sacrifice, in honor of some deity,” says The Century
Dictionary.In1697,theEnglishpoetanddramatistJohnDrydenwrote,“Thegobletthenshetook,with
nectarcrown’d,/Sprinklingthefirstlibationsontheground.”
Becausepouringoutaliquidinhonorofadeityhaslongbeenanobsoletepractice,libationgradually
cametobeusedoftheliquiditself,especiallywhenit’sanalcoholicbeverage,asinthis1797quotation
from Horace Walpole’s Memoirs of the Reign of King George the Third: “Some jovial dinners and
libationsofchampagnecementedtheirfriendship.”Somemoderndictionarieslabelthisuseoftheword
facetious(fuh-SEE-shus)orjocular(JAHK-yuh-lur)—meaningintentionallysillyorhumorous.Butinfact
libationischieflyusedtodaywhenawriterwantsafancier-soundingwaytosaydrinkorbeverage. As
thecitationsonGoogleNewsshow,libationmeaningadrink,especiallyanachoholicdrink,isastapleof
journalistic prose, as in this sentence from a television news report: “Participants will taste twelve
uniquemartinisandvoteonwhichlibationshouldtakethecrown.”
Word43:GES TICULATE(je-STIK-yuh-layt)
Togesturewiththehandsorbody,usuallyenergeticallyorexcitedly.
Gesticulation,theactofgesturingorgesticulating,isthenoun.
TheverbtogesticulatecomesfromtheLatingesticulāri,tomakegestures,pantomime,whichcomes
inturnfromgestus,action,gesture,especiallythestudiedgesturesofanactorororator.
Usuallypeoplegesticulatewhiletheyarespeaking,asawayofphysicallyemphasizingorelaborating
on what they are saying, as when a person points an index finger in the air or pounds a fist on a table
whilemakinganimportantpoint.Butyoucanalsogesticulatewithoutspeaking,asawayofphysically
communicating something unsaid, as when someone waves for a taxi, gives a thumbs-up sign to signal
approvalorencouragement,oratadoorwayorentrancepolitelyextendsanarmwithanopenhandasif
tosay,“Afteryou.Yougofirst.”
Gesticulationincludesarangeofgesturesandisnotlimitedtomotionofthearmsandhands.Youcan
also gesticulate, make lively gestures, by shrugging, winking, shaking your head, or moving any part of
yourbodyinawaythatsendsamessage.
Word44:CIRCUMLOCUTION(SUR-kum-loh-KYOO-shin)
Aroundaboutorindirectwayofspeakingorwriting;evasivespeechorwriting.
Circumlocution blends the combining form circum-, around, with the Latin loqui, to speak, and means
literallyaspeakingortalkingaroundasubject.
Three other useful English words that incorporate circum-, around, are circumscribe, circumspect,
and circumvent. The verb to circumscribe (sur-kum-SKRYB), from the Latin scrībĕre, to write, draw
lines, means literally to draw a line around, encircle, and figuratively to enclose within narrow limits,
restrict, confine, as a law that circumscribes certain rights. The adjective circumspect (SUR-kumspekt), from the Latin specĕre, to look at carefully, observe, means cautious, watchful, wary, carefully
considering things before acting or making a decision: “After the big downturn in the economy, they
becamemorecircumspectabouttheirinvestments.”Andtheverbtocircumvent (sur-kum-VENT), from
theLatinvenīre,tocome,meansliterallytocomeorgoaround,andsotobypass,especiallyinacleveror
resourcefulway:“Shehadtocircumventalotofredtapetogetthejobdone.”
Ourkeyword,circumlocution,impliestheuseofmanymorewordsthanarenecessarytoexpressan
idea,anditoftensuggestsadeliberateattempttoavoidbeingclearanddirectsoastocoversomethingup
or evade scrutiny: “Reporters repeatedly pressed the senator for straight answers, but all they got was
circumlocution.”
Periphrasis (puh-RIF-ruh-sis), a term used in rhetoric, is a fancy synonym of circumlocution. But
periphrasisdoesnotimplydeliberateevasionandrefersonlytoroundaboutexpression,theuseofmore
wordswherefewerwouldsuffice.Candid,straightforwardexpressionistheoppositeofcircumlocution,
whileconcise,plainEnglishistheoppositeofperiphrasis.
The adjective is circumlocutory (SUR-kum-LAHK-yuh-tor-ee), speaking indirectly or in a
roundaboutway,talkingaroundasubject.
Word45:BES MIRCH(bi-SMURCH)
Tosoilorstain,asifwithmudorsoot;also,todishonor,tarnish,bringdisgraceon.
Synonyms of the verb to besmirch in its literal sense include to smear, begrime, beslime, and bedaub;
synonymsofbesmirchinitsfigurativesenseincludetodiscredit,debase,defile,anddenigrate.Theverb
tosullyisaclosesynonymofbesmirchinbothitsliteralandfigurativesenses.
The verb to smirch means literally to make dirty or discolored, stain, smear; it is also used
figurativelyofactionsorpeopletomeantotaint,tarnish,discredit,castdisgraceupon.Asyoulearnedin
thediscussionofbesotted(word24ofLevel1),theprefixbe-hasvariousmeanings.Inbesmirchitisan
intensifier meaning completely, thoroughly. Thus, to besmirch is to smirch thoroughly, soil or stain
completely.
Ifsomethingcanbesoiledortarnished,ifitcanbedisgracedordishonored,itcanbebesmirched:
“For years now, shocking revelations of widespread child sexual abuse have besmirched the Catholic
priesthood”; “If you want to be famous, be prepared to have your reputation besmirched in the tabloid
press.”
EmilyPost,theoriginalexpertongoodmanners,wroteinherbookEtiquette,whichwaspublishedin
1922andisstillinprint,“Nomatterwhohemaybe,whetherrichorpoor,inhighlifeorlow,theman
whopubliclybesmircheshiswife’sname,besmirchesstillmorehisown,andprovesthatheisnot,was
not,andneverwillbe,agentleman.”
Word46:IMMUTABLE(i-MYOO-ti-buul)
Notchangeable,fixed,unalterable.
The adjective mutable, changeable, not constant or fixed, comes from the Latin mūtābĭlis, changeable,
variable,inconstant,whichcomesinturnfromtheverbmūtāre,tochange,thesourceoftheEnglishverb
mutate, to change, alter; the noun mutation, “a change or alteration, as in form or nature” (Random
House); and mutant, which as an adjective means undergoing or caused by mutation, and as a noun
denoteseithersomethingproducedbymutation,suchasaneworganism,or,ascommonlyusedinscience
fiction,somethingabnormalorfreakishproducedbymutation.
Immutableaddstomutabletheprivativeprefixim-, which negates the meaning of what follows so
that immutable means not subject to change, and therefore unalterable, fixed, permanent. Truth, justice,
andthelawsofnatureareconsideredimmutable.Certainstandards—suchasthegoldenrule,whichsays
“Dountoothersasyouwouldhavethemdountoyou”—areconsideredimmutable.Andfacts,beingby
definitionbothactualandtrue,arethoughtofasimmutable,atleastuntiltheyareshowntobefalse.
Thenounisimmutability,insusceptibilitytochange,fixedness,changelessness.
Word47:DECLAIM(di-KLAYM)
Tomakeaformalspeech,speakforcefullyforrhetoricaleffect.
TheLatindēclāmāremeanteithertospeakloudlyandviolentlyorsimplytopracticespeakinginpublic.
BoththesemeaningssurviveinthisLatinverb’soffspring,theEnglishverbtodeclaim.
Declaimhasbeenusedtomeantospeakinanimpassionedorrantingway,appealingtotheemotions
ratherthantothereason,asinthis1884quotationfromChristianWorld:“Todeclaimismoreeasythan
to convince.” In this sense declaim is a synonym of harangue. And like the word inveigh (in-VAY),
whichcomesfromtheLatininvĕhĕre,toattackwithwords,declaimissometimesfollowedbyagainst.
When you inveigh or declaim against something, you express angry disapproval or impassioned
condemnationofit,astodeclaimagainstinjustice.
Declaimhasalsobeenusedtomeantospeakorrecitepubliclyinastudiedway,asanexercisein
elocution.Youcandeclaimpoetry,declaimBibleverses,ordeclaimfamousspeechesfromtheplaysof
Shakespeare.
But declaim has probably most often been used to mean to make a formal speech, to speak in an
oratorical manner. A preacher declaims from the pulpit; the self-styled orators in London’s Hyde Park
declaiminSpeakers’Corner;andeveryJanuarythepresidentoftheUnitedStatesdeclaimstothecountry
aboutthestateoftheunion.
Word48:THRALL(THRAWL,rhymeswithtall)
Slavery,bondage,servitude,captivity.
Thenounthrall may denote a person in bondage, a slave to or servant of some power or influence, as
whenShakespeare,inMacbeth,writes,“Theslavesofdrinkandthrallsofsleep.”Oritmaydenotethe
condition of a thrall, enslavement, bondage, servitude, as when the 19th-century English Romantic poet
JohnKeatswrites,“Isawpalekingsandprincestoo,/Palewarriors,death-paleweretheyall;/They
cried—‘LaBelleDamesansMerci/Haththeeinthrall!’”
Whateverenslavesyou,orcontrolsallyourenergyandattention,hasyouinthrall.Apersonseduced
byacultisinitsthrall.Loverscanbeineachother’sthrall.Abeautifulpieceofmusicoracaptivating
book can hold you in thrall. Parents can be in thrall to their demanding children. Politicians can be in
thralltospecialinterests.Andmanyambitiouspeopleareinthralltotheircareers.
Youcanseethewordthrall,slavery,bondage,captivity,insidetheverbtoenthrall,whichmeansto
completely absorb, steal the attention of, hold spellbound, engross, as a magical performance that
enthralledtheaudience.
Word49:S ATE(rhymeswithlate)
Tofillorsatisfycompletely,supplytosatisfaction,gratify;also,tofillorsupplybeyondwhatisnecessaryordesired,toglut.Synonymsofsate
inthislattersenseincludestuff,cram,gorge,choke,inundate(word26ofLevel4),andcloy.
Tosurfeit,tosatiate,andtosate all imply satisfying some appetite or desire, either completely or too
much. To surfeit (pronounced like surf it) is always to fill or supply to excess, often to the point of
discomfort or disgust: “She spent a miserable weekend lying on the couch watching TV and surfeiting
herselfwithpotatochipsandicecream.”Tosatiate(SAY-shee-AYT)andtosate may imply supplying
morethanisnecessaryordesired,soastomakeweary:“Theyweresoonsatiatedbythenonstopmedia
coverageofthestory”;“Showingtoolittleaffectioncanstimulatealover’sdesire,justasshowingtoo
muchcansateit.”Orsatiateandsatemayimplysatisfyingcompletely,gratifyingtothefullwithoutany
discomfort.Youcansatiatehunger,sateyourcuriosity,satiateyourlonging,orsateyourlust.
Thenouncorrespondingtotheverbtosateissatiety(suh-TY-i-tee),wearinessbroughtonbybeing
sated,filledorsatisifiedeithercompletelyorbeyondwhatisnecessaryordesired.
Word50:GADFLY(rhymeswithbadguy)
Apersonwhocontinuallypesters,criticizes,orprovokesothers.
A gadfly, literally, is any of several stinging flies that pester and bite livestock. Since the 16th century
gadfly has also been used figuratively of a person who persistently annoys others in the manner of a
stingingfly.
ThemostcelebratedgadflyinhistoryistheancientGreekphilosopherSocrates,acitizenofAthens,
who believed he had been put on earth for the intellectual and moral improvement of his fellow
Athenians. To this end, he would accost4 people in public places and pester and provoke them with
questionsaboutvirtue,justice,andtruth.Whenbroughttotrialin399 B.C.forallegedlycorruptingyouth
andcommittingreligiousheresies,Socrates,inhisfamousApology(hisself-defensebeforethetribunal
thateventuallycondemnedhimtodeath),arguedthathisproperandnecessaryroleasaphilosopherwas
tonettlethepeopleofAthensintogreaterself-awareness:
For if you put me to death, you will not easily find another, who, to use a rather absurd figure,
attacheshimselftothecityasagadflytoahorse,which,thoughlargeandwellbred,issluggishon
accountofhissizeandneedstobearousedbystinging.IthinkGodfastenedmeuponthecityin
some such capacity, and I go about arousing, and urging and reproaching each one of you,
constantlyalightinguponyoueverywherethewholedaylong.5
In modern usage, gadfly refers to people who, like Socrates, appoint themselves guardians of civic
lifeorwatchdogsofpublicinstitutionsorprograms.Gadfliessometimeshaverecognizedrolesinwhich
they are expected to criticize—such as community leaders, columnists, television and radio
commentators,andpublicintellectuals.Butmoreoftengadfliesareargumentativeeccentricswhotakeit
uponthemselvestospeaktheirversionoftruthtopower,persistentlyandsometimesannoyingly,without
compensationorreward.
ReviewQuizforKeywords41–50
Inthisquizthereviewwordisfollowedbythreewordsorphrases,andyoumustdecidewhichcomes
nearestthemeaningofthereviewword.Answersappearhere.
1.Istomaligntodoevilto,tosayharmfulormisleadingthingsabout,ortoconstructsomethingbadly?
2.Isalibationsomethingyougiveaway,somethingyoubelieve,orsomethingyoudrink?
3.Whenyougesticulate,doyoucomplain,gesture,orobject?
4.Iscircumlocutionanindirectpath,alongordeal,orroundaboutspeech?
5.Ifyoubesmirchsomething,doyoudishonorit,praiseit,orwipeit?
6.Wouldsomethingimmutablebeunalterable,unquenchable,orunknowable?
7.Whenyoudeclaim,doyouspeakangrily,speakformally,orspeakatlength?
8.Whenyouareinthrall,areyouintrouble,inarage,orincaptivity?
9.Ifyouaresated,areyougratified,groggy,oratrest?
10.Isagadflysomeonewhotravelsaround,whoinvestigatescrimes,orwhoisapersistentcritic?
GoodWritersAreGoodReaders
Oneofmyhighschoolteachersoncesaid,“Whenyou’reallgrownup,you’regoingtorememberonlyten
minutesofwhatyoulearnedinhighschool.”
Ithinkthatassertionholdstrueformostofus.Youmayrememberwellthetribulations(word1ofthis
level)ofyourlifeinhighschool,buthowmuchofwhatyouweresupposedtolearnfromyourclassesdo
yourecall?Ican’trememberasinglethingIwroteinmytermpaperonE.M.Forster’snovelAPassage
to India, but to this day I carry with me a few precious words of advice from my English teacher that
junioryear.
It was an off-the-cuff remark, part of an informal exchange before or after class, I can’t remember
now. I’m not sure what led up to it. All I know is that this wise teacher, aware of my juvenile literary
aspirations,saidtome,“Listen,Charlie.Ifyouwanttobeawriter,thenyoumustread,read,read.”
Readinglaysthegroundworkforwritingineveryway.Readinggoodfictionteachesyouaboutplot,
character, narration, imagery, and detail. Reading good nonfiction teaches you about theme, argument,
description,proportion,andsubstantiation.Readingbothwillteachyouaboutvoice,tone,idiom,syntax,
diction,andrhetoricaldevicessuchasalliteration(word34ofLevel1)andanaphora(word12ofLevel
7).AndifyouextendyourreadingtoincludesomeoftheEnglishlanguage’sgreatpoetry,youwillalso
learnaboutrhythm,imagery,andmetaphor.
Reading teaches us how words work. From reading we learn what makes sense and what sounds
insincere or foolish. From reading we learn what kind of writing commands attention and what kind
makestheeyelidsdroop.Fromreadingweseehowwordscanbeusedtoconfuseorstifleus,ortostir
ourheartsandstimulateourminds.
PeoplesometimesaskmewhatIlearnedincollege,andwhentheydoItellthemthatIlearnedthree
things:howtoread,howtowrite,andhowtothinkcritically—butnotnecessarilyinthatorder.
First,Ilearnedhowtoopenmymindtotheinfinitepossibilitiesoflanguage.Ilearnedhowtolurkina
lineofpoetryorapageofproseuntilitundresseditselfformeandIsawitsbeautybare.6BydoingthisI
learned how to think like a writer, how to ask pertinent questions and discern a writer’s intentions. I
learnedthatknowledgeisintheeyeoftheinterpreter,andthat,contrarytopopularbelief,thewriterisat
themercyofthereader.FinallyIlearnedthatyoucanreadforpleasure,forprofit,orforenlightenment—
andthegreatestoftheseisenlightenment.7
Allthisinsight,gainedfromreading,helpedmelearntowrite,butnotallthatwell.Althoughcollege
gave me opportunities to exercise a raw talent for writing, it didn’t do much to refine it. With the
exceptionofthefirstessayIsubmitted,atwo-pagepaperthatcamebackwiththirty-sevenredquestion
marksonit,Ididn’treceiveanyrigorouswritinginstructionincollege.Iwasexpectedtowriteoftenand
write thoughtfully about what I had read, but I don’t remember getting much advice on how to do that
effectively.TheessaysIwroteincollegeweregoodpracticeinputtingmythoughtsintowords,butitwas
thethoughtsthatcameunderscrutiny,rarelythewords.
Only later, after much autodidactic (word 32 of Level 7) effort plying my trade, did I come to
understandathingortwoaboutwriting,andtherevelationthatstruckmemostwasthateverythingIknew
aboutwritingIhadlearnedfromreading.
There is a maxim I am fond of, which I often use as an inscription when signing copies of my two
vocabulary-building novels for high school students, Tooth and Nail and Test of Time. This is what I
write:“Read,read,read,andyouwillsucceed.”IthinkmyhighschooljuniorEnglishteacherwouldbe
pleased.
AnswerstoReviewQuizzesforLevel3
KEYWORDS1–10
1.Yes.Tribulationmeansgreatdistress,trouble,orsuffering,oracauseofgreatdistressortrouble,atrial.
2.Yes.Toderideistoridicule,makefunof,laughatscornfullyorcontemptuously.
3.No.Nefariousmeansextremelywicked,infamouslyevil.
4.No.Anideologueisazealous,uncompromisingadvocateorfollowerofanideology.
5.No.Adallianceisneveralonginvolvement,andit’susuallynotunhappy.It’sabrief,playful,triflinginvolvement,aflirtation.
6.Yes.Afatuousspeakerissilly,foolish,idiotic,andthereforeprobablyboring.
7.No.Tomeanderistoproceedbywindingandturning,ortowanderidly.
8.No,justtheopposite.Culpablemeansblameworthy,guilty.
9.No.Anideologueispassionate,evenfanatic.Asedatepersoniscalmandcomposed.
10.No.Youwanttoavoidtheappearanceofimproprietybecauseimproprietyreferstoincorrect,inappropriate,unseemly,indecent,oreven
illegalbehavior.
KEYWORDS11–20
1.True.Megalomaniaisamentaldisordercharacterizedbyexaggeratedfeelingsofgreatnessorpower;orgenerally,anobsessionwith
doinggrand,extravagantthings.
2.False.Vociferousmeanscryingoutnoisily;makingaloudoutcry;uproarious.
3.False.Contrivemeanstoinventordevisewithingenuity,design,plan;also,tomanage,bringaboutbyaplan,especiallybysomescheme
orstratagem.
4.False.Apersonwho’sbeennonplussedisnotlikelytosayanything,muchlessobjectvociferously.Tononplusmeanstopuzzleorperplex
completely,renderutterlyconfusedsoastobeatalossforwhattosayordo.
5.True.Amegalomaniac,apersonobsessedwithgreatnessanddoinggrandthings,canoftenbeimperious,domineering,overbearing,
dictatorial,commanding.
6.False.Privationisastateofextremehardship;specifically,alackoffoodorothernecessitiesforsurvival.
7.False.Tosuffuseistooverspread;tofillorcoveraswithlight,aliquid,orcolor.
8.True.Disconsolatemeansextremelysadorunhappy,completelymiserable,utterlydiscouragedordistressed.
9.False.Adilemma,apredicament,andaquandaryareallcomplicated,perplexingsituationsfromwhichitishardtodisentangleoneself.
Aconundrumisacomplicated,perplexingquestionorproblem,ariddleorpuzzle.
10.False.Peopleintheirdotagearesenile.Dotageisthementaldeclineassociatedwitholdage,sometimescalledsecondchildhood.
KEYWORDS21–30
1.Synonyms.Vacuousmeansempty,withoutcontentorsubstance;hencefiguratively,emptyofideasorintelligence.
2.Synonyms.Intemperatemeanswithoutmoderation,extremeorexcessive.
3.Antonyms.Stymiemeanstoobstruct,block,thwart,standinthewayof.
4.Synonyms.Ambrosiaisthefoodofthegods,alsocallednectar,whichmadethemimmortal.Itmayalsodenotesomethingdivinelysweet
andpleasingtotasteorsmell.
5.Antonyms.Vivifymeanstogivelifeorrenewedlifetoormakemorevividorstriking.Enervatemeanstodepriveofenergy,wearout.
6.Synonyms.Purloinmeanstosteal,takedishonestly,oftenbyabreachoftrust.
7.Antonyms.Abulwarkisapowerfuldefenseorprotection,strongsupportorsafeguard.
8.Synonyms.Magisterialmeansauthoritative,masterly,weighty,commanding.
9.Synonyms.Atalismanisanamulet,good-luckcharm.
10.Antonyms.Stupefymeanstodullthesensesof,putintoadaze,deaden.
KEYWORDS31–40
1.Reluctantdoesn’tfit.Rancorousmeansfeelingorexhibitingdeeplyrootedhostility,bitterness,orresentment.
2.Ignorancedoesn’tfit.Ennuiisboredom,tedium,afeelingofwearinessanddiscontent.
3.Dismissivedoesn’tfit.Censoriousmeanscriticizing,blaming,orcondemningharshly.
4.Givelittleornocredittodoesn’tfit.Tomarginalizemeanstoremovefromthemainstreamorforceintoaninferior,unimportant,or
powerlessroleorcondition.
5.Togetbackatdoesn’tfit.Toreproveistocriticizeorscoldgently,ortocondemn,expressstrongdisapprovalof.
6.Toentrusttoanother’scaredoesn’tfit.Todelegateistoentrusttoanother,giveequalresponsibilityfor.Torelegateistogiveaninferior
positionorinsignificantroleto.
7.Somethingmiraculousdoesn’tfit.Abehemothisanythingofmonstroussizeandpower;amassiveandmightycreatureorthing.
8.Stirringupinterestdoesn’tfit.Incendiarymeansexcitingpassion,inflamingtheemotions,stirringupviolenceorrebellion.
9.Straightforwarddoesn’tfit.Stalwartmeansstronglybuilt,sturdy;orstrongandbrave;orstronginone’spositionorbelief,steadfast.
10.Haughtinessdoesn’tfit.Haughtinessisarrogance,condescension.Enmityisactivehatredorhostility,deep-seatedillwill.
KEYWORDS41–50
1.Tomalignistosayharmfulormisleadingthingsaboutsomeoneorsomething.
2.Alibationisadrink,beverage;originally,adrink-offeringtoagodorgods.
3.Whenyougesticulateyougesturewithyourhandsorbody,usuallyenergetically.
4.Circumlocutionisroundaboutorindirectspeechorwriting.
5.Whenyoubesmirchsomething,youliterallysoilorstainitoryoufigurativelydishonororbringdisgraceonit.
6.Somethingimmutableisunchangeable,unalterable.
7.Someonewhodeclaimsmaybeangryandmayspeakatlength.Butdeclaimmeanstospeakformallyandforcefullyforrhetoricaleffect.
8.Whenyouareinthrallyoumaybeinbigtroubleandfuriousaboutittoo,butthat’sbecausethrallmeanscaptivity,servitude,bondage.
9.Asatedpersonmaybebothgroggyfromindulgenceandatrest,buttosatemeanseithertogratify,fillorsatisfycompletely,ortoglut,fill
orsupplybeyondwhatisnecessaryordesired.
10.Agadflyisaperson(oftenacranky,eccentricone)whocontinuallypesters,criticizes,orprovokesothers.
LEVEL4
Word1:HACKNEYED(HAK-need,likehackneed)
Madeordinaryanddullbyoveruse,lackingfreshnessandinterest:ahackneyedplot.
Synonymsofhackneyedincludestale,trite,commonplace,shopworn,insipid,banal (BAY-nul or buhNAL), humdrum, threadbare, pedestrian, jejune (ji-JOON), and platitudinous (PLAT-i-T[Y]OO-dinus).
The noun hackney, which dates back to the 14th century, once meant a horse hired out for
transportation,andahackneycoach was a four-wheeled coach drawn by two horses and available for
hire—thepredecessorofthemoderntaxicab.
Thenounhack,ashortenedformofhackney,hasnumerousmeanings.Itmaydenoteahackneycoach
—whichiswhytaxicabs,andsometimestheirdrivers,aretodayoftencalledhacks.Itmaydenoteahorse
keptforcommonhireoranold,worn-outhorse,ajade.Itmaydenoteasellout:acreativeperson,suchas
awriterorartist,whoproducesdull,unimaginativeworkinthehopeofgainingcommercialsuccess.It
maydenoteahireling:someonewhosacrificesindependenceandintegrityinreturnformoney.Anditmay
denoteadrudge:apersonwhodoesboring,routinework,especiallyasecond-ratewriterwhotakeson
anykindofliteraryworkthatwillmakemoney.
The adjective hackneyed means literally like a hack or done by a hack, and therefore dull, lacking
imagination or freshness, overdone, worn-out, stale. We speak of hackneyed words and expressions;
hackneyed stories, characters, or dialogue; and hackeneyed subjects, slogans, and songs—all made
ordinaryanddullbyoveruse.
Word2:INIQUITY(i-NIK-wi-tee)
Wickedness,evildoing,grossinjustice;also,awickedorgrosslyunjustact.
The plural, iniquities, refers to wicked or harmful actions, injuries, sins. The adjective is iniquitous,
wicked,sinful,characterizedbywickednessorinjustice,asiniquitousdeedsoriniquitouslies.
IniquitycomesfromtheLatininīquĭtās,unevennessorunfairness,whichinturncomesfrominīquus,
uneven,unequal,acombinationofin-,not,andaequus,equal,even,fair.Fromin-andaequusalsocomes
the English word inequity (in-EK-wi-tee), injustice, unfairness, especially as displayed through
favoritismorbias.
Iniquityisaliteraryword,onesuitedmoreforseriouswritingthanforconversation,andnowherein
EnglishliteraturedoesiniquitygetasmuchattentionasintheBible,wheregoodandevilclashonevery
page. The Bible teems (abounds, overflows) with citations for both iniquity and iniquities, from “the
iniquity of the Amorites” in Genesis (15:16), the first book of the Old Testament, to “God hath
remembered [Babylon’s] iniquities” in Revelation (18:5), the last book of the New Testament. The
world-wearypreacherofEcclesiastesseesiniquityeverywhere:“AndmoreoverIsawunderthesunthe
place of judgment, that wickedness was there; and the place of righteousness, that iniquity was there”
(3:16).IntheSermonontheMount,Jesusissuesacommandmentagainsttheforcesofevil:“Departfrom
me,yethatworkiniquity”(Matthew7:23).Andthehackneyedphrasedenofiniquity,aplaceinhabited
by wicked people or where evil things happen, may have been inspired by the phrase den of thieves,
foundinMatthew21:13andMark11:17.
Synonymsofiniquityincludevillainy,infamy,depravity(word1ofLevel1),atrocity,abomination,
and enormity—which in careful usage refers to something monstrously wicked or evil, such as the
Holocaust or the genocide in Rwanda in the 1990s, and not, as many miscontrue it, to something very
large.
Word3:WHIMS ICAL(HWIM-zi-kulorWIM-)
Oddlyfancifulorcomical;exhibitingodd,playful,ficklehumor.
Whimsicality,thequalityofbeingwhimsical,isthenoun.
Awhimisanodd,unpredictable,andoftensuddennotion,fancy,ordesire,anurgethatseemstocome
notfromthebrainbutfromthegut:“TheytookoffforEuropeonawhim,withoutacareoradollarin
theirpocket.”Therelatednounwhimsy(WHIM-zee)hasoftenbeenusedinterchangeablywithwhim,but
inmodernusagewhimsymoreoftendenoteseitherfanciful,playful,extravaganthumor,asanovelfilled
withmorewhimsythanwisdom,orsomethinghumorouslyodd,playful,orfanciful,asaVenetianpalace
fullofarchitecturalwhimsies.Ourkeyword,whimsical,meansgiventoorarisingfromawhimorfrom
whimsy, exhibiting odd, playful, unpredictable humor: “On every episode of the TV show The Office,
MichaelScott,thenutty,whimsicalmanagerplayedbySteveCarrell,findssomeplayfullybizarrewayto
makeafoolofhimself.”
A caprice (kuh-PREES) is a sudden change of mind or change in the emotions, and the adjective
capricious (kuh-PRISH-us) means subject to caprice, hence unpredictable, changing abruptly for no
apparentreason:“Thestockmarketisnotoriouslycapricious.”Acapriceoftengivesrisetoawhim,an
oddlyfancifulnotionordesire,andthatwhichiscapricious,unpredictable,flighty,fickle,isalsooften
whimsical,playfulorcomicalinanodd,unpredictableway:“Thewhimsicaldrawingsby…JimmyLiao
burstwithcolour,andtellofdreamyfantasyworlds”(asiaone.com).
Word4:ENS CONCE(en-SKAHNTS)
Toshelter,cover,orhidesecurely;also,tosettleorfixcomfortablyandsecurely.
Initsbest-knownsense,asconceisawall-mountedbracketcandlestickwithscreenstoshieldthecandle
flames, or a wall-mounted electric light fixture resembling a bracket candlestick. This sense of sconce
comes from the Old French esconse, a screened candle or lantern, or a hiding-place. In another, less
familiar sense a sconce is a small detached defensive work, a protective screen or shelter. This sense
hailsfromtheDutchschans,abundleofwoodorsticks,orascreenforsoldiersmadefrombrushwood.
Both these senses of the noun sconce have influenced the meaning of the verb to ensconce, to shelter
securelyorsettlecomfortably.
The verb-forming prefix en-, explains The Random House Dictionary, may mean to confine in or
placeon,asinenshrine,enthrone,andentomb,oritmaymeantorestrictonallsides,asinencircleand
enclose. Combine this prefix en- with the noun sconce and you have ensconce, literally to confine or
restrictbehindaprotectivescreenorshelter.
Ensconce may be used to describe something sheltered or hidden securely or something snugly and
securelysettled.WhenFalstaff,inShakespeare’sMerryWivesofWindsor,says,“Sheshallnotseeme:I
will ensconce me behind the arras,” he means he will hide himself behind a screen.1 When, in my
vocabulary-buildingnovelTestofTime,IdescribedanATMas“ashinymetalmachineensconcedinthe
wallofabrownstonebuilding,”Imeantthatthemachinewassecurelyfixedinthewall.
Youcanbeensconcedinanarmchair,settledcomfortablyinit.Youcanensconceyourvaluablesina
secretwallsafe,hidethemsecurelyinit.Andifyou’readairyfarmeryoucanensconceyourlivestockin
awarm,drybarnduringathunderstorm.
Word5:PLUTOCRAT(PLOO-tuh-krat)
Awealthyandpowerfulperson;someonewhosepowercomesfromwealth.
Aplutocracy(ploo-TAHK-ruh-see)isruleorgovernmentbythewealthy;thewordcomesfromtheGreek
ploutos,wealth,andkratein,torule,govern.Plutocracyhasararesynonym:chrysocracy (kri-SAHKruh-see),fromtheGreekchrysos,gold,thesourcealsoofchrysanthemum,literallyagoldenflower;and
oneofmyfavoritewords,chryselephantine(KRIS-el-uh-FAN-tin),madeofgoldandivory.
FromthesameGreekploutos,wealth,cometheunusualwordsplutolatry,worshipofmoney,which
incorporates the combining form -(o)latry, worship or excessive admiration of something; and
plutomania,anobsessionwithmoneyorwealth,whichincorporatesthecombiningform-mania, which
comesfromaGreekwordmeaningmadnessanddenotesexcessiveenthusiasmorobsessivedesire.
Aplutocrat,apersonwhosepowercomesfromgreatwealth,isamemberoftheplutocracy,aruling
classcomposedofwealthypeople.Theso-calledrobberbaronsofthe19thcentury—menlikeCornelius
Vanderbilt, John D. Rockefeller, and Andrew Carnegie, who amassed enormous wealth and power by
buildingrailroads,refiningoil,manufacturingsteel,manipulatingthefinancialmarkets,andmanipulating
electedofficials—wereplutocrats.Andinthe21stcentury,whenwereferto“theonepercent,”meaning
the one percent of Americans who control nearly half the nation’s wealth, we are talking about the
Americanplutocracy,thewealthyandpowerfulelite.
Word6:BEATIFIC(BEE-uh-TIF-ik)
Having,showing,orimpartingsupremehappinessorbliss:abeatificsmile.
Synonyms of the adjective beatific include blissful, glorious, angelic, saintly, divine, rapturous, and
ecstatic(pronouncethec:ek-STAT-ik).Thenounisbeatitude(likebeattitude),astateofgreatblissor
happiness, as to seek peace and beatitude in solitary meditation. The plural, beatitudes, refers
specificallytothedeclarationsJesusmakesintheSermonontheMountthatbeginwith“Blessedare”;for
example, “Blessed are the meek: for they shall inherit the earth” is one of the beatitudes. The verb to
beatify (bee-AT-i-fy) means either to make supremely and blissfully happy or, in the Roman Catholic
Church,todeclarethatadeadpersonisnowamongtheblessedinheavenandisentitledtospecialhonor
fromtheliving.
BeatificcomesfromthepastparticipleoftheLatinverbbeāre,toblessormakehappy.Youcanuse
beatific to describe practically anything that possesses or exhibits not just ordinary happiness but
happiness of an exalted nature, supreme bliss. Cherubs (CHER-ubz)—the beautiful and usually chubby
youngchildrentypicallyseeninRenaissancepaintingandsculpture—oftenhavebeatificexpressionson
theirfaces.Aspiritualleadermayhaveabeatificpresenceorabeatificaura.Andtwopeoplewhoare
deeplyinlovemayenjoyabeatificmomentwatchingasunsettogether.
Word7:UNFETTERED(uhn-FET-urd)
Free,unrestrained,unrestricted,withoutrestraintorcontrol.
The noun fetter, which is usually used in the plural, fetters, is a shackle, a chain fastened around the
ankles.Figuratively,fettersmaybeanythingthatrestrainsorconfines:“Herboringdayjobputfetterson
hercreativity.”Theverbtofettermaymeaneithertoputfetterson,shacklethefeetof,orfigurativelyto
restrain, impede, or confine: “Too many rules will fetter spontaneity”; “Those long fettered by
superstitionwilldismissthelessonsofscienceandshunthelightofreason.”
Addtheprivativeprefixun-totheverbtofetterandyouhavetheverbtounfetter,tofreefromfetters
or restraint. For example, you can unfetter captives, unchain them, or you can unfetter your heart from
someone you no longer love. From this verb to unfetter comes the participial adjective unfettered,
withoutrestraintorcontrol,free.
Unfetteredmovementisunrestrictedmovement.Unfetteredaccessisfreeaccess.Andoneofthecore
principlesofdemocraticsocietiesistherighttounfetteredspeech,meaningtherighttoexpressopinions
freelywithoutfearofrestraintorretaliation.
Word8:ES TRANGE(e-STRAYNJ,rhymeswiththerange)
Tomakeunfriendlyorhostile,alienatetheaffectionsof;todistanceorpushaway.
TheverbtoestrangegoesbackthroughMiddleEnglishandOldFrenchtotheLatinextrāneāre,totreat
asastranger,whichcomesinturnfromextrānĕus, foreign, strange, external, literally “that is outside.”
ThisLatinextrānĕusisalsothedirectsourceoftheusefulEnglishadjectiveextraneous(ek-STRAY-neeus),whichmaymeancomingfromtheoutside,notbelongingtoathing,asextraneousingredients,ornot
vitaloressential,unrelated,irrelevant,asextraneouscomments.
Antonymsofestrange,tomakeunfriendlyorhostile,includetoreconcile,conciliate,pacify,mollify,
placate, assuage (uh-SWAYJ), and propitiate (pro-PISH-ee-ayt). Synonyms of estrange include
alienate,offend,isolate,antagonize,anddisaffect.
To alienate, to disaffect, and to estrange all “refer to disruption of a bond of love, friendship, or
loyalty” (American Heritage). Alienate “always implies loss of affection or interest” (MerriamWebster’s Collegiate) and “often calls attention to the cause of antagonism or separation” (Random
House):“Robertcontinuallyalienatedhisdatesbyflirtingwithotherwomen.”Disaffect“usuallyrefers
torelationshipsinvolvingallegianceorloyaltyratherthanloveoraffection”(RandomHouse),andoften
impliesdiscontent,resentment,orrebellion.Animperious(word15ofLevel3)rulercandisaffectthe
people, make them discontented and no longer loyal. Our keyword, to estrange, “often implies
replacementofloveorbelongingbyapathyorhostility”(RandomHouse).Whenyouestrangesomeone
youdistanceyourself,pushthatpersonaway.Friends,lovers,andfamilymemberscansometimesbecome
estranged,emotionallydistant,unfriendly,orhostile.
Word9:S IBILANT(SIB-uh-lint)
Hissing;havingorproducingthehissingorwhistlingsoundofs.
The adjective sibilant comes from the present participle of the Latin verb sībilāre, to hiss, whistle. In
phonetics, the study of speech sounds, sibilant means having any of the soft, hissing sounds associated
withtheletters,suchasthehardsofthisandmiss,thesoftsofroseandlaser,theshsoundoffashion
andpressure,orthezhsoundofmeasureandvision.
Theverbtosibilatemeanstoutterwithahissingsound,likecertainsnakes.Peoplewithspacesor
gaps between their teeth—for which the word is diastemata (DY-uh-STEE-muh-tuh), the plural of
diastema (DY-uh-STEE-muh)—are also prone to sibilate. The noun is sibilance, which may mean a
hissingsoundor“anundueprominenceofsibilants”(OED),asinthetonguetwisters“Shesellsseashells
bytheseashore”and“Sixsillysisterssellsilktosixsicklyseniors.”
Whenyouwhispertoafriend,whenyouhissindisfavoratabaseballgame,whenyousayshush to
tellsomeonetobequiet,orwhenyousaypsssttoattractsomeone’sattention,youarebeingsibilantor
makingsibilantsounds.
Word10:PUNDIT(PUHN-dit,rhymeswithfundit)
Anexpert,critic,commentator;specifically,apersonwithspecialknowledgeofasubjectwhoisfrequentlycalledontoexpressopinionsabout
ittothepublic.
Punditry(PUHN-di-tree)istheoccupationorpronouncementsofapundit.
Synonymsofpunditincludeconnoisseur(properlypronouncedkahn-uh-SUR,withsirattheend,not
sewer); past master; maven (rhymes with raven), from the Yiddish meyvn, literally one who
understands;2adept(AD-ept),thenouncorrespondingtotheadjectiveadept(uh-DEPT),highlyskilled;
andsage(SAYJ)andsavant(suh-VAHNT),bothofwhichcomeultimatelyfromtheLatinsapĕre, to be
wiseorsensible—thesourcealsoofsapience(SAY-pee-ints),profoundknowledge;sapient (SAY-peeint), deeply wise and discerning; and Homo sapiens (HOH-moh SAY-pee-inz), the modern species of
humanbeings,literally“wiseman.”
PunditcomesfromtheSanskritpandita,alearnedman,anddatesbacktothemid-1600s.Theword
was originally spelled pandit and used as a title of respect for a learned man in India. Since the early
19thcenturypundithasbeenusedofanyonewithspecialknowledgeofasubject,andinthe20thcentury
the word acquired the additional implication of an expert who is called on to offer an opinion to the
public.Althoughtherearepunditsforpracticallyeverysubject—frommedicineandeconomicstofood
andfashion—themostcommontypeofpunditoneencountersinthemediatodayisthepoliticalpundit.
Perhapstherearesomanypoliticalpunditsbecausepoliticsallowsforboththebroadestrangeofopinion
andthebroadestdefinitionofanexpert.
Pundit is often mispronounced with an intrusive n in the second syllable, as if it were spelled
pundint. This mistake is especially common with the plural pundits. Remember, there is no dint in
pundit.Putaditinit.
ReviewQuizforKeywords1–10
Considerthefollowingquestionsanddecidewhetherthecorrectanswerisyesorno.Answers appear
here.
1.Cansomethinghackneyedbefreshandinteresting?
2.Ispettytheftconsideredanactofiniquity?
3.Canapersonbewhimsical?
4.Whenyouensconcesomething,doyouexposeittoview?
5.Isaplutocratpoorandpowerless?
6.Isabeatificmoodawhimsicalmood?
7.Isapersonwhoisunfetteredbydebtlikelytogobankrupt?
8.Wouldanestrangedrelativebelikelytocallyouoften?
9.Isasibilantnoiselikethehissingofasnake?
10.Wouldapunditbelikelytoexpressanopinionpublicly?
TheStyleFile:AvoidBetweenwithTo
BlancheWoolfordwrites,“Itseemsthatmanymediawritersnowusetofollowingbetweeninaphrase
havingtodowithatimespan,asin‘Roadcrewsarescheduledtoworkbetween7:30p.m.to5:30a.m.’I
wastaughtthatthephraseshouldbebetween…and.Couldyouclarifythisforme,please?”
Theconstructionbetween…toisflat-outwrong,Iwroteback;onecommentatorcallsit“asubliterate
idiom.” You’re correct in saying that between should be followed by and, but in the example you cite
there’sahitch.Withnumbers,andespeciallytimespans,betweencanbeproblematic.
Evenwhencorrected,thesentence“Roadcrewsarescheduledtoworkbetween7:30p.m.and5:30
a.m.”isjustambiguousenoughtocauseconcern.Arethosecrewsgoingtoworktheentiretimespecified
orforsomeshorterperiodorperiodsbetweenthosehours?Ifyoumeantheentiretime(whichisusually
thecase),thentheprecisewaytoworditwouldbe“from7:30p.m.to5:30a.m.”Thus,“Theyplanto
visittheircousinsbetweenJuly27andJuly31”isbetterrenderedas“fromJuly27toJuly31”because
theywillarrivethereonJuly27andstaytillJuly31.
Whenyou’retalkingaboutarangeofnumbers,withahighpointandlowpoint,therearethreeways
youcanproperlyphraseit:from…to;between…and;orjusttobyitself.Forexample:“windsoutof
thenorthwestfrom10to20mph”;“spendingsomewherebetweensixandsevenmillionayear”;and“a
boatfortytofiftyfeetlong.”
TheStyleFile:HowtoUseMyriad
Thewordmyriad(MIR-ee-id)comesintwoflavors:adjectiveandnoun.Theadjectivemeansconsisting
ofaverygreatbutindefinitenumber,innumerable,asmyriadstars.Thenounmyriadoriginallymeantten
thousand,asamyriadofsoldiers,becauseinancientGreeceamyriadwasamilitarydivisioncomposed
oftenthousandsoldiers.Althoughthatsenseisstillingoodstanding,todaythenounmyriadismostoften
usedtomeanagreatorindefinitenumber,asamyriadofproblemsoramyriadofdetails.
Somepeopleassertthatthenounmyriadshouldbeavoided,butthereisnoreasonablebasisforthe
objection.Infact,thenounismorethantwohundredyearsolderthantheadjectiveandhasbeenusedby
manyreputablewriters.Thechoicebetweenadjectiveandnoun,saysGarner’sModernAmericanUsage,
“isaquestionofstyle,notcorrectness.”Ifyouwanttoeconomizeverbally,usetheadjective.Ifamyriad
ofsuitsyourcontextbetter,don’tbeashamedtouseit.
Word11:REDOLENT(RED-uh-lint)
Strong-smelling,exudingeitherapleasantorastrongodor;hence,inextendeduse,stronglysuggestiveorreminiscentofsomething.
WhenredolententeredEnglishinthe14thcenturyitwasusedtomeanhavingasweetorpleasantsmell,
fragrant,aromatic.Althoughthismeaningisstillingoodstanding,andyouwillseewritersrefertosuch
sweet-smellingthingsas“redolentflowers,”“redolentincense,”and“theredolentscentofspring,”over
timeredolentcametobeusedmoreoftenofstrongodorsthatmayormaynotbepleasant,suchasmotor
oil,fishstew,andthedampscentofthejungle,andofstrongodorsthataredecidedlyunpleasant,suchas
cigarsmoke,sewage,andthestenchoftheabbatoir(AB-uh-twahr),aloanwordfromFrenchthatisthe
equivalentoftheEnglishslaughterhouse.
My ninety-nine-year-old father—whose mind is as keen as someone half his age—used redolent in
thiswaywithmerecently.WhenIcomplimentedhimonhisexcellentpersonalhygiene,hesaid,“Well,as
I’msureyouknow,oldpeoplecansometimesbequiteredolent,andI’dratheravoidthat.”
Fromthenotionofgivingoffastrongaroma,orbeingpermeatedwithastrongaroma,asa kitchen
redolent with sauteed onions, redolent then also came to mean strongly suggestive or reminiscent of
something, evoking some particular thing. That particular thing could be something with a pleasant or
strongsmell,suchasawineredolentofdriedherbs,plums,andchocolate;orcool,crispairredolentof
autumn.Ortheparticularthingbeingsuggestedorevokedcouldhavenothingtodowitharomas,suchasa
poptuneredolentofthemusicofthe1980soranoldhotelredolentwiththegrandeurofabygoneera.
Synonymsofredolentincludescented,fragrant,aromatic,pungent(PUHN-jint),piquant(PEE-kint),
odorous, and odoriferous. The last four of these words should be carefully distinguished. Something
pungentissharporpenetratingtothetasteorsmell,andmaybepleasantorunpleasant:apungentgarlicchilisauce.Somethingpiquantismildlypungent—perhapstart,tangy,orspicy—andpleasanttothetaste
or smell: a piquant lemon-herb vinaigrette. In modern usage something odorous is strong-smelling
usuallyinadistinctlyunpleasantway,asanodorousashtrayoranodorousskunk,whileincarefulusage
somethingodoriferous(OH-duh-RIF-ur-us)isalwayssweet-smelling,fragrant,asodoriferouscookiesor
anodoriferousgarden.
Word12:DEMAGOGUE(DEM-uh-gahg)
Adishonestpersonwhogainspopularityandpowerbydistortingthetruth,arousingpeople’spassions,andappealingtotheirprejudices;a
rabble-rouser.
Thenounisdemagoguery(DEM-uh-GAHG-ur-ee).
TheCenturyDictionarydefinesdemagogue as “an unprincipled popular orator or leader; one who
endeavors to curry favor with the people or some particular portion of them by pandering to their
prejudicesorwishes,orbyplayingontheirignoranceorpassions;specifically,anunprincipledpolitical
agitator;onewhoseekstoobtainpoliticalpowerorthefurtheranceofsomesinisterpurposebypandering
totheignoranceorprejudiceofthepopulace.”(Theverbtopanderisword30ofthislevel.)
How many demagogues can you think of? Adolf Hitler, of course. And perhaps a few that you’ve
heardrantingaboutpoliticsonradioandTV?Butlet’snotforgetMarkAntonyinShakespeare’sJulius
Caesar, whose subtle demagoguery at Caesar’s funeral arouses the fury and passion of his fellow
Romans.
Demagogue comes from the Greek dēmagōgós, a leader of the people, which comes in turn from
dēmos,thepeople,andagōgós,leading,guiding,fromtheverbagein,tolead.FromthisGreekdēmos,
thepeople,wegetthecommonEnglishnoundemocracy,governmentbythepeople,aswellasthemore
unusualwordsdemography(di-MAHG-ruh-fee),thestudyofthevitalstatisticsofhumanpopulations—
theirbirths,deaths,marriages,migrations,diseases,andsoon—anddemotic(di-MAHT-ik),whichmay
meaneitherpertainingtothecommonpeople,popular,orpertainingtothecommon,ordinaryformofa
language, also called the colloquial (kuh-LOH-kwee-ul) or vernacular (vur-NAK-yuh-lur), as the
demoticdictionofWilliamCarlosWilliams’spoetry.
Word13:MAUDLIN(MAWD-lin)
Tearfullysentimental,weaklyorfoolishlyemotional,especiallyfromdrunkenness.
The adjective maudlin dates back to the early 1600s and is an alteration, both in spelling and
pronunciation,ofthenameMaryMagdalene,therepentantwomanJesusforgivesinLuke7:37–50.Inart,
Mary Magdalene is often depicted as a weeping penitent, and maudlin originally meant given to tears,
lachrymose (LAK-ri-mohs, tearful, mournful, from the Latin lacrima, a tear). That sense, which is now
obsolete,quicklygavewaytothemeaningfoolishlytearfulorsentimental,displayingexcessiveemotion,
especiallybecauseofdrunkenness.Asfarbackas1699adictionarydefined“mawdlin”as“weepingly
drunk,” and that is how the word is still used today; someone who is besotted (word 24 of Level 1),
extremelyintoxicated,maybecomemaudlin.Often,though,maudlindoesn’timplyactualdrunkennessbut
the excessive and sometimes silly sentimentality typical of an inebriated person. Maudlin humor and
maudlinaffectionarefoolishlyemotional,andamaudlinstoryistearfullysentimental.
Word14:BEGRUDGE(bi-GRUHJ)
Toenvyorresentsomeoneelse’sgoodfortune,pleasure,orpossessionofsomething;also,tobeunwillingtogiveorallow,especiallybecause
ofenvyorresentment.
Thefamiliarnoungrudgeisacloselyheldfeelingofresentmentorillwill:“Duelswereoftenfoughtto
settle a grudge.” Combine the noun grudge with the prefix be- and you have the verb to begrudge, “to
grumble,especiallyfromenvy”(Webster2).Incidentally,yetanotherofthevariousfunctionsoftheprefix
be-istomaketransitiveverbsoutofnouns,adjectives,orotherverbs,asinbewitch,tocastaspellover,
enchant(fromthenounwitch);bedim,tomakedim(fromtheadjectivedim);andbemoan,tomoanover,
feelgriefordistressabout(fromtheverbmoan).
Theverbtobegrudgealwaysimpliessomecombinationofenvy,illwill,resentment,dissatisfaction,
andreluctance.Someonewhobegrudgesothers’successfeelsenvyandresentmentattheirgoodfortune.
Many of us, quite understandably, begrudge the wealthiest members of society their disproportionate
shareofmoney,resources,andpower.Andifyourindolent(word48ofthislevel)nephewasksyoufora
loan,oryourspendthrift(wasteful,extravagant,foolishlyspending)daughterwantsmoneyforashopping
spree,youmayforkoverthedoughbutstillbegrudgeeverypenny,anoldexpressionthatmeanstogive
orallowwithreluctanceanddispleasure.
Word15:AVOWAL(uh-VOW-ul,likeavowel)
Anopendeclaration;afrankacknowledgment,admission,oraffirmation.
The noun avowal and the verb to avow, to declare openly, acknowledge frankly, come from the Latin
advocāre,tosummon,calltoone’said,thesourcealsooftheverbtoadvocate(AD-vuh-kayt),toplead
thecauseofanother,andthenounanadvocate(AD-vuh-kit),apersonwhopleadsthecauseofanotherin
court,orapersonwhochampionsacause,asanadvocateofsocialreform.
A vow is a solemn promise or pledge, as a marriage vow, and the verb to vow means to make a
solemn promise. Even more solemn and formal than a vow is an oath (rhymes with both), which may
involve an appeal to a deity, as when an elected official takes the oath of office or a person about to
testifyincourtswearstotell“thetruth,thewholetruth,andnothingbutthetruth,sohelpmeGod.”An
avowalislessformalandsolemnbutstillserious:apublicstatementorassertionofsomethingoneisnot
ashamedof,anaffirmationoradmissionofthetruth.Anavowalofone’sprinciplesisanopendeclaration
ofone’sbeliefs.Anavowalofone’smisdeedsisafrankacknowledgmentofone’smistakes.
To disavow (dis-uh-VOW) is the opposite of to avow and means to openly refuse to acknowledge,
accept, or take responsibility for: “Sheila disavowed having any involvement in the incident.” A
disavowal(DIS-uh-VOW-ul),arefusaltoacceptoracknowledgesomethingorsomeone,istheopposite
ofanavowal.
Word16:PROS ELYTIZE(PRAHS-uh-luh-tyz)
Toconvertorattempttoconvertfromonereligion,party,cause,oropiniontoanother;torecruit.
The verb to proselytize and the noun proselyte (PRAHS-uh-lyt) come from an ancient Greek word that
meantanewcomer.Proselytewasfirstusedinthe14thcenturyintheWycliffeBibletomeanagentile
whohasconvertedtoJudaism.Thewordisstillusedinthissensetoday,butnowmoreoftenaproselyte
issomeonewhohasswitchedfromonereligion,party,oropiniontoanother,aconvertorrecruit.
Since the late 1600s proselytize has been used to mean “to make, or seek to make, proselytes or
converts” (OED). Some religious groups, such as the Mormons and Jehovah’s Witnesses, make
proselytizingobligatory,andpoliticalpartiesandmovementsoftentrytoproselytize,convertorrecruit
otherstotheirbeliefsorcause.
Evangelizeandproselytizearesimilarinmeaning.Toevangelize(i-VAN-juh-lyz)istoconvertortry
toconverttoChristianity,ortopreachthegospelto.Toproselytizeistoconvertortrytoconvertfrom
onereligion,party,cause,orbelieftoanother.
Proselytizeissometimesmisusedasasnazzy-soundingsubstituteforpublicizeorpromote, as in to
proselytize this message globally or to proselytize her political views. This is poor usage. You can’t
proselytizeanopinionoramessage.Youproselytizepeopleorgroups,convertingthemtoyouropinionor
belieforpersuadingthemtoendorseyourmessage.
Word17:GUILELES S (GYL-lis,rhymeswithfilethis)
Honestandinnocent,openandsincere.
Guileless combines the noun guile, deceitful or treacherous cunning, crafty or hypocritical deception,
withthesuffix-less,whichmeanswithout,asinhopeless,withouthope,andshameless,withoutshame.A
guileless person or a guileless smile is without guile, and is therefore honest and innocent, as in the
golden days of guileless youth. Sadly, guileless youth is also easily beguiled, led astray by guile,
deception,deceit.
Synonyms of guileless include frank, candid, straightforward, artless, unaffected, naive, and
ingenuous (in-JEN-yoo-us). The direct antonym of guileless is guileful, full of guile. Other antonyms
include insincere, wily, slippery, crafty, cunning, hypocritical, insidious, deceptive, fraudulent, and
disingenuous.
Word18:UNCONS CIONABLE(uhn-KAHN-shuh-nuh-bul)
Notguidedorrestrainedbyconscience,lackingconscience;also,unfair,unreasonable,orexcessive.
Theadjectiveconscionablemaymeanreasonable,just,fair-minded,asaconscionablesupervisorwho
treatsuswithrespect,orgovernedbyone’sconscience,asasupervisorconscionableinherdealings
withemployees.Unconscionable,beginningwiththeprivativeprefixun-,whichnegatesthemeaningof
whatfollows,denotestheopposite:unreasonable,unjust,notgovernedbyone’sconscience.
Allsortsofbehaviorcanbedescribedasunconscionable,lackingconscience—aggressiveandselfish
driving,thedeceptivelendingpracticesofbanks,andchildabuseareallunconscionable.Andanything
unreasonable,unfair,orexcessivecanalsobedescribedasunconscionable,asanunconscionabledelay,
anunconscionableassaultoncivilrights,orunconscionablebudgetcuts.
Scrupulous, honest, upright, having moral integrity, is a close synonym of conscionable.
Unscrupulous,dishonest,corrupt,lackingmoralintegrity,isaclosesynonymofunconscionable.
Word19:CONFLATE(kun-FLAYT)
Tomerge,bringtogether,fuseintoone.
ConflatecomesfromtheLatinconflātus,thepastparticipleoftheverbconflāre,toblowtogether,melt,
fuse,acombinationofcom-,together,andflāre,toblow,thesourceoftheEnglishwordflatus (FLAYtus),intestinalgas.Thenounisconflation,amergingorcombiningintoone,fusion,amalgamation,asa
conflationofmusicalstyles,aconflationofgovernmentagencies,oraconflationofwords.
When you conflate you bring together two or more separate or different things to form one unified
thing. For example, the United States of America is a nation formed by the conflation of fifty states. A
bottleneckinaroadwayisaconflationoftwoormorestreamsoftrafficintoone.Conflatedissuesare
differentissuesbroughttogetherintoone,andconflatedideasaredifferentideasfusedintoasingleidea,
as when the Unitarians and the Universalists conflated their religious doctrines into a unified doctrine.
And words are often carelessly conflated, their separate meanings merged into one, as when people
pompously use the adjective reticent, which means reluctant to speak, when they mean reluctant,
unwilling,hesitant.Thus,someonemaybereticent,butnotreticenttotalk.
Writersoftenincorrectlyuseconflatewhentheymeantoequate,toregardasthesameorequivalent,
asinthefollowingexamplesfoundonGoogleNews:“Turkishauthoritiesconflate[equate] support for
theKurdishcausewithterrorismitself”;“Peopleshouldnotconflate[equate]aworkofart’saestheticor
historicalimportancewithitspricetag.”Conflateisalsosometimesmisusedforconfuse:“Weconflate
[confuse]freedomfromresponsibilitywithtruefreedom.”Takecaretouseconflateonlywhenyoumean
tomerge,bringtogether,fuseintoone:“WhentwootherstormsystemsconflatedwithHurricaneSandyin
thenortheasternU.S.inNovember2012,afearsomestormwastransformedintoa‘Frankenstorm.’”
Word20:ANIMUS (AN-i-mus)
Adeep-seateddislikeorfeelingofillwill;spitefulhostilityoranimosity.
AnimusisborroweddirectlyfromtheLatinanimus,whichmeantthemindorthesoul.Itwasoriginally
usedinEnglish,beginninginthe14thcentury,tomeanthemindorwill,aperson’sanimatingspirit.But
bytheendofthe18thcenturythespiritofthewordhadturneddecidedlynegative,andanimuswasused
initsmorecommonmodernsense:intenseandoftenspitefuldislikeorillwill.
Enmity (word 40 of Level 3) is a close synonym of animus. Other synonyms include hostility,
animosity,antagonism,antipathy,andrancor(discussedinrancorous,word31ofLevel3).Ofthese,
hostilityandanimosityaremostlikelytobeexpressedopenly,oftenbyaggressiveactions.Antipathyis
strongrepugnanceoraversion:herstrangeantipathytowardclassicalmusic.Antagonismisstrongand
active dislike between conflicting people or groups: the antagonism between Democrats and
Republicans. Rancor is a bitter, brooding, and resentful hatred nurtured over time; it is more often felt
thanexpressed.Bothenmityandanimusareentrenchedfeelingsofillwillandmaybeopenlyexpressed,
likehostilityandanimosity,orheldinprivate,likerancor.
TheAmericanHeritageDictionarynotesthatanimusis“personal,oftenbasedonone’sprejudicesor
temperament.” Because it is personal, animus is also often irrational or malicious, as the following
citationsillustrate:“ForObama,governingatatimeofsuchextremepartisananimusandstillcopingwith
a torpid economy, a second term was hardly assured” (Newsweek); “Al Qaida … feels a particular
animustowardFrancebecauseFrancewastheformercolonialpowerinmostofnorthAfrica”(NPR).
ReviewQuizforKeywords11–20
Considerthefollowingstatementsanddecidewhethereachoneistrueorfalse.Answersappearhere.
1.Ifsomethinggivesoffastrongodor,itisredolent.
2.Aplutocratcanbeademagogue.
3.Amaudlinpersonischeerfulandwitty.
4.Anemployeewhoispassedoverforaraisemightbegrudgeafellowemployeewhoisearningmoremoney.
5.Anavowalofone’smistakesisarefusaltoacknowledgethem.
6.Whenyouproselytize,youattempttopersuadeotherstoadoptyourcauseorbelief.
7.Youcannottrustaguilelessperson.
8.Cheatingonatestisunconscionablebehavior.
9.Whenyouconflatethings,youregardthemasequal.
10.Ananimusisafeelingofexcitementorenthusiasmforsomething.
DifficultDistinctions:JealousyandEnvy
Inlooseusagejealousyisoftenusedinterchangeablywithenvy,butthereisasubtledistinctionbetween
thesetwowordsthatcarefulwritersobserve.
Envy is a feeling of discontent born of a desire for something, such as a possession, advantage, or
achievement,thatanotherpersonhas:“EverytimeJoesawJohn’shugehouse,redconvertible,andtrophy
wife,hewasconsumedwithenvy.”
Jealousy is resentment and suspicion of a rival, especially one who may take something you value
awayfromyouorwhohasgottensomethingthatyouorsomeoneelsedeserves:“Joeburnedwithjealousy
every time he saw his back-stabbing rival sitting in the corner office that by all rights should’ve been
giventohim.”
Morally and philosophically, envy is worse than jealousy, for even in its worst manifestations
jealousy is a venial sin, while envy is one of the seven deadlies—right up there with wrath, avarice,
sloth,pride,lust,andgluttony.
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabulary.
Word21:S WATH(SWAHTHorSWAWTH,withthasinpath)
Thespacecoveredbythestrokeofascytheorthepassofamowingmachine,orarowofacropcutdownbyascytheormower;hence,any
longstrip,belt,orarea.
Swathdatesbacktobefore900,whenitwasusedinOldEnglishtomeanatrack,trace,footprint.Bythe
15thcenturyithadcometobeusedtomeaneitherthespacecoveredbythesweepofascytheorarowof
a crop that has been mowed. These senses are still current today. For example, you could say that a
mowercutadeepswatharoundtheedgeofafield,oryoucouldsaythatthemowerleftlongswathsof
hayinthefield.
Bythe17thcenturythewordhadcometobeusedofanylongstriporbelt,asaswathoffabric,a
swathofmist,oraswathofundevelopedland.In1849theAmericanphilosopherandnaturalistHenry
DavidThoreauwrote,“ThegreatmowerTime,whocutssobroadaswath.”Todaythisextendeduseis
common,andwespeakofalargeswathofundecidedvotersorabroadswathofmiddle-classAmerica.
Here’s an example from The Wall Street Journal: “The Landmarks Preservation Commission voted
Tuesday to create a historic district encompassing a large swath of the East Village and Lower East
Side.”
Takecaretodistinguishthesimilarlyspelledwordsswath,swatch,andswathe.Theverbtoswathe
(rhymeswithbathe)meanstowraporbindwithabandage,orasifwithabandage,asababyswathedin
a blanket. Swathe may also mean to envelop or enfold, as the house was swathed in fog. The noun
swatch(rhymeswithwatch)isasample,arepresentativepieceofsomething,oftencloth,asaswatchof
unbleachedcotton,butitmayalsorefertoanysmallportion,asaswatchofsilveryhairortheyreada
swatchof19th-centuryBritishliterature.Ourkeyword,swath,isalongbroadstrip,belt,orarea,asa
swathoflowpressurethatwillbringraintothevalley.Aswatchoflinenisasamplepiece.Aswathof
linenisalong,broadstrip.
Word22:CONFLAGRATION(KAHN-fluh-GRAY-shin)
Agreat,destructivefire;anextensive,disastrousblaze.
The adjective is conflagrant (kun-FLAY-grint), burning, blazing, on fire, as a conflagrant building or,
figuratively,aheartconflagrantwithlove.
The noun conflagration comes from the Latin conflagrāre, to burn up, a combination of con-,
completely,andflagrāre,toburn,blaze,thesourceofflagrant,whichmeansshockinglyandshamelessly
bad,offensive,orimmoral,asaflagrantbreachoftrust.
Thewordsinfernoandholocaustaresynonymsofconflagration.
InfernocomesthroughtheItalianinferno,hell,fromtheLateLatininfernus,hell,thesourcealsoof
theEnglishadjectiveinfernal,whichmeanseitherhellish,fiendish,damnable(asinStop that infernal
racket!),orpertainingtoorresemblinghell.Inthe20thcenturyinfernoalsocametobeusedtomeana
placeresemblinghell,afurnace,oven,conflagration:“Theexplosionsturnedthebuildingintoaraging
inferno.”
When the word holocaust3 entered English in the 14th century from the ancient Greek holócaustos,
burntwhole,itdenotedaburntoffering,asacrificeconsumedbyfire.Bythe17thcenturyithadcometo
meanhorrendousdestructionordevastationinvolvinggreatlossoflife,especiallybyfire.Thatiswhat
wemeanwhenwespeakofanuclearholocaust.Holocaustmaystillbeusedinthisway,butinthe20th
centurytheword,spelledwithacapitalH,tookonanother,specificsense—thesystematicslaughterof
millions of Jews and other Europeans by the Nazis during World War II—and this is the most familiar
senseofthewordincurrentusage.
In recent years our keyword, conflagration, has been pressed into service as a fancy-sounding,
polysyllabic alternative for conflict or war, as “an international military conflagration” (forbes.com).
Conflagrationmaysuggestthedestructivefiresofwar,butusingthewordtomeanawidespreadconflict
ispretentious.Thecarefulwriter,mindfuloftheperilsofverbalinflation,willconfineconflagration to
itstraditionalmeaning:agreat,destructivefire.
Word23:RAREFIED(RAIR-i-fyd)
Ofahighlyrefinedorsublimenature,elevatedorloftyincharacterorstyle;hence,belongingorofinteresttoasmall,exclusivegroup,
esoteric.4
Exaltedisaclosesynonymofrarefied.
TheadjectiverarefiedcomesfromtheLatinrārēfacĕre,tomakethinorlessdense,fromrārus,thin,
loose,andfacĕre,tomakeordo.Theverbtorarefy(RAIR-i-fy)meanseithertomakethinorlessdense,
asagasrarefiedbyheat,ortorefine,purify,makemorespiritualorexalted,asinthissentencebythe
EnglishessayistWilliamHazlitt(HAYZ-lit)from1817:“Loveisagentleflamethatrarefiesandexpands
herwholebeing.”Thenounrarefaction(RAIR-i-FAK-shin)meanstheprocessorstateofbeingrarefied,
refined,purified,exalted.
Rarefiedmaybeusedtomeanthinnerorlessdense,asrarefiedair, but today it is most often used
figurativelytomeanhighlyrefined,elevated,lofty,asararefiedliterarystyleorthe rarefied world of
philosophy.Byextension,rarefiedisalsoappliedtosomethingsoelevatedorrefinedthatitbelongsonly
toasmall,selectgroup,asararefiedtasteinwineorararefiedsocialcircle.
Andnowanoteonspelling.Rarefyandrarefiedareoftenmisspelledrarifyandrarified,withaniin
themiddleinsteadofane.Infact,thismisspellingissocommonthatsomedictionarieslistrarifiedasa
standardalternative.Don’tbemisledbythis;dictionariesrecordwhateveralotofpeopledo,evenifa
lotofotherpeoplethinkit’swrong.Rememberthatthewordrareresideswithinrarefyandrarefiedand
you’llalwaysspellthemright.
Word24:MENDICANT(MEN-di-kunt)
Abeggar;apersonwhosurvivesbyaskingforfoodormoney.
MendicantcomesfromtheLatinmendīcāre,tobeg,andmendīcus,whichasanounmeantabeggarand
as an adjective meant beggarly, impoverished, destitute (DES-ti-t[y]oot), indigent (IN-di-jint),
impecunious(IM-pe-KYOO-nee-us).
Originally, a mendicant was a member of one of the Christian religious orders—such as the
Franciscans,Dominicans,andCarmelites—thatreliedonalms(AHMZ),orcharity,tosurvive.Bytheend
ofthe15thcenturymendicanthadcometobeusedasamoredignifiedsynonymforbeggar,andthisisits
primarysenseasanountoday:“Herheartwentouttotheraggedmendicantsthatoccupiednearlyevery
cornerofdowntown.”
Mendicant may also be an adjective meaning either belonging or pertaining to one of the religious
ordersofmendicants,asamendicantmonk,or,moreoften,beggingorsuggestiveofabeggar:“Greece
and Spain have become mendicant nations, relying on the charity of the European Union to keep their
economiesafloat.”
Thenounmendicancy(MEN-di-kun-see)meansthestateofbeingabeggarortheactofbegging.
Word25:RECOMPENS E(REK-um-pents)
Torewardorrepayforsomethingdoneorgiven;also,torepayorcompensateforaloss,damage,orinjury.
RecompensecomesfromtheLateLatinrecompensāre,togiveinreturn,giveincompensation.Itmaybea
verbmeaningtorepayforsomethingdoneortocompensateforaloss,as“Themigrantfarmworkerswere
not recompensed for their labor,” or “The court ordered the defendant to recompense the plaintiff for
damages.” The word may also be a noun meaning repayment or reward, as recompense for services
rendered, or compensation for a loss or injury, as to make recompense for a hurtful comment or a
lawsuitseekingrecompenseforfraud.
Theverbstoremunerate(ri-MYOO-nuh-rayt)andtorecompensebothmeantorepay,buttheydiffer
intheirconnotation.Toremunerate,fromtheLatinremūnerārī,torepay,andmūnus,agift,istopayor
compensate—oftengenerously—forservicesrendered,troubletaken,orgoodsprovided.Forexample,it
is customary to remunerate with a holiday tip those who provide special services for you, such as a
housekeeper, massage therapist, mail carrier, or hair stylist. Recompense suggests making a fair or just
payment or reward, either for something done or given—as “She recompensed the staff for their hard
work by taking them to lunch”—or for some loss, damage, or injury sustained, as “Nothing could
recompensethemforwhattheysufferedinthewar.”
Word26:INUNDATE(IN-un-dayt,occasionallyin-UHN-dayt)
Tooverflow,overwhelm,flood;tofillorcoverwithorasifwithaflood.
The verb to inundate comes from the Latin inundāre, to overflow, stream over like a torrent, which
comes in turn from the noun unda, a wave, the source also of the English verb to undulate (UHN-juhlayt),tomoveinasinuous(SIN-yoo-us)andflowingmanner,likeawave,asa flag undulating in the
wind or bodies undulating to music. (Sinuous means winding, bending, turning, moving in a graceful,
curvingmanner,asasinuousroadorasinuousdancer.)
Inundatemaymeanliterallytoflood,overflow:abeachcanbeinundatedathightideandheavyrain
can inundate a valley. But inundate is also often used figuratively to mean to overwhelm, fill or cover
with or as if with a flood: an employer can be inundated with job applications, weeds can inundate a
garden,andtweeterscaninundatetheir“followers”withtweets.
Synonyms of inundate include to drown, swamp, submerge, overspread, engulf, and deluge (DELyooj), to inundate destructively or oppressively, as “Hurricane Sandy deluged the Northeast,” or “The
studentsweredelugedwithhomework.”
Inundation(IN-uhn-DAY-shin),afloodoroverwhelmingflow,isthenoun,astheinundationofthe
coastlineoraninundationofTVadstheweekbeforetheelection.
Word27:AGGRANDIZE(uh-GRAN-dyz)
Toincrease,enlarge,magnify,augment;especially,toincreaseorenlargethepower,influence,wealth,rank,orstatusof.
TheverbtoaggrandizecomesfromtheFrenchagrandir,toincrease,enlarge,augment,whichcomesin
turn from the Latin grandire, to make great, increase. By derivation, that which aggrandizes makes
someone or something greater by increasing its power or enlarging its influence. The noun
aggrandizement(uh-GRAN-diz-ment)meanstheincreaseorenlargementofpowerandinfluence.Inthe
18th and 19th centuries, England sought to aggrandize its power in the world by conquering various
foreign countries, colonizing them, and creating an empire. This territorial aggrandizement of a country
intoanempireiscalledimperialism.
Inmodernusageaggrandizeisoftenusedreflexively,meaningitiseitherprecededbythecombining
formself-orfollowedbyareflexivepronoun(oneincorporating-selfor-selves).Wespeakoftheselfaggrandizing rhetoric of political campaigns, of dictators who aggrandize themselves at the expense of
theirpeople,andofthegreedyself-aggrandizersonWallStreet.
Word28:OUTRÉ(oo-TRAY,rhymeswithyoupay)
Beyondtheboundsofwhatisconsideredusual,normal,orproper;unusual,peculiar.
Synonyms of outré include bizarre, extravagant, eccentric, unconventional, outlandish, and
unorthodox.Antonymsofoutréincludenormal,ordinary,customary,traditional,andorthodox.
Asyoumayhavealreadyguessedfromtheacuteaccentoveritsfinalletter,outréisFrench.Itcomes
directlyfromoutré,thepastparticipleoftheverboutrer,togobeyond,gotoexcess,pushthelimitsof.
Byderivation,thatwhichisoutrégoesbeyondtheboundariesofconvention,pushingthelimitsofwhatis
considerednormalorproper.
Outrémaybeusedofanythingthatfliesinthefaceofconventionorthatchallengesnotionsofwhatis
normalandproper.Someone’sclothingmaybeoutré,outlandish,bizarre.Certainwordsmaybeoutré,
unsuitableforpoliteconversation.Andamoviemaybeoutrébecauseitgoesbeyondwhatisconsidered
acceptableandproper.
Youcanusetheadjectiveoutrébyitself,as“Thenewfashionsforfallareoutré.”Oryoumaypairit
withanoun,asTheNewYorkTimesdidwhenitcalledJCPenney“adepartmentstorenotknownforoutré
fashion.”Outrépoliticsareradicalpolitics.Outrébehaviorisunconventional,eccentricbehavior.Andan
outrésubjectisonethatpushesthelimitsofpropriety.
You can also pair outré with the definite article the to refer to that which goes beyond what is
consideredusualornormal,somethingextravagantorbizarre:“Foodieswhoembracethenew,theoutré,
thedifferent,mayhailanunusualitemonthemenu…horsemeattartare”(horsetalk.co.nz).
Word29:QUINTES S ENTIAL
Beingtheperfect,mostrefined,ormosttypicalexampleorinstanceofsomething.
Quintessential is the adjective corresponding to the noun quintessence (kwin-TES-ints). Both words
come ultimately from the Medieval Latin quinta essentia, fifth essence. In ancient and medieval
philosophy,quintessencewas“thefifthorlastandhighestessenceorpowerinanaturalbody,”explains
Webster 2. “The ancient Greeks recognized four elements, fire, air, water, and earth. The Pythagoreans
and Aristotle added a fifth, the ether, out of which they said the heavenly bodies are composed.” In
modern usage quintessence is “the pure and concentrated essence; the best and purest part of a thing”
(TheCenturyDictionary);figuratively,theperfectembodimentormosttypicalexampleofsomething,as
thequintessenceofbeauty,thequintessenceofvirtue,orthequintessenceofstupidity.
Quintessential retains from the ancient fifth essence the idea of concentration and purity, and in
modern usage the word is used to describe the perfect or most typical example of something: “Naomi
aspiredtowriteanovelaboutthestrugglesofherimmigrantgrandparentsthatshehopedwouldportray
the quintessential American experience”; “Paella is the quintessential dish of Spanish cuisine”; “The
ancientGreekwarriorAchilleswasaquintessentialtragichero”;“Withitswhitepicketfence,brightred
barn,andtallmapletrees,thebed-and-breakfasthadquintessentialNewEnglandcharm.”
Quintessential may also be used to mean of utmost importance or significance, indispensable, as a
quintessentialhistoryoffeminism,or“Lawandorderisquintessentialtothewell-beingofsociety.”
Word30:PANDER(PAN-dur)
Tocatertoorindulgethevulgartastesanddesiresofothersorexploittheirpassions,prejudices,orweaknesses.
Pander is an eponymous (i-PAHN-uh-mus) word, one formed from a name, in this case a name from
literature.InclassicalmythologyandinHomer’sepicpoemTheIliad,whichtellsthestoryoftheTrojan
War,Pandarus[PAN-duh-rus]wasaTrojanwhoviolatedthetrucebetweentheTrojansandtheGreeksby
tryingtoassassinateMenelaus(MEN-uh-LAY-us),thekingofSparta,atreacherousactthatprolongedthe
war.Merriam-Webster’sEncyclopediaofLiteratureexplainsthatthenameresurfaced“inthemedieval
taleofTroilusandCressida[TROY-lusandKRES-i-duh],aswellasinWilliamShakespeare’splayby
thesamename,”where“Pandarusactedasthelovers’go-between;hencetheword‘pander.’”
Thenounpander,whichenteredEnglishinthe15thcentury,denoteseitherago-betweeninamorous
intrigues—namely,aprocurerorpimp—oraperson“whoministerstothegratificationofanyofthebaser
passionsofothers”(TheCenturyDictionary).Theverbtopander, which came along in the early 17th
century,originallymeanttoactasapanderorgo-between,buttodaytopanderiscommonlyusedtomean
“toministertoothers’passionsorprejudicesforselfishends”(Century).
An employee, to gain favor, panders to the whims and desires of his boss. An ambitious writer
panderstothevulgartastesofthereadingpublic—ortoitssnobbery.Special-interestgroupspanderto
venal (VEE-nul) politicians. (Venal means corruptible, capable of being bribed or bought off.)
Demagogues(word12ofthislevel)gaininfluencebypanderingtopeople’sprejudices,ignorance,and
passions.Andretailers,eagertoexploitthepublicforprofit,pandertoconsumerswhoareeagertoown
thetrendiestclothingandcommodities.
ReviewQuizforKeywords21–30
Decideifthepairsofwordsbelowaresynonymsorantonyms.Answersappearhere.
1.Swathandbeltare…synonymsorantonyms?
2.Conflagrationandblazeare…
3.Rarefiedandmundaneare…
4.Mendicantandplutocratare…
5.Recompenseandrewardare…
6.Inundateandsubmergeare…
7.Aggrandizeandminimizeare…
8.Outréandtraditionalare…
9.Quintessentialandordinaryare…
10.Panderandcaterare…
OnceUponaWord:TheNameGame
Aneponymisawordderivedfromaname,oranamethatbecomesaword.TheEnglishlanguagehas
manyeponymouswords,bothcommonandobscure.Science,medicine,andthenaturalworldaresources
ofmanyfamiliareponyms.
EveryeducatedpersonknowsthattheverbtopasteurizecomesfromthenameoftheFrenchchemist
andbacteriologistLouisPasteur(1822–1895),whodevelopedtheprocessofsterilizingbyheatingand
rapidcooling.Butdidyouknowthatthelovelyclimbingshrubwisteria(wi-STEER-ee-uh)takesitsname
from the American anatomist Caspar Wistar (1761–1818)?5 And did you know that the hardy, colorful
plantcalledpoinsettiaisnamedafteranAmericandiplomat,J.R.Poinsett(1779–1851),whobroughtit
fromMexicototheUnitedStatesin1828?Incidentally,thereisnopointinpoinsettia,andthewordis
properlypronouncedinfoursyllables,notthree:poyn-SET-ee-uh.
Another eponymous scientific word that is often mispronounced is salmonella (SAL-muh-NEL-uh),
whichhasnothingtodowithsalmon(SAM-un)andeverythingtodowithDanielE.Salmon(1850–1914),
an American veterinarian and pathologist who identified this genus of bacteria and whose last name is
pronouncedSAL-mun.
Many flowers and plants take their names from names. One of my favorites is the beautiful woody
vinecalledbougainvillea(BOO-gun-VIL-ee-uh),withitsdelicateandbrilliantflowers,whichisnamed
aftertheFrenchnavigatorandexplorerLouisAntoinedeBougainville(1729–1811),whofoughtforthe
UnitedStatesduringtheRevolutionaryWaranddiscoveredtheSolomonIslands.
Ourtwomethodsofmeasuringtemperature,Celsius and Fahrenheit, are both eponyms. The former
comes from Anders Celsius (1701–1744), a Swedish astronomer, and the latter from Gabriel Daniel
Fahrenheit(1686–1736),theGermanphysicistwhointroducedtheuseofmercuryinthermometers.The
Bunsen burner, familiar to all high school chemistry students, is named after Robert Wilhelm Bunsen
(1811–1899),aGermanchemist.Andthewordguillotine(GIL-uh-teen,notGEE-yuh-teen)isnamedafter
JosephGuillotin(1738–1814),aFrenchphysicianwhodidnotinventthisgruesomedecapitationdevice
butwhoadvocatedforitsuseasmorehumanethanhanging.
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabulary.
Word31:S ACROS ANCT(SAK-roh-SANGT)
Extremelysacredorholy;hence,nottobeviolatedoraltered.
Synonymsofsacrosanctincludehallowed,divine,sanctified,andinviolable(in-VY-uh-luh-bul).
SacrosanctcomesfromtheLatinphrasesacrosanctus,whichmeansmadeholy,sacred,orinviolable
byareligiousrite.ThisphrasecomesinturnfromtheLatinsacer,sacred,holy,thesourceoftheEnglish
wordssacredandsacrifice,andtheLatinverbsancire,toconsecrate(word42ofLevel2),thesourceof
theEnglishwordssaint,sanctity,andsanctify,tosetapartassacred.
In modern usage sacrosanct is often used of anything that cannot or should not be violated or
trespassedupon.Ifyouholdsomethingsacrosanct,youtreatitasifwereholyandthereforeimmunefrom
criticismorinterference.Asacrosanctbeliefortraditionisonethatmustnotbeviolatedorchanged.A
sacrosanctroomisaroomthatissecretorprivateandnottobeentered.Asacrosancttextisonewhose
wordsaresoreveredthattheyarebeyondcriticismandmustneverbealtered.
Word32:INDOMITABLE(in-DAHM-i-tuh-bul)
Unconquerable,unyielding,invincible,notcapableofbeingovercomeorsubdued.
Indomitable comes from the Latin indomitus, untamed, wild, which comes in turn from the privative
prefixin-,not,anddomitāre,totame,subdue.Byderivation,thatwhichisindomitableiswildandstrong
andcannotbetamedorsubdued.
Anindomitablearmy,anindomitableenemyorfoe,andanindomitablesportsteamareallincapable
of being defeated. Someone with an indomitable spirit is unyielding in the face of opposition and
stubbornly persistent in overcoming obstacles. An indomitable force is so wild and powerful that it
cannotberesistedorsubdued:HurricanesKatrinaandSandywereindomitableforcesofnature.Andan
indomitableheroisinvincible:“IndianaJonesistheultimateaction-heroacademic:playedbyHarrison
Ford, the indomitable professor outwits Nazis and other villains in search of religious relics, lost
temples, and alien artifacts” (The Economist). Indomitable may also be used figuratively, as in this
sentencefromD’Aulaire’sBookofGreekMyths:“ZeuspoundedhisindomitablefistandHerasatsilent.”
Synonymsofindomitableincludeinsuperable(in-SOO-pur-uh-bul),masterful, indefatigable (word
21 of Level 2), omnipotent (ahm-NIP-uh-tint), redoubtable (ri-DOW-tuh-bul), and puissant (PYOO-isintorpyoo-IS-int).Antonymsofindomitableincludeweak, helpless, feeble, vulnerable, decrepit (diKREP-it),debilitated,impotent(IM-puh-tint),andeffete(i-FEET).
Word33:METTLE(MET’l,likemetal)
Aperson’sdispositionortemperament;“the‘stuff’ofwhichoneismade,regardedasanindicationofone’scharacter”(OED).Also,courage,
vigor,strengthofspiritorcharacter,orstamina,endurance,stayingpower.
Mettleisavariantspellingofmetalandisprobablyafigurativeuseofmetal—theideabeingthatifthe
stuffofwhichyouaremade,yourtemperament,isstronganddurable,likemetal,thenyouhavemettle,
strength of spirit or character. A man or woman of mettle is a person who displays exceptional vigor,
courage,orstamina.
Mettleiscommonlyusedinanumberofsetphrases.Totestone’smettle,orsometimestotryone’s
mettle,istoputone’scharacter,spirit,orskilltothetest.Tobeonone’smettleistobeinspiredtodo
one’sbest.Toputonone’smettleistotestsomeone’senduranceorresourcefulness.Andtoshowone’s
mettle or to prove one’s mettle is to show or prove one’s admirable character by displaying courage,
spirit,orresilience.
Word34:ELLIPS IS (i-LIP-sis)
Anomission;specifically,theomissionofoneormorewordsthatareunderstoodincontextbutthatwouldotherwiseberequiredforaclearor
grammaticallycompleteconstruction.
Ellipsis comes from the Greek élleipsis, an omission. Ellipsis is the singular, ellipses (i-LIP-seez) the
plural.
Anellipsisisagrammaticalconstruction—aphraseorsentence—thatleavesoutoneormorewords.
Usuallywhatisleftoutisimpliedbythecontextandisoftennotnecessary,asinShehaswrittenseveral
novelsIadmire,whichwithouttheellipsiswouldbeShehaswrittenseveralnovelsthat I admire; or
He’sinterested,butI’mnot,whichwithouttheellipsiswouldbeHe’sinterested,butI’mnotinterested.
Sometimesellipsisreferstotheomissionofawordorwordsthatwouldclarifythecontext,asinYou
don’twantto,whichleavesoutaverbattheendthatwouldspecifywhatyoudon’twanttodo.Insuch
instancesit’sassumedthatthereaderorlistenercanmentallysupplywhathasbeenomitted.
“AllwritersandspeakersofEnglish…omitwordswhichneverwillbemissed,”writeBergenand
Cornelia Evans in their Dictionary of Contemporary American Usage. “This is never objectionable
unless the sentence becomes misleading, that is, unless the omitted words actually are missed.” For
example, the sentence I like to interview people sitting down is misleading because the ellipsis is
unclear; we’re not sure whether it means I like to interview people who are sitting down, I like to
interviewpeoplewhileIamsittingdown,orIliketointerviewpeoplewhilewearesittingdown.6
Inwritingandpublishing,ellipsisisusedtomean“theomissionofaword,phrase,line,paragraph,or
more from a quoted passage” (Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition). To indicate an ellipsis, an
omissionfromaquotedpassage,writersandeditorsuseellipsispoints,threeorsometimesfourdotsor
periods.
Elliptical, the adjective corresponding to the noun ellipsis, has several meanings. It may mean
pertaining to or marked by a grammatical ellipsis, an omission of a word or words, as an elliptical
construction. It may be used of speech or writing to mean characterized by extreme verbal economy,
expressedinthefewestwordspossible,asanellipticalmessagescrawledonthebackofanenvelope.
Oritmaybeusedofanymannerofexpressionthatisdisjointed,incomplete,ambiguous,orobscure,asa
storytoldinafractured,ellipticalstyleorapoetknownforherellipticalverse.
Word35:PETULANT(PECH-uh-lint)
Showingsuddenimpatience,irritation,oranger,especiallyoversomethingtrivial.
PetulantcomesfromtheLatinpetulans,petulantis,impudent,andwhenthewordenteredEnglishinthe
late 16th century it was used of impudence or forwardness in speech or behavior. In modern usage,
however,petulantconnotesimpatienceandirritabilityratherthanimpudence.
Thewordspeevishandpetulantareclosesynonyms.Bothsuggestill-humoredannoyance.Butwhile
peevishpeopleareirritableandfullofcomplaintsbecausetheyarefussyanddifficulttoplease,petulant
people are prone to self-centered outbursts and apt to express childish irritation or impatience over
insignificantthings.Someoneinapeevishmoodhasareasontobeirritableandcomplaining,thoughit
may not be a legitimate reason. Someone in a petulant mood quickly gets irritable and impatient over
unimportantthings.
Word36:DEIGN(DAYN,rhymeswithrain)
Todosomethingoneconsidersbeneathone’sdignity;tocondescendreluctantly.
The verb to deign comes from the Latin dignāre, to consider worthy, which comes in turn from the
adjective dignus, worthy, deserving, suitable, fitting. Dignus is also the source of the English words
dignity; dignify; dignitary, a person who holds a position of dignity or honor; indignation, righteous
angeratsomethingthoughttobeunworthy,unjust,orundignified;andindignant,filledwithindignation:
“Thegadflypointedanindignantfingerattheobjectofhiscontempt,thecitycouncil.”
Whenyoudeign,youdecidethatitisworthyorfittingforyoutodosomethingyouwouldnormally
considerbeneathyourdignity.Inotherwords,youneverdeignwillingly,hopingtobeofhelp.Youalways
deign reluctantly, condescending to do something that you wouldn’t otherwise do: “After much
complaining,theirfood-snobfrienddeignedtoeatattheirfavoritegreasyspoon”;“In1972,whenNixon
wastheincumbentandfaraheadinthepolls,hebarelydeignedtosayMcGovern’snameduringthefall
campaign”(CNN).
Inmodernusage,deignalwayshasaninfinitiveasitsobject.Theinfinitiveisthetoformofaverb,so
wedeigntodosomething:“Hedeignedtoanswer”;“Thevirtuosodeignedtogiveanencore.”Youcan
also deign not to do something: “She wouldn’t deign to notice him”; “My kids won’t deign to eat
vegetables.”
Word37:BERATE(bi-RAYT)
Toscoldharshly,criticizesharply.
Theverbstochide,admonish,reproach,upbraid,reprimand,reprove(word35ofLevel3),rebuke,and
berateallmeantoscold,criticize,orexpressdisapproval.
Tochideandtoadmonishimplygentlescoldingwiththeintentionofcorrectingimproperbehavior,
while to reproach is to express disapproval or disappointment less mildly. You chide your dog for
chewing the furniture, you admonish your children to spend less time on Facebook and more on their
homework,andyoureproachanemployeeforbeinglatetoworkthreedaysinarow.
To upbraid implies a more formal, usually justifiable, and often public criticism or scolding:
“Politicalcolumnistsupbraidpublicofficialswhohaveabusedthepublic’strust.”Toreprimandismore
formalstill,toscoldorcriticizepublicly,officially,andoftenseverely,astheofficerreprimandedthe
impertinent(word20ofLevel1)soldier.
To reprove may be relatively mild, suggesting a well-meaning scolding like chide, admonish, and
reproach,oritmaybemoresevere,suggestingharsherandmorevehementdisapprovallikerebuke. A
judgemightreproveoffendersforafirstoffensebutrebukethemforasecond.
Finally,ourkeyword,toberate,isaclosesynonymofrebuke.Bothwordsmeantoscoldsharplyor
criticizeharshly,butrebukeusuallyreferstoasingleexpressionofsterndisapproval—“Janicerebuked
Jimforneglectingtoloadthedishwasher”—whileberateoftenimpliesprolongedorrepeatedscolding:
“JimwassickofhearingJaniceberatehimforneglectingtodohisshareofthehousework.”
Word38:HARBINGER(HAHR-bin-jur)
Asignofsomethingtocome,indicationofafutureevent,forerunner,herald.
Harbinger,whichisrelatedtothewordharbor,comesfromaGermanicwordthatmeantshelterforan
army,andlaterlodgingingeneral,aplaceofshelterandentertainment.
Harbinger is one of the oldest words in English, dating back to the 12th century. Like many old
words, it has shed its earliest meaning and taken on new ones. In English, harbinger was first used to
meanakeeperofalodginghouse,ahost,entertainer,asensenowobsolete.Thewordnextcametomean
apersonorcompanysentaheadtoprovideforlodging,especiallyforanarmyortravelingroyalty.Over
timethissensebroadenedandharbingerwasusedofanyonewhogoesbefore,especiallytoannouncethe
comingofanother.Finally,thewordcametobeusedfigurativelytomeanasignofsomethingtocome.In
1630, the English poet John Milton used harbinger this way, describing the sun as “the bright morning
star,day’sharbinger,”which“comesdancingfromtheeast.”
Today harbinger means anything that indicates the arrival of something or that foreshadows some
futureevent.Aharbingerofspringindicatesthatspringwillsoonbehere.Aharbingerofrecessiontells
usthattougheconomictimeslieahead.
Forerunner, precursor, herald, and harbinger all denote people or things that come before.
Forerunnerandprecursor(pree-KUR-sur),fromtheLatinprae-,before,andcurrere,torun,bothmean
literallyonewhorunsbefore,andbothareoftenusedfigurativelyofthatwhichhasalogicalconnection
towhatfollows:“TheBostonMassacrewastheprecursoroftheAmericanRevolution”;“Infantilefears
are often the forerunners of adult anxieties.” Herald and harbinger are used chiefly of that which
precedesinordertoannounceordrawattentiontothecomingofsomethingelse:Shakespearecalledthe
lark“theheraldofthemorn,”andWashingtonIrvingcalled“thebodingcryofthetree-toad”a“harbinger
ofstorm.”
Anomen,aportent,andaharbingerareallsignsofthingstocome.Bothanomenandaportentare
propheticsigns,supposedlyindicatingthenatureoroutcomeofsomeuncertainfutureevent.Thoughby
definitionanomenmaybeeithergoodorbad,perhapsbecauseoftheadjectiveominous,whichisalmost
alwaysusedofsomethingevilormenacing,anomenisoftenunfavorable.Aportentmaybeasignthat
somethingmomentous,ofgreatconsequence,isabouttohappen,orawarningofimpendingdisaster,asa
portentofthesubprimemortgagecrisisthatsenttheglobaleconomyintoatailspin. Like omen and
portent,harbingermaybeusedofcalamitoussigns,asaharbingerofdoom,butthewordmoreoftenhas
apositiveorneutralconnotation,asaharbingerofpeaceoraharbingerofchange.
Andnowforawordaboutusage.Here’safaultysentencefromtheLosAngelesTimesthattypifiesa
common misuse of harbinger: “It is too early to tell whether the upticks are a harbinger of things to
come.”What’swrongwiththat?
Ifyouguessedthatit’sredundant,you’reright.Writersoftentackthephrase“ofthingstocome”not
onlyafterharbingerbutsometimesalsoafterportentandomen.Allthreewordsdenoteasignofsome
futureevent,ofsomethingtocome,soaddingofthefutureorofthingstocomeafterthemisrepetitive
andsuperfluous.
Word39:CORPULENT(KORP-yuh-lint)
Havingalarge,bulkybody;fat,fleshy.
Corpulence,thestateofbeingcorpulent,fatness,isthenoun.
Synonymsofcorpulentincludeobese,stout,stocky,portly,pursy(PUR-see),shortofbreathbecause
offatness,androtund(roh-TUHND),roundandplump.
Antonymsofcorpulentincludethin,lean,slender,slim,svelte(SVELT,rhymeswithfelt),andlithe
(rhymeswithwrithe),whichareusuallycomplimentary,andthealwaysuncomplimentarywordsscrawny,
spindly,gaunt,haggard(HAG-urd),emaciated(i-MAY-shee-AY-tid),andcadaverous(kuh-DAV-ur-us),
whichmeanspertainingtoorresemblingacadaver(kuh-DAV-ur),adeadbody.
Corpulent comes from the Latin corpulentus, fat, stout, which in turn comes from corpus, body,
substance.ThisLatincorpusisalsoanEnglishwordmeaningeitherthedeadbodyofahumanbeingoran
animal, or a large collection of writings, the whole body of literature on a subject or by a particular
author. From the Latin corpus, body, substance, also come the English words corpse, a dead body;
corpuscle(KOR-puh-sul),afree-floatingcell,suchasaredorwhitebloodcell;corporeal(kor-POR-eeul), of or pertaining to the body; its antonym, incorporeal, lacking material substance or physical
existence,spiritual;theverbtoincorporate,literallytocombineintoonebody;andthephrasecorporal
(KOR-pur-ul)punishment,punishmentinflictedonthebody.
Whenourkeyword,corpulent,cameintoEnglishinabout1400itmeantsolid,dense,likeaphysical
or material body, but it soon came to be used to mean fat, having a large, bulky, fleshy body—its only
meaningtoday.Corpulentusuallyappliestopeoplewhoarenotonlyfatbutalsoponderous(word41of
Level2),largeandslow-moving,ashewasfartoocorpulenttodance.WilliamHowardTaft,the27th
presidentoftheUnitedStates,wascorpulentintheextreme,atonepointweighingabout340pounds.
Word40:AGGRIEVED(uh-GREEVD,rhymeswithrelieved)
Wronged,offended,injured,havingagrievance.
A grievance is a wrong, an offense, something that causes injury or distress and that is grounds for
resentment or complaint: “They submitted a long list of grievances regarding safety violations in the
workplace.” To be aggrieved is to have a grievance, to feel wronged or injured, to have a complaint
aboutanallegedoffense.
The verb to aggrieve, to bring grief, pain, or trouble to, to distress, and the participial adjective
aggrieved both entered English in the 14th century from the Latin aggravāre, to make heavier, make
worse,thesourcealsooftheverbtoaggravate,toworsen,makemoreseriousorsevere,astoaggravate
aninjury.
Atfirstaggrievedmeanttroubled,worried,distressed,astheaggrievedunemployedwhohavelost
hope of finding work. But by the mid-15th century aggrieved had taken on its more common modern
meaning:“upsetorresentfulathavingbeenunfairlytreated”(OED).Thewordmayapplytoanyonewho
feelswronged,offended,orinjuredinsomeway,astheaggrievedwifeofanadulteroushusbandoran
aggrievedformeremployeewhowentonarampage.Inacivillawsuit,bothparties—theplaintiff,the
person who brings the lawsuit, and the defendant, the person being sued—will insist that they are
aggrieved,wronged,injuriouslyaffected.
In a less common sense, aggrieved may also mean expressing grief, offense, or resentment, as an
aggrievedtoneofvoiceoranaggrievedoutpouringofangryletters.
ReviewQuizforKeywords31–40
In each statement below, a keyword (in italics) is followed by three definitions. Two of the three are
correct;oneisunrelatedinmeaning.Decidewhichonedoesn’tfitthekeyword.Answersappearhere.
1.Sacrosanctmeansverysecret,verysacred,veryholy.
2.Indomitablemeansunmanageable,unconquerable,unyielding.
3.Mettleisaperson’stemperament,aperson’sdisposition,aperson’scircumstances.
4.Anellipsisisanomission,amistake,somethingleftout.
5.Petulantmeansshowingsuddenirritationoranger,impatientovertrivialthings,desperateforloveandattention.
6.Todeignistodosomethingbeneathone’sdignity,dosomethingunthinkingly,grantreluctantly.
7.Toberateistojudgeunfairly,scoldharshly,criticizesharply.
8.Aharbingerisanindication,sign,answer.
9.Corpulentmeansfleshy,frumpy,fat.
10.Aggrievedmeansoffended,wronged,unsatisfied.
TheStyleFile:SevenDeadlySinsofUsage
“Hey, Mr. Language Dude, so you think you’re so great?” some dude once asked me. “Don’t you ever
makeamistake?”
Whenyou’vebeenalanguagemavenaslongasIhave,yougetallkindsofquestions,andImeanall.
Withmytonguefirmlyinmycheek,Isenthimthisreply:“Irregardlessofwhatsomethink,whenitcomes
to usage, nobody’s perfect. But some people make more mistakes and some make less. And I’m one of
thosepeoplewhorarelymakesmistakes.Iseenoreasontofeelbadlyaboutit.Icanwriteprettygood.
Youwon’tcatchmelayingdownonthejob.Anddon’taskmetorepeatthatagain.”
Perhaps you noticed that in those seven sentences I commited seven deadly sins of usage
(intentionally,ofcourse).Didyoucatchthemall?Youcanfindthesesevenerrorsinprintandhearpeople
utterthemeveryday,butanyonewhoaspirestobeacarefulwriterandspeakershouldscrupulouslyavoid
them.
First,thewordirregardless,whichisprobablyadialectalblendofirrespectiveandregardless, has
long been ridiculed by usage commentators, and even the most permissive dictionaries label it
“nonstandard,”whichisanamby-pambywayofsayingthatmanypeoplewillthinklessofyouforusing
it.Irregardlessisadoublenegative,likedon’tnever,andifyoudon’tneverwanttobecriticizedforyour
diction,useregardless,theproperword,instead.
InthesecondsentenceIusedlesswhenIshouldhaveusedfewer.Lessappliestoquantities:lesstime,
less sugar, less money. Fewer applies to things that can be counted or itemized: fewer minutes, fewer
dollars,fewermistakes.Theclassicboo-booisthesignfortheexpresslaneatthesupermarket:15Items
orLess.Makethatfewerbecauseitemscanbeitemized.It’slessfoodbutfewergroceries.
Inthethirdsentencetheerrorismoresubtle.Whenoneoftheisfollowedbyapluralnounandwhoor
that, you should follow with a plural, not a singular, verb. Thus, one of the people (plural noun) who
rarely makes (singular verb) mistakes should be one of the people who rarely make (plural verb)
mistakes. Turn the sentence around and you’ll see the logic of its grammar: Of the people who rarely
makemistakes,Iamone.
Inthefourthsentencefeelbadlyshouldhavebeenfeelbad.Herewearenottalkingabouthowyou
performtheactoffeelingbutabouthowyoufeel;that’swhyMariainWestSideStorysingsIfeelpretty
and not I feel prettily. Linking verbs such as feel, look, smell, taste, seem, and be properly connect a
subject with an adjective, not an adverb. That’s why you (the subject) feel (the linking verb) bad (the
adjective), and why something (the subject) looks, smells, tastes, seems, or is (the linking verbs) bad
(theadjective),notbadly(theadverb).
The fifth sentence, I can write pretty good, should be I can write pretty well. Here good is the
adjective(asinIfeelgood)whilewellistheadverb,whichtellsushowweperformtheactionofthe
verb:Iwritewell.
Theprobleminthesixthsentenceisthemisuseoflayingforlying.Nodoubtyou’veheardeducated
peoplesayI’mgoingtolaydowninsteadofliedown,andtelltheirdogstolaydowninsteadofliedown.
Perhapsyouevensayitthatwayyourself.Butdespitethefrequencyofthisusageitisnotstandard,and
authoritiescontinuallyadmonishustodistinguishproperlybetweentheverbstolay,whichmeanstoput
orplace,andtolie,whichmeanstoreclineorcometorest.Thus,youlaysomethingdown,putitdown,
butwhenyoutakeanapyouliedown,recline.
Finally,intheseventhsentenceIusedthecommonredundancyrepeatthatagain.Whyisthatphrase
redundant?Becauserepeatalreadymeanstosayagain.Thisbitofwordinessalsooftenoccurswithother
verbsbeginningwithre-suchasrewrite,replay,andremarry,inwhichre-meansagain.Thus,youdon’t
remarryagain;youeitherremarryormarryagain.
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabularyforthelasttenkeywordsinLevel4:
Word41:POLYGLOT(PAHL-ee-glaht)
Abletospeakandwritevariouslanguages,multilingual.
Lessoften,polyglotmeansspokenorwritteninmultiplelanguages,asapolyglotBibleoranimpressive
displayofpolyglotswearing.Polyglotisalsoanounmeaningamultilingualperson,onewhospeaksand
writesseverallanguages.
PolyglotcomesfromLatinandGreekwordsthatmeantmany-tongued.Itisablendoftwocombining
forms:poly-,much,many,several,and-glot,language.Thecombiningformpoly- appears in dozens of
Englishwordsbothcommonandobscure.Forexample,polygamy(puh-LIG-uh-mee)ismarriagetomore
thanonepersonatonetime,andtheunusualverbtopolylogize(puh-LIL-uh-jyz)meanstotalktoomuch:
“She came to resent her polylogizing coworkers, whose constant chirping and cackling distracted her.”
LaterinWordWorkoutyouwillalsomeetpolymath(word24ofLevel9),apersonwhoknowsagreat
dealaboutmanysubjects.
Ourkeyword,polyglot,meansabletospeakandwriteseverallanguages.Apersoncanbepolyglot,
multilingual, and sometimes a thing can be described as polyglot. For example, the celebrated 20thcentury novelist Vladimir Nabokov,7 who was born in Russia, grew up in a polyglot home speaking
Russian,French,andEnglish.AndNewYorkCityisapolyglotcity,whereonanygivendayyoucanhear
manydifferentlanguagesfromallovertheworld.
Word42:COMPORT(kum-PORT)
Tobearorconductoneself,behave,actinacertainway.
TheverbtocomportcomesfromtheLatincomportāre,tocarrytogether,fromcom-,with,andportāre,to
carry,thesourcealsooftheEnglishwordsimport;export;deport;report,literallytocarryback,bring
back; portable, literally able to be carried; and portfolio, a portable case for carrying loose papers,
drawings,andthelike.
Tocomportisalwaysfollowedbyareflexivepronoun,meaningonewith-selfor-selvesattheend,
such as herself, myself, or themselves, and it suggests behavior that conforms to what is expected,
required, or considered proper. In other words, you would comport yourself differently at a fancy
restaurant or in church than at a bar or a ball game. Experienced trial lawyers know how to comport
themselves in front of a judge and jury. Professional chefs know how to comport themselves in a busy
kitchen.Andifyouwanttobeanactoryoumustlearnhowtocomportyourselfonstage.
Comportment,one’sbehavior,conduct,orbearing,isthecorrespondingnoun.Demeanor (di-MEEnur) is a close synonym of comportment, but comportment is used of conduct that is appropriate and
expected, while demeanor is used of conduct that expresses one’s feeling or attitude toward others:
“Nancywasarticulateandcomposedduringtheinterview,andthesearchcommitteewasimpressedwith
hercomportment.TheywerenotimpressedwithBetsy,herchiefrivalforthejob,whosedemeanorthey
thoughtwassmug.”
Tocomportmayalsomeantobeinagreementoraccord,conform,andinthissenseitisfollowedby
with,asastatelawthatcomportswithfederallaworstatementsthatdonotcomportwiththetruth.
Word43:REVILE(ri-VYL)
Tosubjecttoverbalabuse;toattackwithangry,contemptuous,insultingwords.
Theverbtorevilecombinestheprefixre-,whichinthiscasemeansagainandagain,andtheLatinvīlis,
of little worth, cheap, base, the source of the verb to vilify, to speak ill of, belittle, defame, slander, a
synonymofrevile.Othersynonymsofrevileincludedisparage,denigrate,reprove(word35ofLevel3),
malign(word41ofLevel3),berate(word37ofLevel4),reproach,upbraid,traduce(truh-D[Y]OOS),
vituperate(vy-T[Y]OO-pur-AYT),castigate,andexecrate(EKS-uh-KRAYT).
Totraduce,castigate,execrate,vituperate,andrevilearetheharshestofthisfamilyofwords.All
implyverbalabuse.Totraduceistoslanderordefameviciouslyandfalsely:“Politicalcampaignstend
tofocusontraducingtheopposition.”Tocastigate,whichcomesfromtheLatincastigāre,topunishwith
words or blows, means to beat up verbally, criticize severely, especially to subject to harsh public
criticism:“TalkradioshowhostslikeRushLimbaughmaketheirlivingcastigatingthosewithwhomthey
disagree.”Toexecrate,whichbyderivationmeanstoputacurseupon,suggestsvehementdenunciation
promptedbyintenseloathing:“Therewillalwaysbealoudfactiondevotedtoexecratingthepresident,
regardless of who occupies the White House.” To vituperate, from the Latin vitium, a fault, defect,
blemish—thesourcealsooftheEnglishverbtovitiate(VISH-ee-ayt),tocorrupt,contaminate—meansto
findfaultwithinviolent,abusivelanguage,torant(word9ofLevel1)orrailat:“WhenRepublicansand
Democratsspendalltheirtimevituperatingeachother,cooperationandcompromiseareimpossible.”
Ourkeyword,torevile,suggestsverbalabusepromptedbyhatredorcontempt.Whenyourevile,you
attacksomeoneorsomethingyoudislikewithangry,insultingwords:“TheSyriantyrantBasharal-Assad
wasreviledforhiscrimesagainsthispeople.”
Word44:PERS PICACIOUS (PUR-spi-KAY-shus)
Havingapowerfulandpenetratingmind,quicktoseeandunderstand.
Synonyms of the adjective perspicacious include keen, insightful, discerning, astute, perceptive,
shrewd,andsagacious(suh-GAY-shus).Thenounisperspicacity(PUR-spi-KAS-i-tee),powerfulmental
perception, penetrating insight, keen understanding: “Great leaders must have not only a vision for the
futurebutalsotheperspicacitytorealizeit.”
Perspicacious comes through the Latin perspĭcax, sharp-sighted, from perspĭcere, to see through,
investigate,perceive,discern.WhenthewordenteredEnglishintheearly1600sitwasusedliterallyof
the eyes and the faculty of sight to mean keen, sharp. But it was soon used of people to mean highly
perceptiveordiscerning,havingacuteorpenetratingmentalvision.Thisisthemeaningofperspicacious
inmodernusage,andtheliteralsense,keen-eyed,isnowarchaic.Todaywespeakoftheperspicacious
teacherwhocandiscerneachchild’sneeds,theperspicaciousreporterwhoaskspenetratingquestions,
theperspicaciouscoachwhoknowsjustwhattosaytomotivatetheteam,andtheperspicacioushumorist
whoacutelyseestheflawsandfolliesofhumannature.
Thewordsperspicuous(pur-SPIK-yoo-us)andperspicaciouslookandsoundsimilar,andbothcome
ultimatelyfromtheLatinperspĭcere,toseethrough.Butdespitethiskinshiptheyaresharplydistinguished
inmeaning.Perspicuousreferstothatwhichislucidorclearlyexpressed:aperspicuousprosestyleis
plain and clear; a perspicuous poem is easily understood. Perspicacious, on the other hand, refers to
exceptionalclarityofmind,keenmentalperception,theabilitytoseeandunderstandthingsclearly:“The
reportshowedaperspicaciousgraspofthefactsandthecomplexitiesoftheproblem.”
Word45:TRIUMVIRATE(try-UHM-vur-it,notTRY-um-VY-rit)
Agrouporsetofthree,atrio.
The word triumvir (try-UHM-vur) comes from the Latin trium virōrum, of three men, from trēs, three,
and vir, a man. In ancient Rome a triumvir was one of three officers or magistrates who, acting as a
commission, fulfilled various public duties, from basic things such as guarding against fires at night to
seriousmatterssuchasoverseeingtheexecutionofthecondemned.
Triumvirate has traditionally applied to a group of three people wielding power, as when Henry
Adams, in 1879, wrote that “Jefferson, Madison, and Gallatin were a triumvirate which governed the
country during eight years,” or to any three people of distinction or influence, as “Byron, Shelley, and
KeatsarethetriumvirateofRomanticpoetry.”Butthewordhasincreasinglybeenappliedtoasetofthree
things related in some way, a trio. For instance, the Axis—the alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan in
World War II—was a triumvirate. And when Yahoo, AOL, and YouTube worked together in 2012 to
encouragesocialmediainteractionduringthepresidentialdebates,SteveFriessofpolitico.comcalledit
“anunlikelytriumvirate.”
Word46:AUGURY(AWG-yur-ee)
Anomen,indication,portent;asignofsomethinginthefuture.
InancientRome,anaugur(AW-gur)wasakindofsoothsayerorprophet,specificallyareligiousofficial
charged with interpreting omens and making predictions. (Take care not to confuse this augur with an
auger, a tool for boring.) The Roman augur would observe various natural signs—for example, the
movements or cries of birds, the entrails of a sacrificed animal, or the position of the stars—and tell
whethertheyindicatedafavorableorunfavorablefutureevent.
The noun augury comes from the Latin augurium, which meant either the work of an augur or the
observationandinterpretationofomens.WhenitenteredEnglishinthe14thcentury,augurymeantskill
in making prophecies or the practice of foretelling events, also called divination. This sense is still in
goodstandingtoday.Bytheearly17thcenturyauguryhadalsocometomeanthatfromwhichaprediction
isdrawn,anomen,sign,indication,harbinger(word38ofLevel4).Anaugurymaybeunfavorable,as
“Wheninterestratesclimbitisoftenanauguryofinflation.”Oritmaybefavorable,as“Thedoveisan
auguryofpeace,”or“Thefilm’sawardsatthefestivalmaybeanauguryofsuccessattheOscars.”
Writers sometimes use augury in phrases like an augury of things to come or an augury of the
future.Theseareredundantconstructionsthatshouldbeavoidedbecauseauguryalreadymeansasignof
somethingtocome,anindicationofthefuture.
Word47:PALLID(PAL-id,rhymeswithvalid)
Lackingcolororliveliness.
PallidcomesfromtheLatinpallidus,pale,colorless,whichcomesinturnfromtheverbpallēre, to be
pale,especiallywithfearoranxiety.Becauseofthisetymology,sinceitsfirstdocumentedusein1590
pallidhasoftenimpliedpalenessfromillnessorstrongemotion.Skin,faces,cheeks,andlipsareoften
describedaspallid,pale,ashywhite,especiallywhentheybelongtoapersonwhoissick,inshock,or
dead.Butpallidmayalsoapplytoanythingwithfaintcoloring,asapallidbookwormwhosecomplexion
hadneverseenthesun.In“TheEveofSt.Agnes,”JohnKeatsusedpallidofthelightofthemoon:“Out
wentthetaperasshehurriedin;/Itslittlesmoke,inpallidmoonshine,died.”Andin“TheRaven,”Edgar
AllanPoeusedpallidtodescribethemilkywhitecolorofamarblestatue:“thepallidbustofPallasjust
abovemychamberdoor.”
Initsextendedfigurativeuse,whichalsodatesbacktothelate1500s,pallidmeanslackingliveliness
or vitality. Something may be pallid, lacking in liveliness, because it is weak or feeble, as a pallid
responseorapallideconomicrecovery.Orsomethingmaybepallidbecauseitlacksenergyorinterest,
andisthereforedull,uninteresting,asanovelwithapallidplotorapallidremakeofaclassicfilm.
Synonymsoftheadjectivepallid meaning lacking color, pale, include wan (WAHN), sallow (SALoh), ashen, and haggard (HAG-urd). Synonyms of pallid meaning lacking liveliness include lifeless,
cheerless, drab, tedious, tiresome, humdrum, and vapid (VAP-id). The corresponding noun is pallor
(PAL-ur),extremepaleness,asfromillnessordeath,asthepallorofcontemporaryfashionmodels.
Takecarenottoconfusepallor,paleness,withthewordpall(pronouncedlikethenamePaul).Apall
is something that covers or overspreads with darkness or gloom, as the thick pall of smoke from the
chimneys,orafeelingofgloom,ashisominouspresencecastapallovertheroom.
Word48:INDOLENT(IN-duh-lint)
Lazy,idle,inactive;avoidingwork,activity,oreffort.
Thenounisindolence,astateoflazyinactivityoraninclinationtobelazy:“Nightsofwildindulgence
anddaysofsleepyindolence—thatwasDustin’slifeuntilthemoneyranout.”
The adjective indolent and the noun indolence come from the Latin privative prefix in-, not, and
dolēre,tosufferpain,grieve.Byderivationindolentmeansnotsufferingpain,andwhenthewordentered
English in the late 17th century it was a medical term that meant causing little or no pain, inactive or
benign,asanindolenttumororanindolentulcer.Thismedicaluseisstillingoodstanding,butbythe
early18thcenturyindolentwasalreadybeingusedofpeopletomeanlazy,idle,inclinedtoavoidwork
or activity, as in this 1774 citation from the letters of Horace Walpole, fourth Earl of Orford: “I am
naturallyindolent,andwithoutapplicationtoanykindofbusiness.”Morethantwoandahalfcenturies
laterindolentisstillusedinthisway.Wespeakofindolentadolescentswhosleeptillnoon,orindolent
slackers who shirk their duties at work. Indolent may also be used as a noun: “You don’t become a
billionaire, the plutocrat Malcolm Prendergast liked to say, by dispensing charity to the indolent.”
(Plutocratisword5ofthislevel.)
Synonymsofindolentincludesluggish,slothful,apathetic,spiritless,shiftless,listless(word39of
Level 2), lethargic, languid, phlegmatic (fleg-MAT-ik), otiose (OH-shee-ohs), faineant (FAY-nee-int),
whichcomesfromFrenchandmeansliterally“hedoesnothing,”andhebetudinous (HEB-uh-T(Y)OOdi-nus),whichcomesfromtheLatinhebēre,tobeblunt,dull,heavy,orinactive.
Antonyms of indolent include busy, industrious, diligent, assiduous (uh-SIJ-oo-us), and sedulous
(SEJ-uh-lus,word28ofLevel7).
Word49:UTILITARIAN(yoo-TIL-uh-TAIR-ee-in)
Practical,useful,functional;concernedwithorintendedforordinary,practicaluse.
The noun utility means practical usefulness, fitness for some practical purpose, as a prehistoric tool
whose utility has long puzzled archaeologists. A public utility provides a practical service to the
community, such as distributing water, electricity, or natural gas. A utility knife is a knife used for a
numberofpracticalpurposes.Andautilityroomisaroomforappliances,suchasawashingmachineor
waterheater,thatperformeveryday,practicalfunctions.
Utility,whichenteredEnglishinthe14thcentury,andutilitarian, which entered English in the late
18th century, both come from the Latin ūtĭlis, useful, fit, serviceable, beneficial, the source also of the
Englishverbtoutilize,tomakepracticalorprofitableuseof,andtheunusualadjectiveutile(YOO-til),a
fancysynonymofuseful.
Utilitarianism is the ethical doctrine, promulgated8 in the late 18th century chiefly by the English
philosopherJeremyBentham(BEN-thum,1748–1832),thatthegreatesthappinessofthegreatestnumber
shouldbetheprimeconsiderationofsocietyandtheaimofallpublicaction.Thisdoctrinenaturallyled
to the idea that the virtue or value of something must be judged by its utility, its ability to promote the
publicgoodoritspracticalusefulnesstoall.
The adjective utilitarian may mean pertaining or adhering to the doctrine of utilitarianism, as a
utilitarian law, one intended to promote the welfare of all citizens. But more often utilitarian means
havingutility,practicalusefulness,fitnessforausefulpurpose.Thatwhichisutilitarianvaluesfunction
overformandusefulnessoverbeauty.Autilitariancaroffersnofrillsoramenitiesandsimplygetsyou
whereyouneedtogo.Autilitarianbuildingisafunctionalbuilding,withnoornamentation.Autilitarian
dressispractical,notattractive.Andwhilemanywouldusethewordwildlifeforwildanimals,hunters
tendtotakeamoreutilitarianviewandcallthemgame.
Word50:S ALACIOUS (suh-LAY-shus,rhymeswithflirtatious)
Lustful,expressingsexualdesire;also,appealingtosexualdesire,indecentorobscene.
Synonymsofsalaciousincludesensual,lewd,lecherous,wanton,prurient(PRUUR-ee-int), lascivious,
libidinous (li-BID’n-us), debauched (the verb to debauch is word 30 of Level 5), dissolute (DIS-uhloot,word7ofLevel6),andconcupiscent(kahn-KYOO-pi-sint),whichcomesultimatelyfromtheLatin
cupĕre,todesire,longfor,thesourcealsoofthenameCupid,theancientRomangodoflove,typically
depicted as an infant boy with wings carrying a bow and arrows, and the English word cupidity,
excessivedesireorlusttopossesssomething,especiallywealth;hencegreed,avarice.
Antonymsofsalaciousincludemodest,prim,prudish,puritanical,straitlaced, and sanctimonious,
whichmeanscharacterizedbyhypocriticalself-righteousness,virtuousness,orreligiouspiety:“Viewers
were outraged when the popular televangelist was exposed as a sanctimonious humbug who had
committedfraud.”
Salacious comes from the Latin salax, lustful or exciting lust, which comes in turn from the verb
salīre,toleap,spring.Asalaciouslookorgestureislustful;itexpressessexualdesire.Salaciousimages
or salacious details excite lust and are therefore indecent or obscene. In the news these days we often
hearaboutapoliticianexchangingsalaciousemailortextmessageswithaparamour(PAR-uh-moor),an
illicitlover.
ReviewQuizforKeywords41–50
Inthisquizthereviewwordisfollowedbythreewordsorphrases,andyoumustdecidewhichcomes
nearestthemeaningofthereviewword.Answersappearhere.
1.Doespolyglotmeanextremelyhungry,abletospeakvariouslanguages,orproficientinmanysubjects?
2.Whenyoucomportyourself,doyoubehaveinacertainway,calmdown,ormovefromoneplacetoanother?
3.Ifyourevilesomething,doyoufinditdisgusting,abuseitverbally,oradoreit?
4.Areperspicaciouspeopleextremelycautious,verycurious,orveryinsightful?
5.Isatriumvirateagroupofthree,agroupoffour,oragroupoffive?
6.Isanauguryafavorableopportunity,anindication,oraninitiationceremony?
7.Ispallidwritinguninteresting,uncultured,orunreadable?
8.Areindolentpeoplelazy,stupid,oruncooperative?
9.Issomethingutilitarianold-fashioned,ideal,orpractical?
10.Isasalaciouslookhopeful,furious,orlustful?
TheStyleFile:ProperPlacementofOnly
In Sin and Syntax, her lively guide to effective style, Constance Hale reminds us that adverbs are
modifiers: “They need to cozy up to the word they modify.” Take the adverb only, for example. Most
writerstossthewordintoasentencewithlittleregardforhowitcansubtlyaffectmeaning.Butcareful
writersknowthatonlyshouldbeplacedascloseaspossibletothewordorphraseit’smeanttomodify.
LookathowmovingaroundtheadverbonlyinthesentenceShetoldmethatshethoughtaboutme
changesthemeaning:
Onlyshetoldmethatshethoughtaboutme.(Nooneelsehasmentionedit.)
Sheonlytoldmethatshethoughtaboutme.(Shedidn’twritemeorsayanythingelse.)
Shetoldonlymethatshethoughtaboutme.(Shedoesn’twantanyoneelsetoknow.)
Shetoldmeonlythatshethoughtaboutme.(Shedidn’tsayanythingelseaboutme.)
Shetoldmethatonlyshethoughtaboutme.(Nobodyelsethinksaboutme.)
Shetoldmethatsheonlythoughtaboutme.(Shedidn’ttakeanyotheraction.)
Shetoldmethatshethoughtonlyaboutme.(Iamthesoleobjectofherthoughts.)9
“Ingeneral,onlyoughttobeattachedtothewordorphraseitismodifyingandnotsetadrift,”says
Bryson’sDictionaryofTroublesomeWords.TheNewYorkTimesreporterwhowrotethat“insurgencies
can only be defeated when … communities and military forces work together” needed a thoughtful
copyeditortorepositiononlysothatitwouldbenexttowhatit’ssupposedtomodify:“insurgenciesthat
canbedefeatedonlywhen…communitiesandmilitaryforcesworktogether.”
Thenexttimeyou’reabouttotypethewordonly,considerhowitspositioninyoursentenceaffects
themeaning,andwhetherit’snexttowhatit’ssupposedtomodify.
AnswerstoReviewQuizzesforLevel4
KEYWORDS1–10
1.No.Somethinghackneyedlacksfreshnessandinterestorisordinaryanddullfromoveruse.
2.No.Iniquitymeanswickedness,grossinjustice,orawickedorgrosslyunjustact—andpettytheftisnotwickedorgrosslyunjust.
3.Yes.Whimsicalmeansoddlyfancifulorcomical,exhibitingodd,playful,ficklehumor.Thewordmayapplytothingsorpeople.
4.No.Ensconcemeanstheoppositeofexposingtoview:toshelter,cover,orhidesecurely;also,tosettleorfixcomfortablyandsecurely.
5.No.Aplutocratisawealthyandpowerfulperson.
6.No.Whimsicalimpliesplayfulnessandoddhumor.Beatificmeanshaving,showing,orimpartingsupremehappinessorbliss.
7.No.Ifyouareunfetteredbydebtyouarefreeofit.Unfetteredmeansunrestrained,unrestricted,withoutrestraintorcontrol.
8.No.Estrangemeanstomakeunfriendlyorhostile,todistanceorpushaway.
9.Yes.Sibilantmeanshissingormakingthewhistlingsoundofs.
10.Yes.Apunditisanexpert,critic,orcommentatorwhoisfrequentlycalledontoexpressopinionstothepublic.
KEYWORDS11–20
1.True.Somethingredolentisstrong-smellingorreminiscentofsomethingelse.
2.True.Aplutocratisawealthyandpowerfulperson,andthere’snothingtostopsomeonelikethatfrombeingademagogue,arabblerouser.
3.False.Amaudlinpersonistearfullysentimentalorfoolishlyemotional,especiallyfromdrunkenness.
4.True.Whenyoubegrudge,youenvyorresentsomeoneelse’sgoodfortune,pleasure,orpossessionofsomething,oryouareunwillingto
giveorallowsomethingbecauseofenvyorresentment.
5.False.Adisavowalisarefusaltoacceptoracknowledge.Anavowalisanopendeclaration;afrankacknowledgment,admission,or
affirmation.
6.True.Whenyouproselytizeyouattempttoconvertothersfromonereligion,party,cause,oropiniontoanother.
7.False.Aguilelesspersonishonestandinnocent,openandsincere.
8.True.Unconscionablebehaviorisnotguidedorrestrainedbyconscience.
9.False.Whenyouconflateyoubringtogethertwoormoreseparateordifferentthingstoformoneunifiedthing.
10.False.Animusisadeep-seateddislikeorfeelingofillwill.
KEYWORDS21–30
1.Synonyms.Aswathisalongstrip,belt,orarea.
2.Synonyms.Aconflagrationisagreat,destructivefire;adisastrousblaze.
3.Antonyms.Mundane,fromtheLatinmundus,world,meansoftheworld,earthly,materialasdistinguishedfromspiritual.Rarefiedmeans
highlyrefined,elevated,lofty,orbelongingonlytoasmall,selectgroup,esoteric.
4.Antonyms.Aplutocratisapersonofgreatwealthandpower.Amendicantisabeggar.
5.Synonyms.Torecompenseistorewardorrepayforsomethingdoneorgiven;also,torepayorcompensateforaloss,damage,orinjury.
6.Synonyms.Toinundateistooverflow,overwhelm,flood.
7.Antonyms.Toaggrandizeistoincreasethepower,influence,wealth,orstatusof.
8.Antonyms.Outrémeansbeyondtheboundsofwhatisconsideredusual,normal,orproper;hence,untraditional.
9.Antonyms.Quintessentialmeansbeingtheperfect,mostrefined,ormosttypicalexampleorinstanceofsomething.
10.Synonyms.Topanderistocatertoorindulgethevulgartastesanddesiresofothersortoexploittheirpassions,prejudices,or
weaknesses.
KEYWORDS31–40
1.Verysecretdoesn’tfit.Sacrosanctmeansverysacredorholy.
2.Unmanageabledoesn’tfit.Indomitablemeansunconquerable,unyielding.
3.Aperson’scircumstancesdoesn’tfit.Mettleisaperson’sdispositionortemperament,orstrengthofspiritorcharacter.
4.Amistakedoesn’tfit.Anellipsisisanomission,somethingleftout.
5.Desperateforloveandattentiondoesn’tfit.Petulantmeansshowingsuddenirritationoranger,impatientovertrivialthings.
6.Dosomethingunthinkinglydoesn’tfit.Todeignistodosomethingbeneathone’sdignityortograntreluctantly.
7.Judgeunfairlydoesn’tfit.Toberateistoscoldorcriticizeharshly.
8.Answerdoesn’tfit.Aharbingerisasignorindicationofsomethingtocome.
9.Frumpy,drabandunattractive,doesn’tfit.Corpulentmeansfleshy,fat.
10.Unsatisfieddoesn’tfit.Aggrievedmeanswronged,offended,injured.
KEYWORDS41–50
1.Polyglotmeansabletospeakvariouslanguages,multilingual.
2.Whenyoucomportyourself,youbehaveinacertainway,especiallyinawaythatisappropriate,expected,orrequired.
3.Whenyourevilesomethingyouabuseitverbally,attackitwithangrywords.
4.Perspicaciouspeopleareveryinsightful,quicktoseeandunderstand.
5.Atriumvirateisagroupofthree,atrio.
6.Anauguryisanindication,omen,signofsomethinginthefuture.
7.Pallidwritingisuninteresting,dull.Pallidmeanseitherpale,lackingcolor,orlackinglivelinessorvitality.
8.Indolentpeoplearelazyandtendtoavoidwork,activity,oreffort.
9.Somethingutilitarianispractical,useful,functional.
10.Asalaciouslookislustful.Salaciousmeansexpressingorappealingtosexualdesire.
LEVEL5
Word1:BEREFT(bi-REFT)
Forciblydeprived,dispossessed,orrobbed;deprivedofsomethingneeded,wanted,orexpected.Also,grieving,bereaved,deprivedofaloved
one.
Theverbtobereave(bi-REEV)maymeantorob,dispossess,depriveofsomething,ortobedeprivedof
alovedonebydeath.Bereavedandbereftarebothpasttensesandpastparticiplesofbereave, and the
two forms are distinguished in careful usage. Bereaved means deprived of a loved one by death: “The
bereavedfamilyoccupiedthefrontpewatthememorialservice.”Bereftmeansdeprived,oftenforcibly,
ofsomethingimmaterial,suchasapossession,aquality,oranemotion,asahousebereftofjoy,awoman
bereftofheryouthfulbeauty,orspendingcutsthatlefttheprogrambereftoffinancialsupport.
“Tobebereftofsomethingisnottolackitbuttobedispossessedofit,”notesBryson’sDictionaryof
TroublesomeWords,whichcitesthefollowingsentenceasanexampleofthecommonbutcarelessuseof
berefttomeanlacking:“Manychildrenleaveschoolaltogetherbereftofmathematicalskills.”Werethose
children stripped of their math skills before graduation? Unless their teachers somehow managed to
unteachthem,theymerelylackmathskills;theycannotbedeprivedofskillstheyneverpossessed.
Thephrasebereftofideasisalsocommonlymisusedtomeanlackingideasorbarrenofideasrather
thandeprivedofideas.
Whenyou’rebereftyouhavelostorbeendeprivedofsomethingyouwant,need,orexpect.“Madam,
youhavebereftmeofallwords,”writesShakespeareinTheMerchantofVenice.Ifyouareinahopeless
situation,you’rebereftofhope.Ifyou’reasmokerwho’sjustsmokedthelastcigaretteinthepack,you’re
bereftofcigarettes.Andwhenpeoplelosetheircomposureanddocrazythings,wesaythey’rebereftof
theirsenses.
Word2:NEMES IS (NEM-i-sis)
Apersonorthingthatmetesoutvengeanceorpunishment,thatbringsaboutsomeone’sdownfall,orthatcannotbeovercome;an
unconquerableavenger.
NemesiscomesfromthenameNemesis,theancientGreekgoddessofretribution (RE-tri-BYOO-shin),
repayment in return for a wrong, vengeance. In Greek mythology, explains The Century Dictionary,
Nemesis was “a goddess personifying allotment, or the divine distribution to every man of his precise
shareoffortune,goodandbad.Itwasherespecialfunctiontoseethattheproperproportionofindividual
prosperitywaspreserved,andthatanyonewhobecametooprosperousorwastoomuchupliftedbyhis
prosperity should be reduced or punished; she thus came to be regarded as the goddess of divine
retribution.”
Traditionally,anemesisisanagentofretribution,anunconquerableavenger,asinthissentencefrom
1870: “Scientific skepticism … is the Nemesis which will crush institutionalized religion into
nothingness.”InhisusageguideRight,Wrong,andRisky,MarkDavidsoncitesa1997NewYorkTimes
headline that “identified Mississippi Attorney General Michael C. Moore as a ‘Tobacco Industry
Nemesis’ for filing ‘the first lawsuit by a state against the nation’s cigarette manufacturers … [and
leading]across-countrycrusadethathasrallied21otherstatestothecause.’”
In contemporary usage this traditional meaning has been watered down, and the word is now
frequentlyusedasafancier-soundingsynonymofrival,opponent,orenemy,ofteninthehackneyed(word
1ofLevel4)phraseoldnemesisorcombinedwitharch-toformapretentioussubstituteforarchenemy
orarchrival.Herearetwoexamplesofthisdilutedusage:“TheMetsroseuptobattertheiroldnemesis,
theBraves,9–4”(Star-Ledger,NewJersey);“Hisarch-nemesisistheevilLexLuthor,whodiminishes
Superman’spowerwithKryptonite”(DavidMansour,FromAbbatoZoom,2005).
Citationsliketheseperturb(word25ofLevel6)manyusageexperts.“Anemesis,”cautionsBryson’s
DictionaryofTroublesomeWords,“isnotmerelyarivalortraditionaladversary…butonewhoexacts
retributivejusticeorisutterlyunvanquishable.”Carefulwritersandspeakersavoidusingnemesisforany
oldrivalorenemyandreservethewordforapersonorthingthatmetesoutretributivejusticeorthatis
impossibletoovercome.
Word3:EQUIVOCATE(i-KWIV-uh-kayt)
Touseevasiveorambiguouslanguagesoastoavoidcommitmentortowillfullymislead.
The verb to equivocate entered English in 1590, formed from the past participle of the Middle Latin
aequivocāre, to call by the same name, from aequus, equal, and vocāre, to call, the source also of the
Englishevoke,tocallforth,andvocation,acallingtosomeoccupationorcourseofaction.
Inhislandmarkdictionaryof1755,SamuelJohnsondefinedequivocateas“tousewordsofdouble
meaning; to use ambiguous expressions; to mean one thing and express another.” This is still the core
senseofthewordtoday.Whenyouequivocateyouexpressyourselfinasubtleandevasivemanner,using
ambiguous words and double meanings so as to mislead. In short, you say one thing but mean another.
“The witness shuffled, equivocated, [and] pretended to misunderstand the questions,” wrote Thomas
BabingtonMacaulayinhiscelebratedHistoryofEngland(1849–61).
Synonyms of the verb to equivocate include to dodge, shuffle, quibble, dissemble (di-SEM-bul),
prevaricate(pri-VAR-i-kayt),palter(PAWL-tur),andtergiversate(TUR-ji-vur-sayt).Ofthesewords,to
dissemble means specifically to disguise or cover up the facts, or to conceal one’s true feelings or
motives;toprevaricateistoevadethetruth,sometimeswithanoutrightlie;topalteristotriflewiththe
truthbyexpressingoneselfinsincerelyordeceitfully;andtotergiversateistouseevasivelanguagesoas
toavoidtakingafirmstand.Thewell-wornexpressionstomincewordsandtobeataroundthebushare
alsocloseinmeaningtoourkeyword,toequivocate.
The noun is equivocation, an evasive or ambiguous statement. The adjective is equivocal,
deliberately vague, evasive, or ambiguous, as an equivocal answer. Its antonym, unequivocal (un-iKWIV-uh-kul),meansstraightforward,clearanddirect:“Theyvoicedtheirunequivocalsupport.”
Word4:PHILIS TINE(FIL-i-steen)
Anarrow-mindedpersonwithordinarytasteswhohasnointerestintheartsorlearning;anuneducatedandunculturedperson.
Intheancientworldofthe12thand11thcenturies B.C.,Philistia(fi-LIS-tee-uh)wasacountryontheeast
coast of the Mediterranean Sea between Egypt and Syria whose inhabitants, the Philistines, were
continually engaged in territorial warfare with the ancient Israelites. “In the Bible the great Hebrew
antagonistsofthePhilistinesareSamson,Saul,andDavid,”saystheColumbiaEncyclopedia.Saulwas
the “first king of the ancient Hebrews,” whose “proximity to the Philistines brought him into constant
conflictwiththem”;SamsonwasdeliveredintothehandsofthePhilistinesbythetreacherousDelilah,
whocutoffthehairthatgaveSamsonhisgreatstrength;andyoungDavidslewtheformidable(FOR-miduh-buul)PhilistinegiantGoliathwithaslingshot.
From this wartorn ancient history philistine came to be used, often humorously, of any enemy or
persecutor,orofadebauchedordrunkenperson.(Theverbtodebauchisword30ofthislevel.)Butby
the early 1800s the word had acquired its modern and dominant meaning: an uneducated, materialistic
personwhoissmuglyindifferenttoartandculture.
Inmodernusage,aphilistineistheoppositeofaconnoisseur(KAHN-uh-SUR,likeconasir,notcon
a sewer). While the connoisseur has expert knowledge and subtle appreciation of some art form or
aestheticpursuit,thephilistineisuneducatedandunculturedanddoesn’tcareawhit.Fineart,literature,
classicalmusic,andgourmetcooking—oftencalledhautecuisine(OHT-kwi-ZEEN)—arealllostonthe
philistine,whosetastesareordinaryandwhosesensibilityisunrefined.
Word5:BACCHANALIAN(BAK-uh-NAY-lee-in)
Characterizedby,orgivento,drunkenrevelry;frenzied,riotous,ororgiastic.
Bacchanalianisaneponymousword—onederivedfromaname—becausenestledwithinitisthename
Bacchus(BAK-us,notBAH-kus),theancientRomangodofwineandecstasy,calledDionysus(DY-uhNY-sis)bytheancientGreeks.BecauseBacchus,orDionysus,“apparentlyrepresentedthesap,juice,or
lifeblood element in nature, lavish festal orgies in his honor were widely instituted,” says MerriamWebster’s Encyclopedia of Literature. (Festal, pronounced FES-tul, means pertaining to or befitting a
feastorfestival.)Ariotous,drunkencelebrationofBacchuswascalledabacchanal(BAK-uh-NAL,like
backcanal),awordoftenusedtodayofanywild,drunkenparty.Thesebacchanalia(BAK-uh-NAY-leeuh),drunkencelebrations,wereattendedbycarousersknownasbacchants(BAK-ints),awordstillused
todayofdrunkenrevelers.1
BacchanalianoriginallyreferredtotheorgiasticRomanfestivalofBacchus,butthewordwassoon
appliedtoanyriotous,drunkenrevelryorwildcarousing.ThepeculiarAmericanritualknownasspring
break, in which cartloads of college students travel to the beach for a week of unrestrained revelry
involvingcopiousamountsofboozeandbareskin,isdecidedlybacchanalian.
Word6:S CHIS M(SIZ’m;commonlybutimproperly,SKIZ’m)2
Adivision,split,orbreak;specifically,disunion,adivisionorseparationintoopposingfactionsofagroupthatpreviouslyactedtogetherasone.
Schism comes through Middle English, French, and Late Latin from the Greek schisma, a rent, cleft,
division.ThisGreekschismacomesinturnfromtheverbschizein,tosplitorrend,whichisrelatedto
theEnglishverbtoshed.
Originallyaschismwasaformaldivisionorbreachofunityinachurchorreligiousbody.Thissense
ofthewordisstillingoodusetoday.Laterschismwasappliedtoanysect,party,orgroupformedbya
schism, a division or split, as in this 1647 quotation from the English historian James Howell: “Hence
comesitthattheearthisrentintosomanyreligions,andthosereligionstornintosomanyschismes,and
variousformesofdevotion.”Finally,sincethe15thcenturyschismhasalsobeenusedgenerallyofany
splitordivisionresultingfromdiscordanddisunitywithinagroup,asaschisminthecitycouncil, or
anyseveranceofunitybetweenpeopleorthings,astheschismintheAmericanelectoratebetweenblue
statesandredstatesoraschismofthemindandheart.
The adjective is schismatic (siz-MAT-ik), of or pertaining to a schism, and the verb is schismatize
(SIZ-muh-tyz),tocauseaschismin.
Word7:LINGUAFRANCA(LING-gwuhFRANK-uh)
Acommonlanguage;amediumofcommunicationbetweenpeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguages.
Thepluralispreferablylinguafrancas(FRANK-uhz).
Lingua franca comes to English directly from Italian, where it means literally “Frankish tongue.”
(Frankish, a synonym of French, in this case means pertaining to the nations of Europe or the West.)
Originally,lingua franca was a mixture of languages—consisting mostly of Italian with bits of French,
Spanish, Greek, Arabic, and Turkish—used by sailors and merchants in Mediterranean ports. The term
soon broadened to designate any language, mixed or not, that serves as a means of communication for
people who speak different languages. For example, for a long time Latin was the lingua franca of the
Roman Catholic Church, and although Hindi is not the native language of most Indians, it is the lingua
francaofIndia.
Today lingua franca is most often used either to denote a common language used by people who
speak different languages or, figuratively, to denote something that functions like a common language:
“Discontentwithhighpricesisthelinguafrancaofshopperseverywhere”(SydneyMorningHerald).
In the 20th century English displaced French as the lingua franca of diplomacy. It is also the lingua
francaofinternationalaviation.AndbecauseEnglishisnowspoken,withatleastsomedegreeoffluency,
byperhapsmorethantwobillionpeoplearoundtheworld,ithasbecomethelinguafrancaoftheglobal
marketplace,oftheInternet,andofpopularcultureworldwide—partlybecauseofitsinsatiableappetite
forforeignwordsandphraseslikelinguafranca.
Word8:WINS OME(WIN-sum)
Charming,agreeable,andpleasantinappearanceormanner.
Synonyms of winsome include winning, captivating, engaging, enchanting, prepossessing—which
meanscreatingafavorableimpression,asawell-spoken,prepossessingjobcandidate—and beguiling,
which may mean deceptive, misleading, as beguiling words, or charming, alluring, delightful, as a
beguilingmelody.
Winsome,whichcomesfromanOldEnglishwordthatmeantjoy,alwaysimpliessweetandsincere
charm as opposed to the stiff, insincere charm people manufacture to be polite or make a good
impression.Pleasantandfriendlyyoungpeople,orpleasantandfriendlyolderfolkswhoseemyoungat
heart,areoftencalledwinsome,foracertainchildlikeinnocenceandlightheartednessarequalitiesoften
impliedbywinsome.
Almostanythingsweetlycharmingandagreeableinappearanceormannercanbecalledwinsome.A
face,alaugh,avoice,asmile,apieceofmusic,apainting,anovel,apoem,aballerina,oranattractive
andagreeableperson(usuallyayoungwoman)canallbewinsome.
Word9:PATRICIAN(puh-TRISH-in)
Aristocratic;ofhighbirthorsocialstanding;upper-class.
Synonyms of patrician include noble, royal, blue-blooded, and silk-stocking—as a silk-stocking
district, an area where you will find wealthy people engaged in fashionable pursuits. Antonyms of
patricianincludeplebeian(ple-BEE-in,word20ofthislevel);proletarian(PROH-luh-TAIR-ee-in),of
or pertaining to the proletariat (PROH-luh-TAIR-ee-it), the working class; and bourgeois (boor-
ZHWAH),pertainingtoorcharacteristicofthemiddleclass,especiallythemediocrityandmaterialistic
aspirationsofthemiddleclass.(Besuretopronouncetherinthemiddleofbourgeoisandrhymethefirst
syllablewithpoor.Don’tsayboozh-WAH,buuzh-WAH,orbuush-WAH.
Patrician comes from the Latin patrĭcĭus, which meant either a member of the patres, the ancient
Romannobility,orbelongingtothatupperclass.InancientRomanhistory,apatricianwassomeonewho
belonged to one of the original citizen families of the city, and specifically a member of the senatorial
aristocracy appointed by Romulus, the legendary founder of the city. By the 17th century patrician had
cometodenoteapersonfromanestablishedandwealthyfamily,amemberoftheupperclass,andasan
adjectiveitwasusedtomeanpertainingtowell-educated,privilegedpeopleofrefinedtastes.Todaythe
adjectiveisusedofalmostanythingthatsmacksofupper-classmembershipormanners,asa patrician
air,apatricianstyle,patriciancourtesy,apatricianaccent,andevenapatriciannose.
Word10:REDACT(ri-DAKT)
Toedit,revise,prepareapieceofwritingforpublication;especially,toadaptorremovetextfromadocumenttomakeitsuitablefor
publication.
TheverbtoredactcomesfromtheLatinredactus,thepastparticipleoftheverbredĭgĕre,todrive,lead,
orsendback,whichcomesinturnfromre-,back,andagĕre,todriveorsetinmotion,thesourceofthe
Englishnounagent,apersonorthingthatacts,andagitate,toshake,disturb,excite.
Toreviseandtoeditarethegeneralwordsforpreparingatextforpublication.Toredactistoeditor
revise with greater scrutiny, particularly with an eye toward deleting or masking any objectionable or
sensitive material. This implication sometimes makes redact a synonym of censor, purge, expurgate
(EKS-pur-GAYT), and bowdlerize (BOWD-luh-ryz): “The judge denied defense counsel’s request to
redactthenamesoftheallegedconspiratorsfromthetranscriptofthetrial.”
Thenounredactionistheactofeditingtextforpublication,particularlybyremovinginappropriate
material,oranytextthathasbeenredacted,revisedandadaptedsoastomakesuitableforpublication.
ReviewQuizforKeywords1–10
Considerthefollowingquestionsanddecidewhetherthecorrectanswerisyesorno.Answers appear
here.
1.Isafamilywhosehousehasjustburneddownbereftofaplacetolive?
2.Incarefulusage,isyournemesisyourenemyorrival?
3.Doessomeonewhoequivocatesspeakhonestlyandstraightforwardly?
4.Isaphilistinelikelytoenjoygoingtotheopera?
5.Wouldabacchanalianeventbecalmandquiet?
6.Isaschismacomingtogetherofgroupsthatwereformerlydivided?
7.IsEnglishthelinguafrancaofinternationalaviation?
8.Cansomethingsweetlycharmingandagreeablebewinsome?
9.Doespatricianmeanbelongingtothemiddleclass?
10.Arenewspaperstoriesusuallyredactedbeforepublication?
DifficultDistinctions:PracticalandPracticable
Haveyoueverwonderedwhetherthere’sadifferencebetweentheadjectivespracticalandpracticable?
Thereis,notonlyinmeaningbutalsoinpronunciation—practicalhasthreesyllablesbutpracticablehas
four:PRAK-ti-kuh-bul.
Practical means having a useful purpose or capable of being put to good use. Practicable means
workable,feasible,doable,capableofbeingputintopractice.Ausefultoolispractical,ofgooduse;a
well-designedplanispracticable,workable.
***
Herearethenexttenkeyworddiscussions:
Word11:PRÉCIS (pray-SEE)
Abriefsummary,especiallyofabook,article,orothertext;aconciseoutlineofessentialpointsorfacts.
Synonyms of précis include digest, synopsis, condensation, abstract, abridgment, conspectus, and
aperçu(ap-air-SOO).Thewordrésumé(REZ-uh-may),familiartomillionsofjob-seekerswhoprepare
onetooutlinetheirprofessionalexperienceandaccomplishments,mayalsobeusedtomeanasummary,
condensedstatement,andinthissenseitisalsoasynonymofprécis.
Précis comes directly from the French noun précis, a summary, and in English précis is most often
usedtomeanaconcisesummaryofsomethingwritten,suchasaspeech,novel,oracademictreatise.But
aprécismayalsobeasummaryofatopic,asaprécisofthescientificconsensusonclimatechange.
Précis-writing is the art of composing précis, brief summaries or abstracts, and a précis-writer is a
personwhowritesprécis.(Thepluralispronouncedpray-SEEZ.)
Although précis has been used in English since about 1750, it is still always printed with an acute
accentoverthee,asinFrench.
Word12:TAXONOMY(tak-SAHN-uh-mee)
Thebranchofbiologythatdealswithclassification,oranorderlysystemofnamingandclassifyingorganisms.
Taxonomy,whichEnglishborrowedintheearly19thcenturyfromFrench,isablendoftwocombining
formsfromGreek:taxo-,arrangement,order,and-nomy,whichdesignates“asystemoflawsgoverninga
(specified)fieldorthesumofknowledgeregardingthem”(Webster2),asinastronomy,thestudyofthe
laws of the universe, and agronomy (uh-GRAH-nuh-mee), the science of soil management and crop
production.
Inbiology,taxonomyisasystemofidentifying,naming,andclassifyinglivingthings,suchasplants
andanimals.Therelatedwordnomenclature(NOH-men-KLAY-chur)referstothesystemofnamesused
in a science, art, or branch of knowledge. In the 18th century, the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus
(KAR-uh-lusli-NEE-us)inventedthebinomial(by-NOH-mee-ul)systemofnomenclature,inwhichtwo
Latinnamesareassignedtoeachspecies(properlySPEE-sheez,notSPEE-seez),thefirstidentifyingthe
genus(JEE-nus),orgeneralkind,andthesecondidentifyingthespeciesitself.
Traditionallytaxonomydenotestheclassificationoforganisms,butinmodernusageitmayalsorefer
totheorderlyclassificationofanything,asinthetaxonomyoftimetravelinmovies,thesocialtaxonomy
ofhighschool,andataxonomyofsportscoaches.
Word13:S UBLIMINAL(suhb-LIM-i-nul)
Belowone’slevelofawareness;existingin,comingfrom,orsubtlyaffectingthesubconsciousmind.
The adjective subliminal combines the Latin sub, under, and līmen, the threshold, border, and by
derivationmeansbelowthethresholdorborderofconsciousness.Somethingsubliminalfunctionsbelow
thelevelofyourawareness,asasubliminaldesireorasubliminalimpulse.
Subliminalmessagesmayeitheroriginateinyoursubconsciousorinfluenceyoursubconsciousmind.
Forexample,advertisingoftensendsthesubliminalmessagethatyouwillbehappier,healthier,wealthier,
orsmarterifyoubuyorconsumeacertainproduct.Post-hypnoticsuggestionoperatesonasubliminal,or
subconscious, level, as do self-improvement programs that promise to teach you while you sleep.
(Whethertheycanfulfillthatpromiseisanothermatter.)Propagandaalsoworkssubliminallybecauseit
canevokearesponsewithoutawarenessofthatresponse;inotherwords,itcanpersuadepeopleorcall
them to action by stirring up strong emotions—fear or hatred or self-interest—that lie below their
thresholdofconsciousness.
The verb to sublimate (SUHB-li-mayt) and the noun sublimation have specific meanings in
psychology.Tosublimateistosuppressone’sprimitive,instinctive,orsociallyunacceptableimpulses—
tokeepthembeneathone’slevelofconsciousness—andtomodifyordiverttheantisocialenergyofthose
impulses into something socially acceptable. Sublimation refers to the act of sublimating, of keeping
distastefulimpulsesbelowthethresholdofawareness,asthesublimationofsexualdesire.
Word14:MIS ANTHROPY(mis-AN-thruh-pee)
Hatredordistrustofhumankind;spitefulpessimismaboutthehumanrace.
The noun misanthrope (MIS-un-throhp) denotes a person who hates or deeply distrusts other human
beings.Andtheadjectivemisanthropic(MIS-un-THRAHP-ik)meanshavinganaversion(uh-VUR-zhun)
tothehumanrace.(Aversionisintensedislikeordisgust.)Thesewords,andourkeyword,misanthropy,
hatredordistrustofhumankind,allcomefromtheGreekmīsánthrōpos,hatinghumankind,whichcomes
inturnfrommisein,tohate,andánthrōpos,aman,humanbeing.
From the Greek ánthrōpos we get the combining form anthropo-, of or pertaining to human beings,
which appears in numerous English words, including anthropomorphic (AN-throh-puh-MOR-fik),
shaped like or resembling a human being; anthropomorphize (AN-thruh-puh-MOR-fyz), to personify,
give human form or feelings to something not human; and anthropoid (AN-thruh-poyd), resembling or
shapedlikeahumanbeing.
Thefamiliarwordphilanthropy,fromtheGreekphilein,tolove,andánthrōpos,aman,humanbeing,
isloveofhumankind—theoppositeofourkeyword,misanthropy,hatredordistrustofhumankind.
Word15:IMPRIMATUR(IM-pri-MAH-tur)
Approval,support;also,amarkofapprovalorsupport.
Synonymsofimprimaturincludelicense,sanction,authorization,sponsorship,anddispensation.
Imprimatur comes directly from the New Latin word imprimātur, which means “let it be printed.”
Originallyanimprimaturwasanofficiallicensetoprintandpublishgrantedbythelicenserofthepress,
especiallysuchalicensegrantedbyacensoroftheRomanCatholicChurch.
Fromthisspecificsenseimprimaturbroadenedtomeanapproval,license,orsupportingeneral,ora
mark of approval or support. Thus, when Oprah Winfrey selected a book for her book club, everyone
knew that receiving her imprimatur would make the book a bestseller. And if the American Dental
Associationputsitsimprimaturonabrandoftoothpaste,thattoothpastehasboththeADA’ssupportand
itsmarkofdistinction.
Word16:CANARD(kuh-NARD)
Afalse,absurd,andoftenderogatorystoryorreport.
Acanardmaybeapublishedreport,awidelycirculatedstory,ormerelyarumor.Whatmakesitacanard
is that it is groundless, meaning it has no basis in fact; it has been fabricated, made up, usually to
disparage or make fun of someone or something; and it is ridiculous—though not so ridiculous that it
won’tfoolpeople.Thetabloidshavealwaysreveledinpublishingcanards,falseorexaggeratedreports,
abouttheallegedlyscandalousbehaviorofcelebrities,buttheirpreeminenceinthebusinessofcirculating
nonsenseisswiftlybeingrivaledbytheobsessivelytweetingpublic.
Canard is the French word for a duck, and, as Robert Hendrickson explains in The Facts on File
Encyclopedia of Word and Phrase Origins, we use it in English to mean a ridiculously false story
becauseoftheFrenchexpressionvendreuncanardàmoitié, which meant literally to half-sell a duck.
BecausetheimplicationoftheFrenchexpressionwasnottoselltheduckatall,itsfigurativemeaning,
writesHendrickson,was“tomakeafooloutofabuyer,oranyoneelse,withafalsestory.”
Word17:PERFIDIOUS (pur-FID-ee-us)
Deliberatelybetrayinganother’strustorconfidence;treacherous.
TheadjectiveperfidiouscomesfromtheLatinperfĭdĭōsus,faithless,treacherous,dishonest,andhasthe
same meaning in English as its Latin source. The word also usually implies a base and calculated
treacheryorbetrayal.Aperfidiouspersonisdeliberatelydishonestanddisloyal;aperfidiousgovernment
purposely betrays the faith and confidence of its people and its allies. The corresponding noun perfidy
(PUR-fi-dee) means an act of treachery, a deliberate breach of faith or trust, or deceitfulness,
untrustworthiness,astheperfidyofacheatingspouse.
Take care not to confuse the adjectives perfidious and insidious. Insidious applies to deceit or
treachery accomplished by stealth or in a sly, devious manner. Insidious ideas spread ill or harm in a
subtleway.Aninsidiousplotattemptstodeceiveorensnarebysecretmeans.Andaninsidiousdisease
developsinagradual,seeminglyharmlessway.Perfidious,ontheotherhand,isusedofanybetrayalof
trust or confidence, whether secret or open, and always implies deliberate deceit and disloyalty.
Perfidiousfriendswillcheatordeceiveyouatthefirstopportunity.Perfidiousdeedsareactions,whether
subtleorobvious,thatbetrayanother’strustorconfidence.
Synonyms of perfidious include traitorous, faithless, dishonorable, deceitful, untrustworthy,
unscrupulous, and duplicitous (d[y]oo-PLIS-i-tus). Antonyms include trustworthy, loyal, faithful,
steadfast,dutiful,scrupulous,andincorruptible.
Word18:EPIPHANY(e-PIF-uh-nee)
Amomentofsuddenanddramaticinsightorrealization;arevelation.
EpiphanycomesfromtheGreekepipháneia,amanifestation,apparition,especiallytheappearanceofa
divinity. Originally an epiphany was an appearance of a divine being, for as a proper noun Epiphany
(note the capital E) is the Christian festival of Twelfth Night, celebrated on January 6, the twelfth day
after Christmas, and commemorating what Christians believe was the manifestation of Christ’s divine
naturetotheworldthroughthethreewisemencalledtheMagi(properlypronouncedMAY-jy).Epiphany
maystilldenotetheappearanceofadeity,butmoreoftenitappliestoanysuddenanddramaticmomentof
insightorrealization.
Inmodernusage,whenyouhaveanepiphanyyouexperience“asudden,intuitiveperceptionof…the
essentialmeaningofsomething,”aperception“usuallyinitiatedbysomesimple,homely,orcommonplace
occurence or experience,” says The Random House Dictionary. The corresponding adjective is
epiphanic(EP-i-FAN-ik),whichisoftenusedinliterarycriticismtomeanpertainingtoormarkedbyan
epiphany,amomentofdramaticinsightorrealization.
Word19:PRATTLE(PRAT’l,rhymeswithrattle)
Totalkinafoolish,childish,orsimplemindedway;tochatterorbabble.
TheverbtoprattleprobablycomesfromaMiddleLowGermanwordthatmeanttochatter,babble,or
cackle,andiscloselyrelatedinetymologyandmeaningtotheverbtoprate,whichwasoriginallyusedof
chickens to mean “to make the loud clucking noise associated with laying an egg” (OED). In modern
usage to prate is most often used to mean to talk at great length, especially in a boastful or pompous
manner, while to prattle is most often used to mean to talk at great length, especially in a foolish or
pointlessway.
Toblather(BLATH-ur,rhymeswithrather)isanotherclosesynonymofprattle.Toblathersuggests
excessive talking that is of no consequence or even nonsensical, while to prattle suggests excessive
talkingthatischildishorgossipy.Blatheringandprattlingbothdenoteexcessivetalking,butblathering
istrivialandtediouswhileprattlingissillyorsimpleminded.
Prattle may also be used as a noun to mean babble or chatter, as the prattle of a preschool
playground,oritmaymeanababblingsound,astheprattleofbirdsortheprattleofthecreek.
A prattler is a person who talks foolishly and constantly, a babbler. Other words for this kind of
nonstoptalkerincludechatterbox,blabbermouth,blatherer,windbag,magpie(afterthechatteringbird);
palaverer (puh-LAV-ur-ur), from the verb to palaver, to talk profusely (profuse, pronounced pruhFYOOS,meansinabundanceorwithoutrestraint);andblatherskite (BLATH-ur-skyt), which combines
theverbtoblatherwiththesuffix-skite,analterationofskate,acontemptibleperson,asincheapskate,a
miser.
Word20:PLEBEIAN(ple-BEE-in)
Oforpertainingtothecommonpeople;hence,popular,common,vulgar.
PlebeiancomesfromtheLatinplēbēĭus,whichmeantofthecommonpeople.ThisLatinplēbēĭuscomes
inturnfromplebs,thecommonpeople,themasses,themob,andformorethanfourcenturiesplebs has
beenusedinEnglishwiththissamemeaning.InancientRome,theplebswerethecommonpeopleanda
plebeianwasamemberoftheplebs,themasses.Theplebeians,orcommoners,weresocialoppositesof
thepatricians(word9ofthislevel),theancientRomannobilityorupperclass.AlsofromtheLatinplebs,
thecommonpeople,comestheunusualEnglishwordplebiscite(PLEB-i-syt),whichmeansadirectvote
ofallthepeopleonsomematterofgreatpublicimportance,suchasself-determinationingovernment.
WhenplebeianenteredEnglishinthe16thcentury,itwasfirstanounmeaningamemberoftheRoman
plebsandanadjectivemeaningoforbelongingtotheRomanplebs.Butthenounsooncametobeusedof
anypersonoflowsocialstanding,andtheadjectivewasalsosoonappliedtoanyoneofordinarybirthor
rank to mean belonging to or characteristic of the working classes. And since the late 18th century the
abbreviatedformplebhasbeenusedtomeananunculturedperson.
Synonymsofplebeianincludelowborn,blue-collar,proletarian(PROH-luh-TAIR-ee-in), lowbrow,
unsophisticated, and unrefined. Antonyms include aristocratic, patrician, highborn, blue-blooded,
highbrow,andhighfalutin.
ReviewQuizforKeywords11–20
Considerthefollowingstatementsanddecidewhethereachoneistrueorfalse.Answersappearhere.
1.Ifyoudon’thavetimetoreadallofsomething,youcanreadaprécisofit.
2.Binomialnomenclatureisthesystemofnamesusedintaxonomy.
3.Somethingsubliminalisemergingfromthesubconsciousmind.
4.Philanthropyistheoppositeofmisanthropy.
5.Somethingyoudisapproveofwouldnotgetyourimprimatur.
6.Unsuspectingpeopletendtobelievecanards.
7.Perfidiousfriendsarejustasbadasenemies.
8.Anepiphanyisasuddenimpulsetodosomething.
9.It’sinterestingtolistentopeoplewhoprattle.
10.Apersonofhighbirthorrankisplebeian.
TheStyleFile:LikeversusAsIf
“I’mconfusedabouttheuseofitlookslike,”writesCatherineAthearn.“Isitcorrecttosay,‘Itlookslike
it’sgoingtorainthisafternoon,’orshouldwesay,‘Itlooksasifit’sgoingtorainthisafternoon’?”
InTheCarefulWriter,TheodoreM.Bernsteinwritesthat“likecannotstandforasif,exceptforafew
idiomaticphrasessuchas‘Thecarlookslikenew’and‘Theycheeredlikecrazy.’Butitisnotproperto
write,‘Hespentmoneylikeitwasgoingoutofstyle’[makethatasifitweregoingoutofstyle],or‘The
Russiansadvocateddisarmamentliketheymeantit.’”
Thathaslongbeenthereigningopinionamongusageauthorities:like,asin“Itlookslikeit’sgoingto
rain,” is not appropriate in careful writing—or what is often called “edited writing,” meaning that
someonewhoknowssomethingaboutStandardWrittenEnglishhascheckedthepieceforpropergrammar
andstyle.Incasualspeech,however,thiscommonuseoflikeisforgivable.Andofcourseyoumayeither
sayorwrite,withimpunity(word6ofLevel2),“Itlookslikerain.”
Regardingthechoicebetweenasifandasthoughinthiscontext,mostusageexpertsagreethatthey
areinterchangeable.
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabulary.
Word21:GULL(rhymeswithdull)
Tocheat,trick,deceive,takeadvantageof.
Theverbtogullisofuncertainorigin.Thewordmayalsobeusedasanountomeanapersonwhois
easilycheatedortakenadvantageof.Justasyoucanfoolafoolanddupeadupe,youcangullagull—
trickordeceiveafoolish,unwary,oroverlytrustingperson.Gullinggullsisthespecialtyofswindlers
andconartists,whocalltheirvictimsmarks.
Therelatedadjectivegullible,whichmeanseasilyfooled,cheated,ordeceived,combinestheverbto
gullwiththesuffix-ible,whichmeanscapableofbeing,asintangible,capableofbeingdiscernedbythe
senseoftouchorrealizedbythemind,fromtheLatintangĕre,totouch;andcredible, capable of being
believed,fromtheLatincredĕre,tobelieve,trust,thesourcealsooftheEnglishcreed,asetofbeliefsor
principles.AlsofromtheLatincredĕre,tobelieve,comestheadjectivecredulous(KREJ-uh-lus),aclose
synonym of gullible that means too inclined to believe, willing to accept something as true without
questioning.
Synonyms of the verb to gull include to dupe, defraud, swindle, hoodwink, fleece, bamboozle, and
cozen(KUZ-’n,likecousin).
Word22:COMPENDIOUS (kum-PEN-dee-us)
Condensed,abridged;containingthesubstanceofasubjectinbriefform;brieflybutcomprehensivelyexpressed.
Concise and succinct (suhk-SINGKT, with the first c like k) are synonyms of compendious. Antonyms
includecomprehensive,extensive,thoroughgoing,sweeping,exhaustive,andvoluminous.
CompendiousdatesbackinEnglishtobefore1400andcomesfromtheLatincompendium, literally
that which is weighed together, hence a saving or shortcut. Since the late 16th century this Latin
compendiumhasbeenusedinEnglishtomeanasummary,condensation,orabridgmentofalargerwork
or of some area of knowledge. In 1713 the English poet Alexander Pope wrote, “Indexes and
Dictionaries…aretheCompendiumofallKnowledge,”andthatisstillhowthewordisbestusedtoday:
“Cuevasdescribesthebookasacompendiumofconversations…abouthislife”(Los Angeles Times).
Butsinceaboutthemid-20thcenturypeoplehavealsobeenusingcompendiumtomeanacompletelistof
something,oracollection,compilation,asin“anannualcompendiumoftheUK’sbestfooddestinations”
or “a two-hour-long compendium of 26 short films.” This twist of meaning has sparked concern and
objection among authorities on usage and has also affected the adjective compendious, which many
peoplenowusetomeanbig,comprehensive,all-embracing.
“Compendious means ‘abridged, succinct,’ not ‘voluminous,’ as writers often mistakenly believe,”
saysGarner’sModernAmericanUsage.“Perhapstheerrorstemsfromtheideathatacompendiumis,at
best,afairlycomprehensiveabridgment.Butproperlyspeaking,theemphasisfallsontheabridgment,not
oncomprehensive.”
What’s the difference between a compendium and an abridgment? A compendium may consist of
previouslypublishedmaterialorbeacondensedsummaryofanybroadsubject,whileanabridgmentis
alwaysashorterversionofalongerpieceofwriting.
Word23:RHAPS ODIZE(RAP-suh-dyz)
Toexpressoneselfwithextravagantemotionorenthusiasm.
A rhapsody (RAP-suh-dee), the noun corresponding to the verb to rhapsodize, was originally an epic
poem,oraportionofit,“ofasuitablelengthforrecitationatonetime”(OED).Rhapsodyhasalsobeen
usedofamiscellaneousliterarycollectionorofanymiscellaneouscollection,especiallyamuddledone,
as in this sentence from Frank McCourt’s 2005 memoir Teacher Man: “They produced a rhapsody of
excuses,rangingfromafamilyepidemicofdiarrheatoasixteen-wheelertruckcrashingintoahouse.”
Since the early 17th century rhapsody has also been used of any highly emotional piece of writing
withanirregularordisconnectedform,orofanyecstaticorintenseexpressionoffeeling;andsincethe
early19thcenturythewordhasbeenusedinmusic,inperhapsitsbest-knownsensetoday,ofahighly
emotionalorexuberantinstrumentalcompositionwithanirregularandseeminglyimprovisationalform.
Two of music’s best-known rhapsodies are Franz Liszt’s Hungarian Rhapsodies (nineteen of them
composedfromabout1846to1886)andGeorgeGershwin’sRhapsodyinBlue(1924),whichintroduced
elementsofAmericanjazztotheclassicalconcertstage.
Torhapsodizewasoriginallytoreciterhapsodies,selectionsfromepicpoems.Butbythelate1700s
rhapsodize had acquired its modern sense: to speak or write with extravagant emotion or enthusiasm:
“Sherhapsodizedaboutthefoodatherfavoriterestaurant”;“Theprofessorrhapsodizedonthepoetryof
DylanThomas.”
Theadjectiveisrhapsodic,ofthenatureofarhapsody,hencehighlyenthusiasticoremotional,asa
rhapsodic,visionarynovel.
Word24:OXYMORON(AHK-si-MOR-ahnorAHK-see-MOR-ahn)
Anexpressionorfigureofspeechthatcombinestwocontradictorywords;aconciseandpointedphrasethatseemsself-contradictory.In
CrazyEnglish,RichardLedererdefinesoxymoronas“afigureofspeechinwhichtwoincongruous,contradictorytermsareyokedtogether
inasmallspace.”
Fortheplural,dictionariesgiveonlytheGreekoxymora, but Garner’s Modern American Usage notes
thattheanglicizedoxymorons“isnowabout60timesascommonasoxymorainprintsources,andought
tobeacceptedasstandard.”Theadjectiveisoxymoronic(AHK-si-muh-RAH-nik),beingorresembling
anoxymoron.
Byderivationthewordoxymoronisitselfanoxymoron.ItcomesfromtheancientGreekoxymōros,
whichmeantliterallysharp-dullorfigurativelykeenlystupid,forinGreekoxysmeantsharp,acute,keen,
andmōros,thesourcealsooftheEnglishmoron,meantdullorfoolish.
Oxymorons abound in literature, as in Shakespeare’s sweet sorrow, Milton’s darkness visible, and
Keats’s little noiseless noise. Alfred, Lord Tennyson penned a memorable pair of oxymoronic lines in
“LancelotandElaine”:“Hishonorindishonorstood,/Andfaithunfaithfulkepthimfalselytrue.”
Manycommonexpressionsarealsooxymoronic.Considertheseexamples:studentteacher,executive
secretary, sure bet, baby grand, jumbo shrimp, inside out, random order, working vacation, death
benefit, benevolent despot,3 idiot savant,4 deafening silence, industrial park, urban village, white
chocolate, good grief, whole piece, conspicuously absent, plastic silverware, guest host, and pretty
ugly.
LederernotesthatoxymoronscanalsobefoundinplacenamessuchasLittleBigHornandOldNew
York,aswellasinsinglewordssuchasbittersweet,firewater,spendthrift,andwholesome. Pianoforte
(orsometimesfortepiano)—theoriginalnameofthemusicalinstrumentnowcalledsimplyapiano—is
alsoaone-wordoxymoronbecauseinmusictheItalianpianomeanssoftandforte(pronouncedFOR-tay)
means loud. Even personal names can sometimes be oxymoronic, such as the baseball player Angel
Pagan.
“Amonglanguageaficionados,”saysGarner,“collectingandinventingcynicaloxymoronsisaparlor
game;theyenjoyphrasesthatseemtoimplycontradictions,”suchaslegalbriefandmilitaryintelligence.
“Ifyouarewillingtostretchtheoxymoronicconceptandeditorializeunabashedly,”writesLederer,“you
will expand your oxymoronic list considerably.” Among Lederer’s examples in this vein are student
athlete, educational television, nonworking mother, postal service, and business ethics. What
“editorializingoxymorons”likethesecanyouthinkof?
Word25:PROVENANCE(PRAHV-uh-nints)
Theorigin,source,orderivationofsomething.
Provenance comes from the Latin prōvenīre, to come forth. The word may refer specifically to “the
historyoftheownershipofaworkofartoranantique,usedasaguidetoauthenticityorquality”(OED),
butingeneralusageitisappliedtotheoriginorsourceofalmostanything,whethersomethingphysical,
suchasanobjectorartifact,orsomethingintangible(in-TANJ-i-bul),suchasaword,statement,oridea.
(Intangiblemeansincapableofbeingperceivedbythesenseoftouch,impalpable.)
Fansoforganicproduceareconcernedabouttheprovenanceoftheirfood,preferringalocaloriginto
afarawayone.Fansoffinewinealsotakegreatinterestintheprovenanceoftheirselections.Avirtuoso
violinist would be thrilled to own an instrument whose provenance could be traced to the legendary
ItalianviolinmakersGiuseppeAntonioGuarneri(1683–1745)orAntonioStradivari(1644?–1737).And
historiansmightdisagreeabouttheprovenanceofamanuscript,arguingoverwhoitsauthorwasorwhen
itwaswritten,asinthiscitation:“Theprovenanceofthepapyrusfragmentisamystery,anditsownerhas
askedtoremainanonymous”(TheNewYorkTimes).
Word26:LAIS S EZ-FAIRE(LES-ay-FAIR,rhymeswithguesswaythere)
Noninterferencewiththeaffairsofothersorwithindividualfreedomofaction.
Laissez-faireenteredEnglishabout1825,acombinationoftheFrenchlaissez,theimperativeoftheverb
laisser,tolet,allow,permit,andfaire,todo.Thus,byderivationlaissez-fairemeanstoletpeopledoas
theychooseorthinkbest.InEnglishitisusedofapoliticaloreconomicpolicyofnoninterferencebased
onthebeliefthatgovernmentshouldmeddleaslittleaspossibleinpeople’saffairs.
Inmodernusagelaissez-faireisroughlysynonymouswithfree-marketeconomicsandisrelatedtothe
politicalphilosophyoflibertarianism,whicharguesthatpeopleshouldbeallowedtoexercisetheirfree
willwithaminimumofgovernmentinterventionorregulation.Asdefinedhere,laissez-faireisanoun,
but it is often used attributively (meaning as an adjective) to modify another noun, as a laissez-faire
economy, one in which government takes a hands-off approach to business and industry. Advocates of
onlinefreedomhavealaissez-faireattitudetowardtheInternet,believingthatweshouldbeallowedto
postandcopyandshareanything,regardlessofownershiporcopyright.
Word27:PRETERNATURAL(PREE-tur-NACH-ur-ul)
Supernatural,beyondwhatisconsiderednormalornatural;hence,exceptional,extraordinary.
PreternaturalcomesfromtheLatinphrasepraeternātūram,beyondoroutsidenature,andthenotionof
beingbeyondtheordinarycourseofnature,beingabnormalorsupernatural,haslongbeencentraltothe
word.Preternaturalmaystillbeusedinthisway,asastoryaboutthepreternaturalreturnofsomeone
whohasdied.Butinrecentdecadesthewordhastiltedawayfromthissenseandbecomeasynonymof
extraordinary,asapreternaturalgiftformusic.
“Preternatural, which for centuries served as a synonym for supernatural, now serves a separate
purpose as a powerful word of praise, meaning ‘surpassing the normal, extraordinary,’” writes Mark
DavidsoninRight,Wrong,andRisky.Toillustratethatpoint,DavidsonquotesJohnUpdike’scomment
onMaxBeerbohm:5“Heearlydevelopedapreternaturalpoiseandgraceasawriterandacaricaturist.”
Butpreternaturalcanstillmeanextraordinaryorexceptional,beyondwhatisconsiderednormalor
natural, without conveying special praise. Consider these examples: a preternatural stillness in the
woods; a preternatural beam of light penetrating the darkness; the preternatural speed of jet plane
breakingthesoundbarrier;andamother’spreternaturalabilitytoknowwhatherchildrenarefeeling.
Word28:DIS ABUS E(dis-uh-BYOOZ)
Tofreefromerror,falsehood,deception,ormisunderstanding;tosetstraight.
TheverbtodisabusecomesfromtheFrenchdésabuser,toundeceive,freefromillusion.Itcombinesthe
privativeprefixdis-,not,andtheverbtoabuse,tousesomethingbadlyorimproperlysoastoinjureor
damage it. Thus to disabuse is literally not to abuse, to reverse or nullify the effects of abuse or
exploitation.
Whenyoudisabuse,youfreesomeoneofanillusionorafalseidea;youcorrectamistakennotionor
clearupamisconception.Incolloquial(kuh-LOH-kwee-ul,informal)terms,todisabuseistosetsomeone
straight.
Properly,youdonotdisabusethemindofapersonwhoembracesanerrororfalseidea,andyoudo
notdisabusetheerrororfalseideaitself.Incarefulusage,youalwaysdisabusepeopleoftheirerrorsand
misunderstandings:“MilliepolitelytriedtodisabuseRonaldofhisexaggeratedopinionofhisabilitieson
thetenniscourt”;“Doctorstodayoftenhavetodisabusepatientswhohavediagnosedthemselvesonthe
Internet”;“Itisourdutyascitizensofademocracytodisabuseourselvesofourprejudices.”
Word29:COURTES AN(KOR-tuh-zun)
Afemaleprostitute,especiallyonewhoseclientsarenobleormenofwealthandpower.
CourtesancomesthroughFrenchfromanItalianwordthatoriginallymeantawomanattachedtoaroyal
court. It is the sort of word that conjures the olden days when ambitious and often ruthless aristocrats
engaged in political and sexual intrigue, plotting their paths to power while secretly slipping into bed
witheachother.Thecourtesanwasnotusuallyherselfamemberofthenobilitybutratheracourt-mistress
whoservicedcourtiers(KOR-tee-urz),attendantsatthecourtofakingorotherroyalperson.Laterthe
termbroadenedtodenoteaprostitutewhoservicedwealthy,famous,orpowerfulmen.
In modern usage, whore is the general and most vulgar term for someone who has sex for money.
Prostitute, because it’s from Latin, is a more refined and socially acceptable word for the same thing.
Courtesan is the most elevated term of the three, a high-class prostitute, as this citation from Edward
Sharpham’s 1607 play The Fleire illustrates: “Your whore is for every rascal, but your Curtizan is for
yourCourtier.”(Courtesanwasformerlyoftenspelledwithcur-ratherthancour-andpronouncedKURtuh-zin.)
Let’stakealookatsomeotherwordsforso-calledfallenwomen.
Thewordharlot(HAHR-lut),whichdatesbacktothe13thcenturyandwasoriginallyusedofaman
tomeanarogueorvillain,hassincethe15thcenturybeenusedofawomanasamildertermforwhoreor
prostitute. But unlike those two common words, harlot, which occurs often in the Bible and older
literature,isnowlesscommon.
Strumpet (rhymes with trumpet), trull (rhymes with dull), and tart are unusual synonyms of
prostitute,whore,andharlot.Atrollop(TRAH-lup)maybeeitherawomanwhohassexformoneyora
sexuallypromiscuouswoman,whileaslattern(rhymeswithpattern)iseitheranuntidy,dirtywomanor
awanton(WAHN-tun)woman,aslut.(Wantoninthiscontextmeanslewd,lustful,sexuallyunrestrained.)
Yet another synonym of prostitute is the rare word meretrix (MER-uh-triks), which comes directly
from the Latin meretrix, a prostitute, the source also of the English adjective meretricious (MER-uhTRISH-us),whichmeansattractiveinaflashyorcheapway,falselyalluring,tawdry,gaudy.
The words concubine and paramour are close cousins of our keyword courtesan. A concubine
(KAHNG-kyuh-byn)—fromtheLatincon-,together,andcubāre,toliedown,gotobed—isamistress,a
womanwholivesandmakeslovewithamantowhomsheisnotmarried.Paramour(PAR-uh-moor)has
been used since the 14th century to mean either a lover, sexual partner, or an illicit or secret lover, a
companioninadultery.
Let’s close this wanton discussion with an amusing anecdote about William Lyon Phelps (1865–
1943),anAmericanliteraryscholarwhotaughtEnglishatYaleforforty-oneyears.Accordingtolegend,
Phelpswascorrectingastudent’sessaywhenhecameacrossthisline:“Thewomanfelldownthestairs
andlayprostituteatthebottom.”InthemarginPhelpswrote,“Youngman,youmustlearntodistinguish
betweenafallenwomanandonewhohasmerelyslipped.”(Thehapless—unlucky,unfortunate—student
confusedthenounandverbprostitutewiththeadjectiveprostrate,whichmeanslyingfacedownonthe
ground,ofteninhumblesubmission.)
Word30:DEBAUCH(di-BAWCH)
Tocorruptorseduce,leadawayfromvirtueorresponsibility.
Synonymsofdebauchincludepervert(pur-VURT),debase,deprave,anddespoil(di-SPOYL).
The verb to debauch comes from the French débaucher, to lead astray, entice away from duty. In
modernusageitmeanstocorruptmorallyortoenticeintosensualindulgence,astodebauchaninnocent
youngwomanwithflatteryandgifts.Thenounisdebauchery(di-BAW-chuh-ree),excessiveindulgence
insensualpleasure,especiallyeating,drinking,andsex:“TheancientGreeksandRomanswereinfamous
fortheirdebauchery.”
Intemperanceisaclosesynonymofdebauchery.Temperance,sobriety,andabstinenceareantonyms
ofdebauchery.
Debauched,thepasttenseandpastparticipleoftheverb,isoftenusedasanadjectivetomeaneither
corruptedmorally,asadebauchedlifestyle,orshowingtheilleffectsofexcessiveindulgenceinsensual
pleasures, as debauched with strong drink. A debauched person, one given or addicted to extreme
sensualindulgence,iscalledadebauchee(deb-aw-SHEEordeb-aw-CHEE).
ReviewQuizforKeywords21–30
Decideifthepairsofwordsbelowaresynonymsorantonyms.Answersappearhere.
1.Gullandhoodwinkare…synonymsorantonyms?
2.Compendiousandexhaustiveare…
3.Criticizeandrhapsodizeare…
4.Oxymoronandincongruityare…
5.Provenanceanddestinationare…
6.Noninterferenceandlaissez-faireare…
7.Preternaturalandsupernaturalare…
8.Deceiveanddisabuseare…
9.Courtesanandconcubineare…
10.Depraveanddebauchare…
DifficultDistinctions:DiffuseandDefuse
In dispensing advice on how to handle a mother with advanced Alzheimer’s who makes inappropriate
remarks—suchas“Youareextremelyfat”—PhilipGalanes,theSocialQ’scolumnistforThe New York
Times, says it’s probably best to say something simple like “‘I’m sorry for my mother. She isn’t well.’
Thatshoulddiffusethesituation.”Goodadvice,perhaps.Butheshouldhavewrittendefuse.
This mistake is increasingly common, perhaps because the pronunciation of the verbs diffuse and
defuse is often identical (di-FYOOZ). But their meanings are far apart. To diffuse is to spread or
distributewidely,disperse,disseminate(word4ofLevel1).Todefuseistoremovethefusefrom,andso
tomakelessharmful,dangerous,ordifficult.
Ifyourintendedmeaningistospreadout,scatter,ordisseminate,usediffuse.Lampsdiffuselight.The
sundiffusesfog.Andkindergartenteachersdiffuserudimentaryknowledgewhiletheirsniffling,sneezing
pupilsdiffusegerms.
If your intended meaning is to make something less harmful or troublesome, use defuse. You can
defuseabomb,renderitharmless,ordefuseaticklishorpotentiallyexplosivesituation.
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabulary.
Word31:BRAGGADOCIO (BRAG-uh-DOH-shee-oh)
Emptyandarrogantboastingorbragging.
Braggadocio is an eponymous word—a word created from a name—in this case from the boastful
characterBraggadocchioinEdmundSpenser’sepicpoemTheFaerieQueene(1590).Itwasprobablya
pseudo-Italiancoinagebasedontheverbtobrag,whichdatesbacktothe14thcentury.
Braggadocio is most often used to mean arrogant and empty boasting, as in these contemporary
citations: “Despite my brash online braggadocio—it’s true. I am shy” (mashable.com); “The arm
punching, the braggadocio … they’re for buffoons. Most men have no truck with it” (Vancouver Sun).
“From braggadocio to vulnerability, from manic excitement to angry defiance, his is a versatile and
commanding performance” (oxfordstudent.com). But braggadocio is also sometimes used to mean a
braggart, an arrogant boaster, as when Thomas Carlyle, in 1832, wrote, “He … had much of the
sycophant,alternatingwiththebraggadocio.”
Synonyms of braggadocio include bluster, swagger, vainglory, gasconade, rodomontade, and
fanfaronade.Let’stakeacloserlookatthelastfourofthesewords.
Vainglory(VAYN-glor-ee;theadjectivevaingloriousisword37ofLevel7)comesfromtheMiddle
Latinvānaglōria,literallyemptygloryorfame.Vaingloryisboastfulandpretentiousvanity,atendency
totakeunwarrantedandexcessiveprideinone’saccomplishmentsorabilities.
Gasconade (gas-kuh-NAYD) comes through the French gasconner, to boast, from the proper noun
Gascon,apersonfromGascony(GAS-kuh-nee),France,“theinhabitantsofwhichwerereputedlyvery
boastful,” says The Random House Dictionary. Gasconade is not merely boasting but extravagant
boasting, extreme exaggeration, as in this sentence from 1903 by the American short story writer O.
Henry:“Whosoeverentered[hadto]listentotheimp’sinterminablegasconadeconcerninghisscandalous
career.”
Rodomontade (RAHD-uh-mun-TAYD), like braggadocio, is an eponymous word. It comes from
Rodomont, a boastful warrior king in Boiardo’s Orlando Inamorato (1482) and Ariosto’s Orlando
Furioso (1516), both famous epic poems of the Italian Renaissance. The name comes in turn from the
Italianrodomonte,whichmeansliterallyonewhorollsawaymountains.Byderivation,rodomontadeis
thearrogantboastingofsomeonewhoclaimshecanmovemountains.
Finally, the pleasant-sounding fanfaronade (FAN-fuh-ruh-NAYD) is related to the familiar English
fanfare,whichmaymeanaflourishoftrumpetsorashowy,noisydisplay,abigfuss.Fanfaronadecomes
ultimately from the Spanish fanfarrón, a braggart, and means arrogant, boastful talk, ostentatious
bragging.Thecorrespondingnounfanfaron(FAN-fuh-rahn)meansabraggart.
Ourkeyword,braggadocio,meansemptyandarrogantboastingorbragging.
Word32:FLAGELLATE(FLAJ-uh-layt)
Towhip,flog,lash,scourge(SKURJ,rhymeswithurge).
Toflagellateandtheunusualverbtofustigate(FUHS-ti-gayt)aresimilarinsoundandsense,butdenote
differentkindsofviolence.Tofustigate,fromtheLatinfustis,astick,istobeatwithastick,tocudgel.To
flagellate,fromtheLatinflagellare,towhip,istostrikewithastraporrod.
Toflog,toscourge,andtoflagellateallmeantowhip,literallyorfiguratively.
Toflog,whichmayalsocomefromLatinflagellare,towhip,meanstopunishortorturebywhipping
or beating: “The horse thief was flogged”; or to promote or talk about something excessively: “They
floggedtheirproposaluntileveryonewassickofit.”
Thenounscourgeisastripofanimalhideusedasawhip;thewordcomesfromtheLatinexcoriare,
tostripoffthehide,thesourceoftheEnglishverbtoexcoriate(ek-SKOR-ee-ayt),tostripofftheskin,
flay,andsotorebukeordenounceharshly.Toscourgeistowhipwithorasifwithascourge,topunish
severely.Aviciousmasterwillscourgeaslave;atyrantoranepidemiccanscourge—orbethescourge
of—apopulation;andacriticcanwriteascourgingreview,lashingoutwithspitefulwords.
The verb to flagellate and the noun flagellation (FLAJ-uh-LAY-shin), whipping, often connote
punishment motivated by self-hatred or masochism. Historically, a flagellant (FLAJ-uh-lint) was a
member of a medieval European sect of fanatics who whipped themselves in public to atone for sin.
Though condemned by the church, the practice continued until the 16th century. Because of this history,
flagellate is often used of self-inflicted punishment or violence, either literal or figurative—“After the
burglaryshecouldn’tstopflagellatingherselffornotrememberingtolockthebackdoor”—andsincethe
late 19th century flagellation has also referred to sexual gratification derived from whipping or being
whipped.
The word self-flagellation is commonly used today to mean extreme self-criticism, as “The public
willtolerateacelebrityobsessedwithself-promotion,buttheywillsoongrowtiredofoneaddictedto
self-flagellation.”
Word33:INS URGENT(in-SUR-jint)
Apersonwhorisesinoppositiontoagovernmentortoestablishedauthorityorleadership;arebel.
Insurgentmayalsobeusedasanadjectivetomeanrisinginrevolt,rebellious.Thus,youcanhavean
insurgent attack or an attack by insurgents. The word comes from the present participle of the Latin
insurgĕre,toriseup,andinEnglishitalwayssuggestsrebellionoroppositiontoauthority,oftenbyforce
ofarms.
Thenounsinsurgenceandinsurgencybothdenoteanuprising,butthereisafinedistinctionbetween
these words. An insurgence, explains Garner’s Modern American Usage, is “an act or the action of
risingagainstauthority,”asgovernmentforcesquashedyesterday’sinsurgence,whileaninsurgency is
“thestateorconditionofbeinginrevolt,”asaninsurgencyinthenorthernprovincesthathasgoneon
foramonth.
Aninsurgencyandaninsurrection(IN-suh-REK-shun) both suggest rising in opposition on a small
scaleorforabrieftime.Arevoltislarger,longer,andsomewhatmoreorganized.Arebellion is even
larger and fairly well organized. And if a rebellion led by insurgents succeeds in overthrowing an
establishedauthorityorgovernment,itbecomesarevolution.
Word34:PANACHE(puh-NASH,notpuh-NAHSH)
Grandorflamboyantconfidenceofstyleormanner.
Synonymsofpanacheincludeelegance,verve,flair,dash,andflourish.
Englishborrowedpanacheinthe16thcenturyfromaMiddleFrenchwordthatmeantatuftorplume
of feathers, and its original meaning was an ornamental tuft or plume of feathers, especially on a hat,
helmet, or other headdress. Panache may still be used in this sense, as a cockatoo with a colorful
panache,butsinceabout1900thefigurativeimplicationsofthisostentatiousplumehaveovertakenthe
word,andithasbeenusedalmostexclusivelytomeanagrandandshowyconfidenceofstyleoraction.
Anything that you can do with grand style and self-assurance you can do with panache. A sexy
Hollywood star in a flamboyant gown strolls down the red carpet with panache. Great orators deliver
spellbinding speeches with panache. A good waiter at a fancy restaurant will serve your dinner with
panache. And Vladimir Horowitz (1903–1989), the virtuoso pianist, performed Chopin’s romantic
waltzeswithpanache,majesticeleganceandstyle.
Word35:OMNIBUS (AHM-ni-bus)
Pertainingto,containing,orcoveringmanydifferentthingsoritemsatonce.
Omnibus comes through French from the Latin omnibus, for all, which comes in turn from omnis, all.
FromthisLatinomnisEnglishhasadoptedthecombiningformomni-,usedatthebeginningsofwordsto
mean “all.” For example, omnipotent (ahm-NIP-uh-tint) means all-powerful; omnivorous (ahm-NIV-uhrus) means all-devouring, eating all kinds of foods; omniscient (ahm-NISH-int) means all-knowing;
omnipresent(ahm-ni-PREZ-int)meanspresenteverywhere,inallplacesatonce;andomnifarious(ahmni-FAIR-ee-us)meansofallsortsorkinds,asomnifariousopinions.
OmnibusenteredEnglishabout1828asanounforwhatwenowmoreconciselycallabus,alarge
publicvehiclefortransportingmanypassengersbyroad.By1840thenounomnibushadalsocometobe
usedtomeansomethingthatcontainsorcoversalargenumberofthingsoritemsor,specifically,abook
containing reprinted works by a single author or a volume containing works by various authors on a
particulartopicortheme.
By1842omnibushadbecomeanadjectiveusedtomodifyanimmediatelyfollowingnouninphrases
suchasanomnibusshow,onefeaturingallkindsofacts;anomnibusaccount,onethataccommodatesall
kindsofassets;anomnibusmotion,alegalmotionthatmakesanumberofrequests;and,mostoften,an
omnibusbill,apieceoflegislationthatcoversorcontainsmanydifferentitems.
Word36:MILITATE(MIL-i-tayt)
Toweighheavily,operateorwork(against).
Militate comes from the Latin mīlitāre, to serve as a soldier, the source also of the English adjective
militant, which may mean either engaged in warfare or fighting, as the militant opposition, or
aggressivelypersistentorcombative,especiallyinsupportofacause,asmilitantanimalrightsactivists.
You may militate for or in favor of something, as “to militate for the Syrian president’s departure”
(ForeignPolicyJournal).Butinmodernusagemilitateisalmostalwayspairedwiththewordagainstto
mean to weigh heavily in opposition, operate or work against, as entrenched customs that militate
againstchange,orstrongevidencethatmilitatesagainstarulingintheirfavor.
Takecarenottoconfusetheverbsmilitateandmitigate.Tomitigate is to lessen in intensity, make
lesssevere,andshouldneverbefollowedbyagainst:“Twitterhastakensomestepstomitigatethespike
in traffic and ensure that the site is not knocked offline again” (PC World). Militate means to operate,
work,orweighheavily:“Almosteverythinginmodernsocietymilitatesagainstourfallinginlovehardor
long. It militates against love as risk, love as sacrifice, love as heroism” (Christina Nehring, The
Atlantic).
Word37:NIHILIS TIC(NY-i-LIS-tik)
Rejectingallestablishedinstitutions,laws,morality,andreligiousbeliefs,“oftenfromasenseofdespairandthebeliefthatlifeisdevoidof
meaning”(OED).
Theadjectivenihilisticandthenounnihilism(NY-i-liz’m)comefromtheLatinnihil,nothing,thesource
alsooftheEnglishnounnil,whichmaymeannothing,zero,ashereffortsamountedtonil,orconsisting
ofnothing,astheresultswerenil.
In philosophy, nihilism is an extreme form of skepticism—a denial of reality, any purpose to
existence, and any objective basis for truth. Historically, nihilism was the doctrine of certain Russian
revolutionaries in the late 19th century who held that all political, economic, and social institutions
should be destroyed by acts of terrorism and assassination. And in psychiatry, nihilism is a delusional
beliefthateverythingisunreal,andthattheself,orindividualconsciousness,hasceasedtoexist.
Ingeneralusagenihilismimpliesanegative,hostile,anarchicviewoftheworld.Thenihilistrejects
established beliefs, institutions, and traditions and welcomes despair and destruction, including selfdestruction. A nihilistic worldview denies the value and purpose of existence and embraces
meaninglessnessandnothingness.
Writers often use nihilistic of anyone who opposes the establisment, who questions the meaning of
existence,orwhoexhibitsantisocialordestructivebehavior.Forexample,AnthonyBurgess’s1962novel
A Clockwork Orange, which depicts the violent, depraved, repugnant6 behavior of a gang of British
teenagers,hasbeencallednihilistic,andsomecriticsofpopularmusichavearguedthatsongsthatappeal
tothedespairing,self-destructiveimpulsesofteenagersarenihilistic.
Word38:TORPID(TOR-pid)
Inactive,sluggish,slow,lackingenergy.
Theadjectivetorpidandthenountorpor (TOR-pur, mental or physical sluggishness or dullness) come
fromtheLatinverbtorpēre,tobesluggish,inactive,ornumb.Anythingthatsorelylacksenergyorvigor,
or that is inactive or dormant, can be described as torpid. An old person’s mind may become torpid,
sluggishfrominactivity.Atorpidaudienceisonewhosemembersaredullandunresponsive,whoyawn
anddoze.Andinmedicineapatient’sdigestioniscalledtorpidwhenitissloworinactive.
Synonyms of torpid include inert, apathetic, lethargic, indolent (word 48 of Level 4), phlegmatic
(fleg-MAT-ik),languid(seelanguish,word14ofLevel2),somnolent(word16ofLevel2),enervated,
languorous (LANG-gur-us), stupefied (stupefy is word 30 of Level 3), and otiose (OH-shee-OHS).
Antonyms of torpid include lively, energetic, vigorous, animated, frisky, spry, spirited, dynamic, and
vivacious(word15ofLevel1).
Word39:S EMINAL(SEM-i-nul)
Highlyinfluentialandcreative;sooriginalandimportantastoinfluencelaterdevelopmentorprovideabasisforfutureworks,events,orideas.
The adjective seminal comes through the Latin sēminālis from sēmen, a seed, that which is sown or
planted. This Latin sēmen, a seed, is also the source of disseminate (word 4 of Level 1), to spread
widely,scatterasifsowingseed;seminary,aplacewherepeoplestudyreligionandpreparetobecome
membersoftheclergy;andinseminate,whichinitsliteralsensemeanstoimpregnate,injectwithsemen,
as an artificially inseminated cow, and in its figurative sense means to implant as if by sowing seed:
“Advertisingseekstoinseminatedesireforaproductinasmanymindsaspossible.”
Ourkeyword,seminal,literallymeanslikeaseed.Itisusedinthisliteralwayinbotany,physiology,
andanatomytomeanof,pertainingto,orcontainingtheseed.Butsincethe17thcenturyseminalhasalso
been used figuratively to mean “containing the possibility of future development” (OED); hence, so
original and important as to influence later development or future events, as a seminal scientific study
thatchartedthecourseofallsubsequentresearch.
Word40:CRAVEN(KRAY-vin)
Cowardly,utterlylackingcourage,contemptiblytimidorfearful.
The origin of craven is uncertain, but it may go back to an Old French word meaning crushed,
overwhelmed, and may be related to the obsolete English adjective creant (KREE-int), defeated,
vanquished.ThisobsoletecreantisinturnrelatedtothecontemporaryEnglishmiscreant(MIS-kree-int),
which at first meant a person who holds a religious belief regarded as false, but now means an evil,
unscrupulousperson,avillain;andrecreant(REK-ree-int),whichasanounmeansapersonwhobreaks
allegiance,adeserterorcoward,andasanadjectivemeanscowardlyorunfaithfultoone’sduty.
Synonymsofcravenincludegutless,spineless,fainthearted,lily-livered,timorous(TIM-ur-us),and
pusillanimous(PYOO-si-LAN-i-mus).Thefirstfiveofthesesynonymssuggestcowardiceorfearfulness
ingeneral,whilepusillanimous,likecraven,isusedofcowardlypeopleoractionsthatareespecially
dishonorableordisgraceful.
Cravenmayalsobeusedasanountomeanadespicablecoward,andithassometimesbeenusedasa
verbtomeantomakecravenorcowardly,depriveofcourageorspirit,aswhenShakespearewritesinhis
playCymbeline (c. 1610), “Against self-slaughter / There is a prohibition so divine / That cravens my
weakhand.”
The expression to cry craven, like the familiar expression to cry uncle, means to yield, surrender,
acknowledgethatonehasbeenbeaten.
ReviewQuizforKeywords31–40
In each statement below, a keyword (in italics) is followed by three definitions. Two of the three are
correct;oneisunrelatedinmeaning.Decidewhichonedoesn’tfitthekeyword.Answersappearhere.
1.Braggadocioisbluster,gasconade,fanfare.
2.Toflagellateistoscourge,curse,flog.
3.Aninsurgentisarebel,arabble-rouser,arevolutionary.
4.Panacheisself-satisfaction,self-assurance,grandstyle.
5.Anomnibusbillhasmanysections,isfullofamendments,coversmanyitems.
6.Tomilitateistomakelesssevere,weighheavily,workagainst.
7.Anihilisticworldviewisutilitarian,anarchic,despairing.
8.Somethingtorpidisenervated,vivacious,sluggish.
9.Aseminalworkisoriginal,influential,spiritual.
10.Acravenpersonisstarving,cowardly,pusillanimous.
OnceUponaWord:PortmanteauWords
Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (DAHD-sun, 1832–1898), the shy Oxford University mathematician better
knownbyhispenname,LewisCarroll,isrememberedtodayastheauthoroftheclassicchildren’sbooks
Alice’sAdventuresinWonderland(1865)andThroughtheLooking-Glass(1871).Asloversofhisbooks
know well, Carroll was fond of punning and wordplay, and he was particularly fond of blending two
wordstocreateanonce(NAHNS)word,meaningawordcreated“forthenonce,”thepresentmomentor
aparticularoccasion.Carrollcalledthisblendingaportmanteauword(PORT-man-TOHorport-MANtoh),afteratypeofstiffleathercaseorbagthatopenedintotwoparts.
Inhisfamousnonsensepoem“Jabberwocky,”whichappearsinThroughtheLooking-Glass,Carroll
coinedvarioushumorousnoncewords—suchasbrillig,gimble,vorpal,frabjous,anduffish—alongwith
severalportmanteauwords,suchasfrumious,ablendoffumingandfurious,andslithy,ablendofslimy
and lithe. Two of Carroll’s blends in that poem have since gained widespread popularity: chortle,
createdfromchuckleandsnort,andgalumph,ablendofgallopandtriumphant.
Portmanteauwords,nowbetterknownasblendwords,arenotjustthestuffofchildren’sbooksbut
have long been a vital part of the language. Not all blend words catch on, of course, but, as Carroll’s
creationsdemonstrate,somestandthetestoftimeandmakeitintothedictionaries.Infact,someofour
most familiar words today were born as blends. For example, motel, a blend of motor and hotel, was
coinedinthe1920s;brunch,ablendofbreakfastandlunch,wasoriginallyuniversityslanginEnglandin
the1890s;andsmog, a blend of smoke and fog, was introduced in 1905 by a London doctor who was
concernedabouttheheavypallofcoalsmokechokingthecity.
My best guesstimate (a blend of guess and estimate) is that the English language has absorbed
hundredsofblendwordssincethe19thcentury.Slanguage,ablendofslangandlanguage,wascoinedin
the1870s.Glitterati(GLIT-uh-RAH-tee),ablendofglitterandliterati(LIT-uh-RAH-tee),theeducated
class,wascoinedinthe1950sanddenotescelebritiesorfashionablepeople.Camcorder,acombination
of camera and recorder, came along about 1980, and the late 1990s saw the emergence of bromance,
whichisnowintheonlineeditionoftheOED.Ablendofbrotherandromance,bromancemeansaclose,
nonsexualrelationshipbetweentwoheterosexualmales.Perhapsthebest-knownbromanceinliteratureis
therelationshipbetweenSherlockHolmesandDr.Watson.
Someblendwordsarecreatedinsuchawaythattheirendingsbecomesuffixesusedtocreatelater
blends. For example, walkathon (1930), talkathon (1934), and telethon (1949) all use the -thon of
marathonasasuffix.Likewisewithnewscast(1934),telecast(1937),andsimulcast(1948),whichuse
the-castofbroadcastasasuffix.
Otherwell-knownblendwordsincludemotorcade,ablendofmotorandcavalcade(KAV-ul-kayd,a
grandprocession,originallyonhorseback),whichwascreatedabout1910;bookmobile,acoinagefrom
the 1930s that uses the -mobile of automobile as a suffix; infomercial, a blend of information and
commercialthatwascoinedin1981;andstaycation,ablendofstayandvacationthatappearedin2005
andmeansavacationspentatornearone’shome.
***
Let’sreturnnowtotheWordWorkoutvocabularyfortenmorekeyworddiscussions.
Word41:MALADROIT(MAL-uh-DROYT)
Awkward,clumsy,unskillful.
Synonymsofmaladroitincludeincompetent,inept,bungling,tactless,gauche(GOHSH),andlubberly
(a lubber is a big, clumsy, stupid person). The direct antonym of maladroit is adroit (uh-DROYT),
skillful,clever,andefficientatdoingadifficultthing,eitherwithone’shandsorwithone’sbrain.Other
antonymsincludeaccomplished,adept,competent,dexterous,proficient,deft,andmasterly.
The antonymous adjectives adroit and maladroit are classic examples of the English language’s
ingrainedbiasagainstthelefthandandfavoringoftherighthand.Thetwowordssharethesameroot,the
Frenchdroit,whichmeansright,therighthand,orstraight,correct.Inadroit,whichmeansliterallytothe
right,weseethepositiveimplicationofskillfulnessanddexterityassociatedwiththerighthand.Butin
maladroit,whichbeginswiththeprivativeprefixmal-,bad,ill,andmeansnotadroit,notdonewiththe
righthand,weseetheimplicationofbiasagainsttheleft.
Dexterous, skillful, comes from the Latin dexter, right. The English word sinister, corrupt, evil,
unfavorable, comes from the Latin word sinister, left. The English word gauche, awkward, crude, or
graceless, is the French gauche, which means left but also crooked, awkward, clumsy. If you’re
ambidextrous,skillfulwithbothhands,youliterallyhavetworighthands.Butifyou’reambisinisteryou
are clumsy with both hands because, by derivation, you have two left hands. So there you have it: the
Englishlanguageisunfairtolefties.
Our keyword, maladroit, implies awkwardness or clumsiness that may be either physical or
intellectual;themaladroitpersondisplaysapronouncedlackofskillwitheitherthehandsorthemind.A
maladroitdriverisapoorlyskilledandpossiblyrecklessdriver.Amaladroitsurgeonmaybethetargetof
malpractice lawsuits. A maladroit lawyer lacks the proper knowledge and expertise to present a
persuasive case in court. And a maladroit writer is an intellectually clumsy writer, one who writes
awkwardsentencesandmakeselementarymistakesofgrammarandusage.
Word42:GORMANDIZE(GOR-mun-dyz)
Toeatgreedilyandexcessively,likeaglutton;togorge.
Thefamiliarwordgourmetdenotesaconnoisseuroffinefoodanddrink,apersonwhoappreciates“the
delicaciesofthetable”(OED). The words epicure (EP-i-kyuur) and gastronome (GAS-truh-nohm) are
synonymsofgourmet,implyingsomewhatgreaterexpertiseandrefinementoftaste.Thenot-so-familiar
wordgourmand(guur-MAHNDorGUUR-mahnd)alsodenotesapersonwhoappreciatesgoodfoodand
drink, but one whose taste is much less discriminating and who eats heartily or greedily. The word
gluttontakesheartyeatingonevoraciousstepfurtherandisusedofsomeonewhohabituallyoverindulges
infoodanddrink.
From the noun gourmand we get the verb to gormandize, which in most instances means to eat
voraciously and excessively, like a glutton. But to gormandize is also sometimes used figuratively to
meantodevourorgobbleup,asinthissentencewrittenbytheAmericanclergymanHenryWardBeecher
in1887:“Togormandizebooksisaswickedastogormandizefood.”
Word43:POLEMICAL(puh-LEM-i-kul)
Pertainingtoorconsistingofanargumentordispute.
Synonyms of the adjective polemical include the familiar words argumentative, controversial,
contentious (kun-TEN-shus), and disputatious (DIS-pyoo-TAY-shus), and the unusual word eristic (eRIS-tik),whichcomesfromtheGreekéristikós,fondofwranglingorarguing,froméris,strife,whichis
also the name of the goddess of strife or discord in Greek mythology. Eristic means given to or
characterizedbyargumentthatemployssubtleandsometimesspecious(SPEE-shus)reasoning.(Specious
meansusingdeceptivelanguagetomakesomethingfalseappeartrue.Aspeciousargumentlooksgoodon
thesurfacebutisflawedunderneath.)
Polemics(puh-LEM-iks)istheartorpracticeofargumentordisputation,andapolemic is a strong
argument or aggressive verbal attack, usually against some person, opinion, principle, or doctrine. A
polemicist(puh-LEM-i-sist)isapersonwhoengagesinpolemicsorwhoissuesapolemic.Ourkeyword,
polemical,meansrelatingtopolemicsorconsistingofapolemic.Apolemicalnovel,film,orplayisone
in which the author presents a vigorous argument about some social or political issue. And the U.S.
Congressisapolemicalinstitutioninwhichdebates,disputes,andcontroversythrive.
Word44:EPOCHAL(EP-uh-kul)
Highlysignificant,important,orinfluential;momentous.
Epochalistheadjectivecorrespondingtothenounepoch(EP-uk),aparticularperiodoftimeknownfor
itsdistinctivedevelopments,remarkablecharacteristics,ornoteworthyevents.Epochalmeansimportant
enoughtoinitiateorcharacterizeanepoch,adistinctiveornoteworthyperiod;hence,highlysignificant,
important,orinfluential.
WhentheRussiancomposerIgorStravinsky’sRiteofSpringwasfirstperformedinParisin1913,it
wasmetwithriotousdisfavor;yetthisepochalcompositionpavedthewayforthemodern,experimental
musicofthe20thcentury.Andifarchaeologistseveruncovertheso-calledmissinglink—thehypothetical
evolutionaryconnectionbetweentheanthropoidapesandhumanbeings—itwillbeanepochaldiscovery.
Word45:COGNOS CENTI(KAHN-yuh-SHEN-tee,alsoKOHN-orKAWN-)
Expertsinacertainsubject,connoisseurs,those“intheknow.”
English borrowed cognoscenti from Italian in the late 18th century; it is the equivalent of the more
familiarwordconnoisseur(KAH-nuh-SUR,not-SOO-ur),whichEnglishborrowedfromFrenchinthe
early 18th century. Cognoscenti comes ultimately from the Latin cognoscĕre, to learn, get to know, the
sourcealsooftheEnglishcognizant,aware,knowing;cognition,knowledge,perception;andcognitive,
pertainingtocognition.
Note that cognoscenti is a plural noun, both in Italian and in English; the singular is cognoscente,
spelledwithafinaleinsteadofaniandpronouncedthesameexceptwith-tayinsteadof-teeattheend.A
cognoscenteisanexpert,andthecognoscentiareexperts,connoisseurs,peoplewithsuperiorknowledge
ofasubject.Itisoftenusedofconnoisseursofthefineartsandliterature,butitmayalsobeusedofan
expertinoraficionadoofalmostanything,suchastenniscognoscenti,NASCARcognoscenti,orforeign
policycognoscenti.
Word46:IMMOLATE(IM-uh-layt)
Tokillordestroyasasacrifice,especiallybyfire.
The verb to immolate comes from the Latin immolāre, to sprinkle with sacred meal before sacrificing.
Thenounisimmolation(IM-uh-LAY-shun),theactorpracticeofburningasasacrifice.
Immolation is historically associated with the Hindu custom, now outlawed, called sati (suh-TEE,
also spelled suttee), in which a wife would show her unwavering loyalty to her deceased husband by
immolatingherselfonhisfuneralpyre.Buddhistmonkshavealsosometimespracticedself-immolation,
or self-sacrifice, by setting themselves on fire in public as a form of protest. Immolate is usually used
literallyoftheburningofanyoneoranythingasasacrifice,butthewordmayalsobeusedfigurativelyto
meantoofferinsacrifice,aspeoplewhoimmolatethemselvesonthealtaroflove.
Nowawordofcautiononusage.First,donotuseimmolateasanintransitiveverbmeaningtocatch
fire.Immolateisatransitiveverb,meaningthatsomethingmustbeimmolated;itcan’tjustimmolateby
itself.Second,immolateshouldnotbeusedlooselytomeantokillordestroyforanyreason.Thenotion
ofsacrificialburningisintrinsictothederivationandhistoryoftheword,andshouldberespected.Thus,
youdonotimmolateahouse,immolategarbage,orimmolatethelovelettersofaformerboyfriend;you
burn or destroy them. Reserve immolate for contexts in which something is destroyed or someone is
killedasasacrifice,especiallybyburning.
Word47:HIDEBOUND(HYD-bownd,rhymeswithridehound)
Narrowandinflexibleinone’sopinions;stubbornlystuckinone’sways.
Synonyms of hidebound include narrow-minded, uncompromising, bigoted, close-minded, obstinate,
intolerant, adamant, dogmatic, parochial (puh-ROH-kee-ul), intractable, and obdurate (AHB-d[y]uurit).Antonymsofhidebound include broad-minded, open-minded, tolerant, liberal, and latitudinarian
(word33ofLevel8).
Hideboundwasfirstusedofahorse,cow,orotherdomesticanimaltomeanhavingskinthatclings
tightly to the bones; hence, undernourished or emaciated (word 11 of Level 1). This sense was also
applied to human beings, as in this citation from William Wright’s 1895 travelogue Palmyra and
Zenobia:“Theyhadnotthehidebound,hunger-pinchedappearanceofthechildrenofYabroud.”Butfrom
thetimehideboundenteredEnglishinabout1600ithasalsobeenusedfiguratively,inwhatistodayits
usual sense, to mean obstinately set in one’s opinion or purpose, stubbornly narrow-minded, as a
hidebound traditionalist who resists change of any kind or hidebound grammarians who cling to
outmodedrules.
Individualsandgroupscanbehidebound,narrowandinflexibleintheiropinions,butcertainthings,
such as laws, traditions, and customs, can also be hidebound, stubbornly inflexible: “The English have
alwaysstruggledwiththeirhideboundclassdivisions”;“Ifsohideboundaninstitutionasthepapacycan
bechanged,whatcan’tbe?”(TheNewYorkTimes).
Word48:MOLDER(MOWL-dur,rhymeswithshoulder)
Todecay,disintegrate,crumble,rot,wasteaway,becomeparticlesordust.
When you think of the noun mold you probably think of the greenish-gray, downy fungi (FUHN-jy, not
FUHNG-gy)thatgrowonthingsthataredampordecaying.Butthere’sanotherkindofmold: rich, soft,
loosesoil,fulloforganicmatterandsuitableforplanting.Suchgardensoilmadefromcompostingleaves
iscalledleafmold.Itisfromthisearthy,crumblykindofmoldthatwegettheverbtomolder,torotor
decay:“Thereislittletolurevisitorsintotheweedsandmolderingwoodsthatstretchformilesalong
JamaicaBay’snorthernedges”(TheNewYorkTimes).
Anythingoldanddampthatislefttodecaycanbedescribedasmoldering—forexample,moldering
fruit, moldering books, moldering wallpaper, moldering clothes, a moldering castle, works of art that
molderinamuseum’sbasement,and—holdyournosenow—amolderingcorpse.
Butmoldercanalsobeusedofanythingthatisfigurativelyfallingapartorwastingaway:“Halligan’s
nominationhasbeenmolderingfortwoyearsnow”(TheNewYorkTimes).Afriendshipcanmolderfrom
inattention.Aconvictcanmolderforyearsinprison.Abrilliantideacanmolderifnooneactsonit.And
supportfororoppositiontosomethingcanmolder,crumbleordisintegrate,overtime.
Word49:FRATRICIDE(FRA-tri-syd)
Theactofkillingone’sbrother,orapersonwhokillshisorherbrother.
Inextendeduse,fratricidemayalsodenotethekillerorthekillingofsomeonewhoislikeabrother—for
example,acountryman,fellowsoldier,orclosefriend.
Inlaw,fratricideisdefinedastheactofkillingabrotherorsister,orapersonwhokillsabrotheror
sister, and some contemporary dictionaries give this definition for fratricide. This follows the oldfashionedpracticeoflumpingwomenwithmeninsuchwordsasmankindandinwell-wornphraseslike
“all men are created equal.” Because this practice is widely considered sexist, most of us now use
firefighterinsteadoffireman,policeofficerinsteadofpoliceman,andmailcarrierinsteadofmailman,
andmanyprefertheinclusivewordhumankindovertheone-sidedmankind.
Sowithfratricideyoushouldknowthatbyderivationthewordrefersonlytothekillerorkillingofa
brother,becauseitcomesfromtheLatinfrater,brother,whilethecompaniontermsororicide(suh-RORi-syd),fromtheLatinsoror,sister,denotesakillerorthekillingofasister.Bothtermsincorporatethe
combiningform-cide,whichcomesfromtheLatincaedere,tocutorkill,andmeanseitherakillerorthe
actofkilling.
Let’s have a look at some of the other -cide words—or killer words—in the language. There are,
regrettably,quitealotofthem.
Homicide (properly pronounced HAHM-i-syd, not HOHM-i-syd), from the Latin homo, a man or a
humanbeing,isthekillingorkillerofaperson,maleorfemale.Suicide,fromtheLatinsui,ofoneself,is
aself-killingoraself-killer.Infanticide (in-FAN-ti-syd) is the killing or killer of an infant. Matricide
(MA-tri-syd),fromtheLatinmater,amother,isthekillingorkillerofone’smother.Patricide (PA-trisyd),fromtheLatinpater,afather,isthekillingorkillerofone’sfather.Andparricide(PAR-i-syd),from
theLatinparracida,akin-killer,isthekillingorkillerofafather,mother,orothercloserelative.
Themorefamiliarregicide(REJ-i-syd),fromtheLatinrēx,rēgis,aking,ruler,isthekillingorkiller
ofaking;tyrannicide(ti-RAN-i-syd),fromtheLatintyrannus,anabsoluteruler,isthekillingorkillerof
atyrant;andgenocide(JEN-uh-syd)—whichwascoinedduringWorldWarIIfromtheGreekgénos and
theLatingĕnus,bothofwhichmeantraceorkind—denotes“thesystematicandplannedexterminationof
anentirenational,racial,political,orethnicgroup”(AmericanHeritage).Thesystematicunderminingof
aperson’svaluesandbeliefs,asthroughbrainwashingortorture,iscalledmenticide(MEN-ti-syd).
Therearealsomany-cide words that kill things other than human beings. For example, a pesticide
killspests;aninsecticidekillsinsects;aherbicide(pronouncetheh,HUR-bi-syd)killsweedsandother
unwanted plants; a bactericide kills bacteria; a fungicide (FUHN-ji-syd) kills fungi (FUHN-jy), the
pluraloffungus;andavermicide(VUR-mi-syd),fromtheLatinvermis,aworm,killsworms,especially
intestinalworms.
Word50:S PLENETIC(spluh-NET-ik)
Irritable,ill-tempered;spitefulandmorose;giventoangryandimpatientfits.
Youcanimaginehowmanysynonymsthereareforawordthatmeansirritableorill-tempered.Hereare
some of them: cross; cranky; peevish; churlish (word 9 of Level 6); waspish; snappish; petulant
(PECH-uh-lint); cantankerous (kan-TANG-kur-us); choleric (KAH-luh-rik, literally affected with the
disease cholera); grouchy; sullen; sulky; crabbed (KRAB-id); surly; ill-humored; testy; crusty;
captious; irascible (i-RAS-i-bul); curmudgeonly (kur-MUHJ-in-lee); dyspeptic (dis-PEP-tik, word 11
of Level 7); acrimonious (AK-ri-MOH-nee-us); querulous (KWER-uh-lus); and atrabilious (A-truhBIL-ee-us,word24ofLevel8).
SpleneticcomesfromtheGreekandLatinwordsforthespleen,andoriginallymeantof,pertainingto,
oraffectingthespleen,theorganthatdestroysoldredbloodcells,filtersandstoresblood,andproduces
lymphocytes(LIM-fuh-syts),atypeofwhitebloodcellessentialtothebody’simmunesystem.Because
theancientsconsideredthespleentheseatofvariousemotions,spleneticcametobeusedofpeoplewho
had fits of bad temper, angry impatience, or ill will, or who had a melancholy, morose, ill-humored
disposition.In1780theEnglishphilosopherJeremyBenthamwroteof“thefearoffuturepunishmentat
the hands of a splenetic and revengeful Deity.” And in 1841, in his novel Barnaby Rudge, Charles
Dickenswrotethat“neighbourswhohadgotupspleneticthatmorning,feltgood-humourstealingonthem
astheyheard”the“pleasantmusic,”the“magicaltink,tink,tink,”ofthelocksmith.
Thatishowwecontinuetousesplenetictoday:tomeangloomy,irritable,andspiteful,giventofitsof
angerandimpatience.Thewordiscommonlyappliedtopeople,butitmayapplyaswelltowhatpeople
sayorwrite,asthespleneticutterancesofademagogue[word12ofLevel4]withamillionfollowers
on Twitter. It may also apply to anything that seems to manifest spiteful or morose irritability: “Stock
markets…turneddownrightspleneticinexchangesfromFrankfurttoNewYork”(TheDealPipeline).
ReviewQuizforKeywords41–50
Inthisquizthereviewwordisfollowedbythreewordsorphrases,andyoumustdecidewhichcomes
nearestthemeaningofthereviewword.Answersappearhere.
1.Isamaladroitmaneuverawkward,ill-considered,orinappropriate?
2.Whenyougormandize,doyoutalkatlength,eatexcessively,orchewthoroughly?
3.Isapolemicalessayscholarly,humorous,orargumentative?
4.Wouldanepochaleventbehighlysignificant,controversial,orunremarkable?
5.Arethecognoscentipowerfulpeople,ordinarypeople,orexperts?
6.Whenyouimmolatesomething,doyoucopyit,competewithit,orsacrificeit?
7.Isahideboundpersonnarrow-minded,optimistic,orantisocial?
8.Whensomethingmolders,doesitsprout,disintegrate,orburn?
9.Isfratricidetheactofhatingabrother,marryingabrother,orkillingabrother?
10.Wouldaspleneticpersonbevigorous,spiteful,orincoherent?
OnceUponaWord:ABriefCruiseontheOceanofEnglish
Haveyoueverwonderedwhyaship’slatrineiscalledthehead?Whatdoesthatbodyparthavetodo
with the functions we reserve for the bathroom? As it turns out—happily—nothing. The nautical head
referstotheboworheadoftheship,wherethelatrinewasoriginallysituated.Theheadisaeuphemism
(word18ofLevel2)sailorsuseinthesamewaylandlubbersusethejohn,whichisprobablyavariation
onthe19th-centuryBritishdialectaljackorJack’shouse,meaningaprivy.
Speakingoftheheadandthejohn,let’sturnourattentiontothepoop,thesuperstructureatthesternof
aship.Haveyoueverwonderedwhatthoseancientmarinerswerethinkingwhentheychosetopoopin
theheadandstandonthepoop?Sometimestheyevenateandsleptinthepoop!
Don’t be alarmed, for it all makes sense. The landlubber’s poop, which probably comes from the
Middle English poupen, to blow a horn, bears no direct relation to the seafarer’s poop, which comes
fromtheLatinpuppis,thesternofaship.There’sevenanauticalverbtopoop,meaningtobreakoverthe
sternofavessel.“Alargetumblingswellthreatenedtopoopus,”saystheearliestcitationforitinthe
OED,from1748.
Wheneveryoufeelgroggyyoucanblamethe18th-centuryBritishviceadmiralSirEdwardVernon,
whosemencalledhim“OldGrog”becauseoftheheavygrogramcoathewouldalwayswearondeck,no
mattertheweather.InAugustof1740,tiredofputtingupwithunruly,drunkensailors,Vernonissuedan
ordertodilutetheirrumration,threepartswatertoonepartrum,withportionsservedsixhoursapart.
Hismenrespondedbydubbingtheadulteratedmixturegrog.Whenitbecametheofficialliquorrationfor
theentireRoyalNavy,grogcametomeaninferior,inexpensivebooze,andlateritwasusedevenmore
broadlyofanyliquor.
Ifsomeoldsalttellsyouthatgob,meaningasailor,comesfromthesealantssailorsusetowaterproof
aship,don’tbelieveawordofit.Thisgobisnotsealant;it’splainoldspit.Inthesecondhalfofthe19th
century gob was used in British and American English to mean to expectorate. It appears to have first
beenusedofBritishcoastguardsmenwhowerefondofsittingaroundtogethersmokingpipesandspitting.
Finally,let’sdispelthepersistentrumorthatposh—meaningelegant,fashionable,upper-crust—isan
acronym for port out, starboard home. As the story goes, posh “was formerly stamped on first-class,
round-trip tickets of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Co., which carried mail and
passengers between England and India,” writes Hugh Rawson in Devious Derivations. “The acronym,
saidtodatefromtheyearspriortoWorldWarI,supposedlyentitledtheticketholdertopassageinoneof
thecoolercabinsaboardship,ontheportside,facingnorth,ontheoutwardboundjourney,andonthe
starboard side, again facing north, when returning home.” This story, though charming, has never been
proved,andtheoriginofposhremainsunknown.
AnswerstoReviewQuizzesforLevel5
KEYWORDS1–10
1.Yes.Bereftmeansforciblydeprivedofsomethingneeded,wanted,orexpected.
2.No.Anemesisisanunconquerableavenger,apersonorthingthatmetesoutpunishment.
3.No.Someonewhoequivocatesusesevasiveandambiguouslanguagesoastomislead.
4.No.Aphilistineisanuneducated,uncultured,narrow-mindedperson.
5.No.Bacchanalianmeansfrenzied,riotous,orgiastic,characterizedbydrunkenrevelry.
6.No.Aschismisasplitorbreak,adivisionofagroupintoopposingfactions.
7.Yes.Alinguafrancaisacommonlanguage.
8.Yes.Winsomemeanscharming,agreeable,andpleasantinappearanceormanner.
9.No.Patricianmeansaristocratic,ofhighbirthorsocialstanding,upper-class.
10.Yes.Toredactistoeditforpublication,especiallytoremoveoradapttexttomakesomethingacceptableforpublication.
KEYWORDS11–20
1.True.Aprécisisabriefsummaryorconciseoutline.
2.True.Taxonomyisanorderlysystemofnamingandclassifyingthings.
3.False.Somethingsubliminalisbelowyourlevelofconsciousawareness.
4.True.Philanthropyisloveofhumankind;misanthropyishatredofhumankind.
5.True.Yourimprimaturisyourapprovalorsupport.
6.True.Acanardisafalse,absurd,andoftenderogatorystoryorreport.
7.True.Perfidiousfriendsaretreacherous,disloyalfriends—justasbadasenemies.
8.False.Anepiphanyisamomentofsudden,dramaticinsightorrealization.
9.False.Toprattleistochatter,babble,talkinafoolish,childish,orsimplemindedway.
10.False.Apersonofhighbirthorrankisaristocraticorpatrician(word9ofthislevel).Plebeianmeansofthecommonpeople,ordinary.
KEYWORDS21–30
1.Synonyms.Togullistocheat,trick,deceive,takeadvantageof.
2.Antonyms.Compendiousmeanscondensed,abridged,containingthesubstanceofasubjectinbriefform.Exhaustivemeansthorough,
coveringeverything.
3.Antonyms.Torhapsodizeistoexpressoneselfwithextravagantemotionorenthusiasm.
4.Synonyms.Anincongruityissomethingthatdisagrees,somethingincompatible.Anoxymoronisaself-contradictoryexpression.
5.Antonyms.Provenanceisthesourceororiginofsomething.Adestinationisaplacewheresomethinggoesorissent.
6.Synonyms.Laissez-faireisnoninterferencewiththeaffairsofothersorwithindividualfreedomofaction.
7.Synonyms.Preternaturalmeanssupernatural,beyondwhatisconsiderednormalornatural;hence,exceptional,extraordinary.
8.Antonyms.Todisabuseistofreefromerror,deception,ormisunderstanding.
9.Synonyms.Acourtesanisahigh-classfemaleprostitute.Aconcubineisamistress.
10.Synonyms.Todebauchistocorruptorseduce—thesameastodeprave.
KEYWORDS31–40
1.Fanfaredoesn’tfit.Braggadocioisemptyandarrogantboastingorbragging.
2.Cursedoesn’tfit.Toflagellateistowhip,flog,lash,scourge.
3.Rabble-rouser—ademagogue(word12ofLevel4)—doesn’tfit.Aninsurgentissomeonewhorisesinoppositiontoagovernmentorto
establishedauthority,arebel,revolutionary.
4.Self-satisfactiondoesn’tfit.Panacheisself-assurance,grandorflamboyantconfidenceofstyleormanner.
5.Fullofamendments,correctionsorchanges,doesn’tfit.Omnibusmeanspertainingto,containing,orcoveringmanythingsoritemsat
once.
6.Makelessseveredoesn’tfit;tomitigatemeanstomakelesssevere,alleviate.Tomilitateistoweighheavily,operateorworkagainst.
7.Utilitarian(word49ofLevel4)doesn’tfit.Nihilisticmeansanarchic,despairing,rejectingestablishedinstitutionsandbeliefs.
8.Vivacious,lively,energetic,doesn’tfit.Torpidmeansinactive,sluggish,enervated.
9.Spiritualdoesn’tfit.Seminalmeanshighlyoriginalandcreative,influencinglaterworks,events,orideas.
10.Starvingdoesn’tfit.Cravenmeanscowardly,contemptiblytimid,pusillanimous.
KEYWORDS41–50
1.Amaladroitmaneuverisawkward,clumsy,unskillful.
2.Whenyougormandize,youeatgreedilyandexcessively,likeaglutton.
3.It’sargumentative.Polemicalmeanspertainingtoorconsistingofanargumentordispute.
4.Anepochaleventishighlysignificant,important,orinfluential.
5.Thecognoscentiareexpertsinacertainsubject,connoisseurs.
6.Yousacrificeit.Toimmolateistokillordestroybysacrifice,especiallybyfire.
7.Ahideboundpersonisnarrow-mindedandstubbornlyinflexible.
8.Itdisintegrates.Tomolderistodecay,crumble,rot,wasteaway.
9.Fratricideistheactofkillingone’sbrother,orapersonwhokillshisorherbrother.
10.Aspleneticpersonisirritable,spiteful,andmorose.
LEVEL6
Word1:INELUCTABLE(IN-i-LUHK-tuh-bul)
Nottobeevadedorresisted;unavoidable;inescapable;inevitable.
Ineluctable comes from the Latin inēluctābilis, from which one cannot struggle free, combining the
privativeprefixin-,not,withtheverbēluctāre, to struggle out of, surmount. By derivation ineluctable
means not to be struggled free from, unable to be surmounted, or, as Henry Cockeram defined it in his
EnglishDictionarieof1623,oneoftheearliestworksofEnglishlexicography,“nottobeeouercomeby
anypaines.”Thisisstilltheessentialmeaningofthewordtoday.
History is replete (well-stocked, richly supplied) with stories of ineluctable social, political, and
economicforcesalteringandsometimesdestroyingthelivesofindividuals.Someone’sfateordestinyis
oftendescribedasineluctable,unavoidableorinevitable.AndinclassicalGreekdrama,thedownfallof
themaincharacteristheineluctableconsequenceoftragicflaws—includinghubris(word40ofLevel1),
excessivepride.
Word2:MORIBUND(MOR-uh-bund)
Dying,closetodeath,atdeath’sdoor.
An unusual synonym of moribund is the Latin phrase in extremis (in-ek-STREE-mis), at the point of
death.
MoribundcomesfromtheLatinmoribundus,dying,atthepointofdeath,whichcomesinturnfrom
theverbmorī,todie,thesourcealso,byacircuitous(sur-KYOO-i-tus,indirect,roundabout)path,ofthe
word murder. This Latin morī, to die, appears also in the expression memento morī (muh-MEN-toh
MOR-eye or MOR-ee), which was borrowed directly from Latin and means “remember that you must
die”;thephraseisoftenusedofanobject,suchasaskull,thatservesasareminderofone’smortality.
Moribund may be used in a literal sense to mean dying, as a moribund houseplant or a moribund
relative.Butinmodernusagemoribundisalsooftenusedinanextended,nonliteralsensetomeanina
stateofterminaldecline,approachingextinction.Adyingempire,anobsolescentcustom,afailinglove
affair,andacompanygoingoutofbusiness—allaremoribund,closetodeathoronthevergeofexpiring.
Word3:BELLWETHER(BEL-weth-ur)
Aleader,onewhotakestheinitiative;also,aleadingindicatorofatrend.
Awether(pronouncedlikeweather)isacastratedmalesheep,andinitsoriginalsenseabellwetherwas
awetherwithabellhungonitsneckwhosefunctionwastoleadtheflockofsheep.Hence,bellwether
cametoalsomeanaleader.Atfirstthissensewasdisparaging,asthebellwetherofamutiny, meaning
not just a leader but a ringleader, one who leads others in improper or illegal activity. But in modern
usagebellwethernolongerhasthisnegativeconnotation,andthewordisusedchieflyintwoways.Itmay
denote“apersonorthingthatassumestheleadershiporforefront”(RandomHouse),asBlackstoneisa
bellwether investor in the industry. Or it may denote a leading indicator of a trend, as Ohio is
consideredthebellwetherstateinU.S.presidentialelections.
Word4:PERMUTATION(PUR-myoo-TAY-shin)
Athoroughorfundamentalchange,ortheresultofsuchachange.
Synonyms of permutation include alteration, transformation, transmutation, transfiguration, and
metamorphosis.
The noun permutation comes ultimately from the Latin permūtāre, to change completely, a
combination of the intensifying prefix per-, thoroughly, completely, and mūtāre, to change, alter. In its
mostgeneralsense,amutationisachangeoralteration;forexample,aso-calledcorrectioninthestock
market(meaningasuddenandoftensteepdeclineinprices)maycauseamutationintheeconomy,and
cells in the body may undergo mutation and become cancerous. A permutation is a thorough or
fundamentalmutation,ortheresultofsuchamutation.TheFordMustanghasundergoneseveraldesign
permutationssincetheclassiccarwasintroducedin1964.Andeveryyearthemoversandshakersinthe
worldoffashionhopetheyhavefoundasuccessfulpermutationofwhatwasinstylebefore.
Word5:INTERLOPE(in-tur-LOHPorIN-tur-lohp)
Tointerfere,intrude;tothrustoneselfintoothers’affairs,usuallyforselfishreasons.
Synonymsofinterlopeincludetomeddle,trespass,invade,infringe,encroach, and the colloquial butt
in.
Theoriginoftheverbtointerlopeisunclear,butitisprobablyrelatedtotheMiddleDutchlopenor
loopen,torun,andanOldEnglishwordmeaningtoleap.Thecombiningforminter-meansbetween,so
interlopebyderivationmeanstorunorleapbetween,hencetointerfere.Originallytointerlopereferred
tounlicensedinterferinginothers’tradingrightsorunauthorizedintrudingontheircommercialterritory,
andthewordmaystillbeusedinthisway,asAninterlopingcompanyeagertoprofitfromtheuntapped
oil and gas in the region. But from this specialized meaning developed the modern and more general
sense:tointrudeonthedomainofothersortointerfereintheiraffairs,invariablyforselfishgain.Thus,
aninterlopingspeciesisonethatintrudesonthehabitatofotherspeciesandcrowdsthemout.Andonthe
sci-fiTVshowStarTrektheso-calledPrimeDirectivefortheUnitedFederationofPlanetsdictatesthat
therecanbenointerlopinginaliencivilizations.
Thenounisinterloper(IN-tur-LOH-pur),someoneorsomethingthatselfishlyinterferesormeddles
intheaffairsofothers:“EversinceMarthatookinthatstraycathe’sbeenaninterloperinourhouse.”
Word6:HECTOR(HEK-tur)
Tobullyorbedomineering;tointimidateortormentwithwordsorthreats.
The verb to hector is an eponym, a word derived from a name. It comes from Hector, the leader and
bravestwarrioroftheTrojansinGreekmythology.InHomer’sIliad,whichtellsthestoryoftheTrojan
War,HectorslaysPatroclus(puh-TROH-klus),thefriendofthegreatestoftheGreekwarriors,Achilles
(uh-KIL-eez), who in revenge slays Hector and drags his body behind his chariot around the walls of
Troy.
HectorwasfirstusedinEnglishasanountomeanavaliantwarriorlikeHector.Itwaslaterapplied
to“asetofdisorderlyyoungmenwhoinfestedthestreetsofLondon”(OED)inthe17thcenturyandwas
usedtomeanaswaggering,bullyingbraggart.Itwassoontransformedintoaverbmeaningtobullyorto
be a bully, as in this quotation from Henry Fielding’s 1749 novel Tom Jones: “We are … not to be
hectored,andbullied,andbeatintocompliance.”Thisishowhectorismostoftenusedtoday.
Someonewhohectorsisdomineeringandintimidating,usinganymeansshortofoutrightviolence—
such as shouting, insults, and threats—to instill fear and obedience in others. Army drill sergeants, for
example, are infamous for hectoring recruits, but even a parent or teacher who bullies and threatens
childrencanbedescribedashectoring.
Word7:DIS S OLUTE(DIS-uh-LOOT)
Lackingmoralrestraint;giventoimmoralbehavior.
Synonymsoftheadjectivedissoluteincludewanton,lewd,debauched(debauchisword30ofLevel5),
licentious (ly-SEN-shus), dissipated (DIS-i-pay-tid), and profligate (PRAHF-li-git). Antonyms include
prudish,straitlaced,andpuritanical.
DissolutecomesfromtheLatindissolūtus,loose,disconnected,andoncemeantlooseorrelaxed.In
modernusage,though,dissolutemeanslooseinmoralsandconduct,toorelaxedaboutone’svirtue.The
dissolute person lacks all restraint and is given to indulgence in immoral behavior, especially sensual
pleasuresandvices.Adissolutelifestyleisonecharacterizedbyoverindulgenceinandoftenaddictionto
somethingconsideredimmoral,suchasdrugs,sex,orgambling.
Dissolutemayalsobeusedasanountomeanadissoluteperson:“Whethertheyarefromhighorlow
society—trust-fund-squandering preppies slugging gin and tonics in the Hamptons or unwashed,
unemployedne’er-do-wellsstickingneedlesintheirarms—dissoluteseverywhereareallthesame.”
Word8:LINEAMENTS (LIN-ee-uh-mints)
Distinguishingfeaturesordistinctivecharacteristics.
Thesingularnounlineament,whichismoreoftenusedintheplural,lineaments,comesthroughtheLatin
līneāmentum, a drawn line or a feature, from the Latin līneā, a line, the source also of the adjective
linear,composedoflines,hencestraightorsequential,asalinearnarrativeorlinearthinking.
Lineamentsmaybeusedofapartofthebody,especiallytheface,tomeanadistinctivecontouror
outline, or a particular feature or detail, as a marble bust with the same graceful lineaments as its
subject. Perhaps more often, though, lineaments is used generally of any distinguishing features or
distinctivecharacteristics,whetherphysical,asthegrimanddangerouslineamentsofthatbarrencoast,
or figurative, as the structural lineaments of poetry or an apartment with all the lineaments of a
sophisticatedmanwithrefinedtastes.
Word9:CHURLIS H(CHUR-lish)
Lackingcivilityandgraciousness;rude,ill-mannered,ungracious.
Synonyms of churlish include surly, gruff, boorish, loutish, and uncouth. Antonyms include polite,
gracious,well-bred,refined,andcourtly.
The English noun churl (rhymes with girl) is more than a thousand years old and comes from the
Anglo-Saxonceorl,amanorhusband.IntheMiddleAges,inthefeudalsystem,achurlwasafreemanof
thelowestrank,justaboveaslave.Becauseofthislowsocialpositiontheadjectivechurlish,whichis
almostasoldaschurl,firstmeantpertainingtothelowrankofachurl,butitsooncametosuggestthe
rustic,earthy,andcrudecharacteristicsofachurl,andthenthevulgar,low-bredcharacterofachurl.By
theearly15thcenturychurlishhadcometomeanlackingcivilityandgraciousness,rude,boorish,surly,
andthisisthecommonmeaningofthewordtoday.
WhenShakespeare,inTroilusandCressida,writes,“Heisasvaliantasthelion,churlishasthebear,
slowasanelephant,”hemeansthatthebearisirritableandantisocial.Churlishhostsorchurlishguests
arerudeandungracious—notniceoraccommodatingatall.AndanyonewhohaswatchedtheclassicTV
sitcomAllintheFamilyknowsthatArchieBunker—thebenighted(word48ofthislevel)bigotplayed
byCarrollO’Connor—wastheembodimentofchurlishness,rude,ill-manneredbehavior.
Word10:PREPOS S ES S ING(PREE-puh-ZES-ing)
Givingafavorableimpression;attractive,engaging,pleasing,comely.
Theverbtoprepossessmaymeantopreoccupybeforehand:“ShecametoWashingtonprepossessedwith
grandiose (word 3 of Level 1) ideas.” Or it may mean to influence beforehand, to bias or prejudice,
especiallyinfavorofsomething:“Theyeasilyprepossessedthecorruptjudgewithflatteryandbribes.”
The adjective prepossessing originally meant causing bias or prejudice, but that sense is obsolete, and
sincethe1700sthewordhasbeenusedtomeancreatingagoodimpression,predisposingfavorably:“His
prepossessinggoodlooksandmannerswontheheartsofallwhomethim”;“Rarelyisayoungwriter’s
firstnovelasprepossessingandprofoundasthis.”
The antonym of prepossessing is the perhaps more common unprepossessing, not creating a good
impression; hence, unattractive, unremarkable, or unpleasant. An unprepossessing person makes a poor
impression,perhapsbecauseheorsheisdressedpoorly,speakspoorly,orhasbadbreath.Andagreat
restaurantmaybelocatedinanundesirableneighborhoodonanunprepossessingstreet.
ReviewQuizforKeywords1–10
Considerthefollowingquestionsanddecidewhetherthecorrectanswerisyesorno.Answers appear
here.
1.Issomethingineluctableavoidable?
2.Ifsomethingismoribund,isitlikelytosurvive?
3.Isabellwetheraleader?
4.Isapermutationatransformation?
5.Whenyouinterlope,doyouinterfere?
6.Doessomeonewhohectorsofferhelpfuladvice?
7.Wouldadissolutepersonexerciserestraint?
8.Arelineamentsdistinguishingfeatures?
9.Isachurlishpersonunfriendly?
10.Issomethingprepossessingattractive?
Don’tStupidsizeMe
Aftermyvocabulary-buildingprogramVerbalAdvantagecameoutasabookin2000(itwasoriginally
anaudiocourse),Iwasinvitedtobeaguestonsalon.com,answeringquestionsinaforumcalledTable
Talk.Itwasalivelydiscussion.Atonepointaparticipantcommentedthatmanyofthekeywordsinthe
bookstruckheras“triviaquestionsmorethanelementsofaworkingvocabulary.”Andsheasked,“As
muchfunasitistoknowawordlikesciamachy[sy-AM-uh-kee,fightingwithashadoworanimaginary
opponent],doyoureallythinkitshouldbepartofeverydaydiscourse?”
That’safairquestion,Itoldher.Toomanypeopleusebigwordstoshowoffortointimidateothers,
whichisobnoxious,andwhat’sthepointoflearningwordsthatnobodyelsewillunderstand?ButthenI
remindedherthatnine-tenthsofthewordsinanunabridgeddictionaryarenotpartofeverydaydiscourse,
andatleasthalfofthosearenotsotechnicalorobscurethatnooneusesthem.They’rejustnotcommon.
Shouldlexicographersnotbothertoincludethem?(Sometimestheydon’t,tomakeroomfortrendynew
words.)Shouldwenotbothertolearnsomeofthem,ifonlybecausethey’reuncommonlyinteresting?And
why should something as unimaginative and boring as everyday discourse dictate—or circumscribe—
whatwordsareworthlearning?
Toawriterallwordsareuseful,whethertheyareusedtoday,tomorrow,nextyear,justonce,ornever.
Just having a word in your vocabulary is enough; it’s like having had a memorable experience. For
example, my experience with the adjective chryselephantine (KRIS-el-uh-FAN-tin), made of gold and
ivory, gave me untold delight, while my experience with the verb to impact was unpleasant enough to
makemeswearoffitpermanently.
Whatwriterwouldn’tsquirmandcurseifconfinedtothevocabularyofeverydaydiscourse?That’s
likehavingtoeatfastfoodanddrinksugarysodaateverymeal.Suchanunappealingdietofunremarkable
wordscandoonlyonething:stupidsizeme.
This isn’t an argument against simple diction, which has its merits. It’s an argument against the
arbitrary notion that we should always use simple words and that difficult words have no place in our
discourse.Writerswhorejectuncommonwordscondemnthemselvestothefrustrationoftryingtobuilda
house with only a screwdriver. And they forfeit, foolishly, the right to partake in the treasure of our
tongue.
***
HerearethenexttenkeywordsinLevel6:
Word11:ELEGIAC(EL-i-JY-ik)
Ofthenatureofanelegy;hence,expressinggrief,sorrow,orlamentation.
Synonymsofelegiacincludemournful,tearful,melancholy,funereal,rueful(word25ofLevel1),and
plaintive(word9ofLevel2).
Elegiacistheadjectivecorrespondingtothenounelegy.Anelegy(EL-i-jee)isatypeofpoemthat
expressesgrieformourning.InTheMakingofaPoem,MarkStrandandEavanBolandexplainthat“an
elegyisalament.Itsetsoutthecircumstancesandcharacterofaloss.Itmournsforadeadperson,lists
his or her virtues, and seeks consolation beyond the momentary event.” Although the elegy is a public
poem of lament, expressing the grief of a community or culture, the best elegies express not only
communallamentationbutthepoet’sprivategriefaswell.
Elegiac expression is not limited to poetry. A novel, a memoir, a play, or a film can be elegiac,
expressing grief over the loss of a person or thing. A great deal of music is also elegiac, mournful,
melancholy,expressiveofloss.
ElegiacissometimesmispronouncedEL-i-JAY-ik,asifthewordwerespelledelegaic.Takecareto
spellitelegiacandsayEL-i-JY-ik.
Word12:UKAS E(yoo-KAYSorYOO-kays,likeyoucase)
Anauthoritativeorder,command,orproclamation.
UkaseenteredEnglishabout1730,comingthroughFrenchfromRussian.Itoriginallymeantanabsolute
decree or edict by the czar of Russia or his government, and this is still the word’s specific historical
meaning.Butinthe19thcenturythemeaningbroadenedandukasewasusedofanyproclamationhaving
theforceoflaw,andinthissenseitisbroadlysynonymouswiththewordsedictanddecree.However,in
modern usage ukase also often suggests an arbitrary or subjective order or command issued by an
authority: “The professor’s ukase on late papers—that they would get an F, with no extensions or
exceptions—took some students by surprise.” A ukase may also come from an authority whose final
authoritymaybequestionable:“Duringthecontractnegotiationstheunionrejectedmanagement’sukase,
callingitunacceptable.”
Word13:AS PERITY(uh-SPER-i-tee)
Harshness,roughness,orsharpnessofmanner,temper,ortone.
AsperitycomesfromtheLatinasperĭtās,whichcomesinturnfromasper,rough.TheLatinasperĭtāshad
several meanings. It was used of the sense of touch to mean roughness or unevenness. It was used of
hearing to mean sharpness or sourness. And it was used of character or manner to mean harshness,
severity,fierceness.AllthesesensessurviveintheEnglishnounasperity.
Youmayuseasperitytomeanaroughnessorunevenness,astheasperityofunfinishedwood, or a
slight, uneven projection from a surface, as the asperities of the tongue. You may use it to mean
harshnessorsharpnessofsound,asthepiccolo’sasperityortheasperityofhermother’sscoldingvoice.
Andyoumayuseittomeanhardship,difficulty,rigor,astheeconomicasperityofalongrecession or
theasperityofNewEnglandwinters.Butmostoftenasperityisusedtodenoteaharshness,roughness,or
sharpness of manner, temper, or tone: “Herman’s editor insisted on softening his unrestrained asperity
toward his literary rivals”; “Portia was infamous for treating her friends and enemies with equal
asperity.”
Synonyms of asperity include bitterness, acerbity, crabbedness, petulance, surliness, irascibility,
andcaptiousness.Antonymsofasperityincludecheerfulness, graciousness, courteousness, cordiality,
andaffability.
Word14:DELECTATION(DEE-lek-TAY-shin)
Enjoyment,delight,greatpleasure.
DelectationcomesthroughtheLatindēlectātio,delight,pleasure,fromtheverbdēlectāre,todelight,take
delightin,thesourcealsooftheadjectivedelectable(di-LEK-tuh-bul),delightful,pleasing,delicious,as
adelectablefeastoradelectablestory.
DelectationenteredEnglishinthelate14thcentury,andtheOEDexplainsthatinitiallythewordwas
usedofallkindsofpleasure,bothworldlyandspiritual,butsincethe18thcenturydelectationhasbeen
applied chiefly “to the lighter kinds of pleasure.” Thus, we speak of “entertainments provided for the
public’sdelectation,”or“freshlocalseafoodandvegetablesforthedelectationoftheguests.”
Delectationmayalsobeusedofanythingthatdelights,orasamoreliterarysynonymofdelight:“She
spokeforafullhour,tothedelectationofallpresent”;“Thatsummerworkingonthedairyfarmhewasso
isolated, bored, and bereft (word 1 of Level 5) of books that watching TV was his only diversion and
delectation.”
Word15:BOOTLES S (BOOT-lis)
Useless,unproductive,unprofitable.
Synonyms of bootless include fruitless, vain, inefficacious (in-EF-i-KAY-shus), unavailing (uhn-uhVAYL-ing),andnugatory(word31ofLevel9).
The adjective bootless may mean literally without boots, and therefore shoeless, unshod, discalced
(word 22 of Level 10). But in the sense we are concerned with here, bootless goes back to the Old
Englishbōt,aremedy,whichgaveusthenounbootmeaningadvantage,profit,use,familiarinthephrase
toboot,meaningtogoodadvantageorinaddition,andformerlyusedinthephrasesitisnoboot,meaning
it is no use, and to make boot of, meaning to profit or gain by, as when Shakespeare, in Antony and
Cleopatra,writes,“Givehimnobreath,butnowmakebooteofhisdistraction.”
Bootlesscombinesthisarchaicboot,advantage,profit,use,withtheprivativesuffix-lesstomeanof
noadvantage,unprofitable,useless.Inmodernusagebootlessistheequivalentoftonoavail,meaningto
no profitable use or advantage. We speak of bootless attempts, bootless efforts, bootless words, or a
bootlessenterprise.“Eachquarter,”writesJasonHirthleratCounterPunch.org,“hundredsofthousandsof
workersbecomesodispiritedbytheirbootlesssearchforworkthattheysimplyquitlooking.”
Word16:EXPLICATE(EKS-pli-kayt)
Topresentadetailedexplanationoranalysisof.
TheverbtoexplicatecomesfromtheLatinexplicāre,tounfold,unroll,disentangle.Byderivation,when
youexplicateyouunfoldthemeaningofsomething,disentangleitsdifficultiesandmakethemplain.
To explain is the general term for making something clear or understandable. To explicate implies
explaining in much greater detail and depth, unfolding the meaning or mysteries of something. You can
explicate a literary text, explicate a scientific theory, explicate a philosophical principle, explicate a
complex piece of music, or explicate the peculiar trends and obsessions of popular culture. The noun
explicationistheactofexplicating,presentingadetailedexplanationoranalysisofsomething.Tobea
goodteacheryoumustbeadeptatexplication.
Synonymsofexplicateincludeinterpret,expound,andelucidate(word22ofLevel1).Antonymsof
explicateincludecomplicate,muddle,adumbrate(ad-UHM-braytorAD-um-brayt),andobfuscate(ahbFUHS-kaytorAHB-fuh-skayt).
Word17:PEJORATIVE(pi-JOR-uh-tivor-JAHR-uh-tiv)
Havinganegativemeaningorforce;uncomplimentary.
Synonymsofpejorativeincludebelittling,disparaging,derogatory,depreciatory(di-PREE-shee-uh-toree),anddeprecatory(DEP-ri-kuh-tor-ee).
TheadjectivepejorativecomesfromtheLateLatinpējōrāre,tomakeorbecomeworse,whichinturn
comesfrompejor,worse,thecomparativeformoftheadjectivemalus,bad,evil,thesourceofmaleficent
(muh-LEF-i-sint),harmful,evil.Theverbispejorate(PEE-juh-rayt),tomakeworse,causetodeteriorate,
as to pejorate an already bad situation. The noun is pejoration (PEE-juh-RAY-shin), a lessening in
worthorstatus,devaluation,asthepejorationofaonce-populartheory.
In linguistics, the nouns pejoration and amelioration (uh-MEEL-yuh-RAY-shin), often called
melioration,denoteoppositetendenciesinsemanticchange—inthemeaningofagivenword.When,over
time, a word acquires a less favorable or less pleasant meaning or connotation, it is said to have
undergone pejoration. And when, over time, a word acquires a more positive or favorable meaning or
connotation,itissaidtohaveundergoneamelioration(fromtheLatinmelior,better).Apejorativeword,
onewithnegativeimplications,conveyscontemptorcondemnation,whileanameliorativeword,onewith
positiveimplications,conveysacceptabilityandapproval.
Forexample,knaveoncemeantaboy,booroncemeantafarmer,andvillainoncemeantapeasant,
but after centuries of pejoration a knave is now an untrustworthy, deceitful man, a boor is now a rude,
churlish (word 9 of this level) person, and a villain is now a criminal or scoundrel, the opposite of a
hero. Meanwhile, centuries of amelioration have taken the simple adjective nice from meaning foolish,
silly,stupidwhenitenteredEnglishinthe14thcenturytomeaningpleasant,agreeable,friendlytoday.
Word18:LABYRINTHINE(LAB-uh-RIN-thin)
Likealabyrinthormaze;consistingofmanywindingsandturnings;hence,complicated,intricate,involved,knotty.
Synonyms of labyrinthine include tortuous (TOR-choo-us), convoluted (KAHN-vuh-loo-tid),
meandering(meanderisword7ofLevel3),sinuous,serpentine(SUR-pin-teenor-tyn),andcircuitous
(sur-KYOO-i-tus).
Theadjectivelabyrinthineandthemorefamiliarnounlabyrinth(LAB-uh-rinth)cometousfromthe
famous story in Greek mythology about the hero Theseus (THEE-syoos or THEE-see-us) and the
Minotaur (MIN-uh-tor) of Crete, a monster with the head of a bull and the body of a man, which ate
nothingbuthumanflesh.Theseususedamagicballofthreadthatrolledaheadofhimthroughthelabyrinth
andledhimtotheMinotaur,whichhekilledwithhisbarehands.Hethenretracedhisstepsoutofthe
labyrinthbyfollowingthethreadagain.
Labyrinthineissometimesspelledlabyrinthianandpronouncedinfivesyllables,LAB-uh-RIN-theein. It shouldn’t be. Take care to use the preferred spelling with -thine at the end and the preferred
pronunciation,whichhasfoursyllables:LAB-uh-RIN-thin.
Word19:LEONINE(LEE-uh-nyn)
Relatingtoorresemblingalion.
TheadjectiveleoninecomesfromtheLatinleōnīnus,oforresemblingalion,whichcomesinturnfrom
leo,leōnis,alion.ThisLatinleo,ofcourse,iswherewegetthenameoftheconstellationLeo and the
nameofthefifthsignofthezodiacinastrology.LeoninedatesbackinEnglishtothe14thcentury,when
Chaucer,in“TheMonk’sTale,”wrote,“Sowashefullofleoninecourage.”Laterwritersusedleonineto
attributelion-likecharacteristicstohumanbeings,referringtoaman’sleonineaspect,awoman’sleonine
beauty,oraperson’sleoninenature.Athickmaneofhaironaperson’shead,especiallyafullheadof
whitehair,isoftendescribedasleonine.
You’lllearnsomemoreanimaladjectivesinamoment,afterthissetofkeywords.
Word20:DOCTRINAIRE(dahk-tri-NAIR)
Inflexiblyorfanaticallyweddedtocertainideasorbeliefsandintentonimposingthemonothers.
A doctrine is a system of belief or a set of principles that people teach and advocate as the truth. The
adjective doctrinaire means not only rigidly attached to your beliefs or principles but also intent on
imposingthemonothers.Adoctrinairepersontakesanarrow-minded,inflexibleviewofasubjectand
expectsotherstoacceptthatviewunquestioningly.
Theadjectivesdictatorial,dogmatic,anddoctrinairearecloseinmeaning.Dictatorialmeanslikea
dictator,anabsoluteruler;hence,insistingonstrictobedienceinadomineeringmanner.Dogmatic—from
the noun dogma (DAWG-muh), an authoritative and often rigid set of opinions or beliefs—means
asserting your opinion in an arrogant, overbearing way. Doctrinaire means having inflexible and often
fanaticalopinionsorbeliefsandtryingtoimposethemonothers.
Othersynonymsofdoctrinaireincludeuncompromising,authoritarian,imperious(word15ofLevel
3),obdurate(AHB-d[y]uu-rit),andintransigent(in-TRAN-si-jint).
ReviewQuizforKeywords11–20
Considerthefollowingstatementsanddecidewhethereachoneistrueorfalse.Answersappearhere.
1.Elegiaclanguageismournful.
2.Aukaseisastrongsuggestion.
3.Abossshouldtreatemployeeswithasperity.
4.Somethingyoudoforyourowndelectationispleasurable.
5.Abootlessattemptisasuccessfulattempt.
6.Toexplicateistoremovefromadifficultsituation.
7.Apejorativeremarkiscomplimentary.
8.Somethinglabyrinthineiscomplicatedorconvoluted.
9.Apersonwithleoninelooksresemblesahorse.
10.Adoctrinairepersonhasinflexiblebeliefs.
OnceUponaWord:AnimalAdjectives
Youjustlearnedthewordleonine,relatingtoorresemblingalion,andyou’reprobablyfamiliarwiththe
adjectives feline (FEE-lyn), canine (KAY-nyn), avian (AY-vee-in), equine (EE-kwyn), and bovine
(BOH-vyn),whichmean,respectively,likeacat,likeadog,likeabird,likeahorse,andlikeacow.But
herearesomeanimaladjectivesyoumaynotknowthatmaycomeinhandy,especiallywhendescribing
peoplewithanimalqualities:
ursine(UR-syn):likeabear
ovine(OH-vyn):likeasheep
porcine(POR-syn):likeapigorswine
corvine(KOR-vyn):likeacrow
saurian(SOR-ee-in):likealizard
hircine(HUR-syn,likehersign):likeagoat
lupine(LOO-pyn)andvulpine(VUHL-pyn):likeawolf
anserine(AN-suh-ryn):likeagoose
struthious(STROO-thee-us):likeanostrich
selachian(suh-LAY-kee-in):likeashark
bufoniform(byoo-FAHN-i-form):likeatoad
blattoid(BLAT-oyd):likeacockroach
ophidian(oh-FID-ee-in):likeasnake
vermiform(VUR-mi-form):likeaworm
pavonine(PAV-uh-nyn):likeapeacock
***
Let’sreturnnowtotheWordWorkoutvocabularyfortenmorekeyworddiscussions.
Word21:PRES CIENCE(PREE-shintsorPRESH-)
Knowledgeofeventsbeforetheyhappenorofthingsbeforetheyexist;foreknowledgeorforesight.
Precognitionandpreapprehensionarefancysynonymsofprescience.
PresciencecomesfromtheLatinverbpraescire,toknowbeforehand,whichinturncomesfromprae,
before,andscire,toknow,understand,thesourceofthefamiliarwordscienceandoftheunusualword
sciolist (SY-uh-list), a person of superficial learning; hence, an intellectual fake or pretender to
knowledge.
Byderivationpresciencemeansknowledgebeforehand,foreknowledge,foresight.Sinceabout1400,
when Chaucer wrote his Canterbury Tales, the word has been used in exactly that sense either of the
divineforeknowledgeofGodorofthefacultyofforesightinhumanbeings,asinthissentence:“Peabody
isknownforhisprescienceinseeingthecomingcollapseinthemortgagemarket”(MotleyFool.com).
Theadjectiveisprescient(PREE-shintorPRESH-),havingforeknowledge,knowingaboutthingsor
eventsbeforetheyhappen:“Reexaminedinlightofthecurrentheadlines,theconcernsraisedbythestudy
seemquiteprescient”(ForeignPolicy).
Word22:LOCUTION(loh-KYOO-shun)
Aparticularword,phrase,expression,oridiom,especiallyoneusedbyaspecificpersonorgroup.
LocutioncomesfromtheLatinlocūtio,speech,pronunciation,whichcomesinturnfromtheverbloqui,
to speak, the source of numerous English words, including eloquent, speaking or writing in a vivid,
forceful, and moving way; loqacious (loh-KWAY-shus), extremely talkative; colloquial, pertaining to
informalspeechorconversation;interlocutor(IN-tur-LAHK-yuh-tur),whichcombinesinter-, between,
and loqui, to speak, and means a person one speaks with, who takes part in a conversation;
circumlocution (word 44 of Level 3), roundabout or indirect expression; obloquy (AHB-luh-kwee),
abusive language or speech; and grandiloquent (gran-DIL-uh-kwint), full of grand, lofty, high-flown
words.
Locution may refer to any word, phrase, or expression: “Old sport is an old-fashioned and stuffy
locution.”Oralocutionmaybeaspecificwordorphraseassociatedwithaparticularpersonorgroup:
“TroubleandstrifeisaCockneylocutionforwife”;“[She]hasspentthepasttwenty-eightyearsworking
with dementia patients—or, in her preferred locution, with people who have trouble thinking” (New
Yorker).Alocutioncanevenbeanabbreviationorinitialism,suchasetc.foretceteraorLOLforlaugh
outloud.
Word23:OLFACTORY(ahl-FAK-tur-ee,withahl-asinolive)
Oforpertainingtothesenseofsmell,ortotheactofsmelling.
TheadjectiveolfactorycomesfromtheLatinolfăcĕre,tosmellorsniff,detectbysmelling,fromolēre,to
smell,andfăcĕre,todo.Yourolfactoryorgan(sometimescalledyourolfactories)isyournose,andthe
nounolfaction(ahl-FAK-shin)isthesenseofsmellortheactofsmelling.
Olfactory,whichenteredEnglishinthe17thcentury,wasoncechieflyamedicalandscientificterm,
butthesedaysthewordisusedfreelyinjournalismandfiction:“Unmistakableolfactorycluesledmeto
discoverthatWilf,my11-week-oldcairnterrier,haddefecatedinthefireplaceatsomepointduringthe
morning” (Felicity Cloake, The Guardian); “None of the evil roommates appeared to be home, though
traces of them, both visual and olfactory, were everywhere” (Michael Chabon, The Mysteries of
Pittsburgh,1988).
Word24:LOGOPHILE(LAHG-uh-fylorLAWG-,likelogafile)
Aloverofwords.
Thenounlogophileisablendofthecombiningformslogo-,word,speech,whichcomesfromtheGreek
logos, word, and -phile, a lover of, enthusiast for, which comes from the Greek philos, loving, dear,
beloved.
Logophilescomeinmanyforms—fromtheconnoisseurofstyleandusage,totheetymologist,tothe
cruciverbalist (a crossword puzzle expert), to the aficionado of wordplay. Your humble author likes to
billhimselfasawriter,editor,broadcaster,andlogophile,aloverofwords.
Logophile,whichwasborrowedfromFrenchandhasbeenusedinEnglishsincethe1950s,stillhas
nodictionary-sanctionedcorrespondingadjective.Buttheobviouschoice,favoredbythosewhousethe
wordlogophile,islogophilic(LAHG-uh-FIL-ik).
Word25:PERTURB(pur-TURB)
Totroubleorupsetmentally,distressordisturbgreatly;also,tothrowintogreatdisorderorconfusion.
Synonyms of perturb meaning to trouble or distress greatly include to agitate, disquiet, harry, fluster,
unsettle, discompose, and disconcert (dis-kun-SURT). Synonyms of perturb meaning to throw into
disorderorconfusionincludetoconfound (word 34 of Level 2), flummox, flabbergast, befuddle, and,
once again, discompose and disconcert. Antonyms of perturb include to pacify, mitigate, mollify, and
assuage(uh-SWAYJ).
The verb to perturb comes from the Latin perturbāre, to disturb thoroughly, throw into complete
confusion,acombinationoftheintensifyingprefixper-,whichmeanscompletely,thoroughly,andtheverb
turbāre,todisturb,confuse.
Theadjectiveisperturbed,madeanxiousoruneasy,disturbed,overwrought:“Itwasaftermidnight,
andshewasperturbedthatherdaughterhadn’tcomehomefromtheparty.”Thenounisperturbation,the
stateofbeingperturbed,agitation,disquiet,uneasiness:“Thethoughtofbeingburiedalivethrewhiminto
aterribleperturbation.”Theagentnouns1perturber(pur-TUR-bur)andperturbator (PUR-tur-BAY-tur)
denote a person or thing that causes perturbation, a disturber or troublemaker, as a perturber of the
environmentoraperturbatorofthepeace.
What’sthedifferencebetweentoperturbandtodisturb?Bothmeantotroublethemindof,upset,or
to throw into disorder or confusion. The difference is one of degree. To disturb is to cause mild or
moderatedistressorconfusion.Toperturbismoreintense:tocausegreatdistressoragitation,throwinto
severedisorderorconfusion.
Ifyoucannotbeperturbed,youareimperturbable,extremelycalmandsteady,impassive.Thenoun
imperturbabilitymeansthequalityofbeingimperturbable.
Word26:DIS S IMULATE(di-SIM-yuh-layt)
Todisguiseorhideunderafalseappearance;toconcealthetruth,thefacts,orone’sthoughts,feelings,ormotivesbysomepretense.
Theverbstodissimulateandtodissemble(di-SEM-bul)areclosesynonyms;bothcomefromtheLatin
dissimulāre,toconceal,disguise,pretendthatthingsarenotastheyare.Bothwordsmeanusingpretense,
deceit, or hypocrisy to conceal the truth or disguise the real nature of one’s motives or feelings. But
dissemblesuggestsmakinganinsincereshowtomakeothersbelievethatsomethingfalseistrue,while
dissimulate suggests constructing a false or contrary appearance to disguise the reality or truth of
something. Thus, when the press exposes a scandal, those involved will often dissemble to protect
themselves.Butwhilethatscandalousbehaviorisstillgoingonandhasyettobeexposed,thoseinvolved
willoftendissimulate,trytohidethetruthorfactsunderafalseappearance.
Thenounisdissimulation,theactofdissimulating,hidingtruthorrealitybysomepretense.
Word27:BAUBLE(BAW-bul)
Ashowy,inexpensiveornament;atrinket,knickknack,trifle.
Thenounbaubledatesbacktothe14thcenturyandisprobablydescendedfromanOldFrenchwordfora
child’s toy or plaything. Bauble is related to the word bibelot (BEE-buh-loh or BIB-loh), which was
borrowedfrommodernFrenchinthe19thcenturyanddenotesasmalldecorativeobject,oftenofbeauty
orrarity.Bycontrast,abaubleisashowy,cheap,oftengaudyornamentordecoration,“apieceoffinery
oflittleworth”(OED),suchasapieceofinexpensivejewelry.Historically,baublehasalsobeenusedto
denotethescepterorbatoncarriedbyajester,orcourtfool,intheMiddleAges.
Trinket, knickknack, and trifle are the most familiar synonyms of bauble. More unusual synonyms
include gewgaw (GYOO-gaw), gimcrack (word 49 of Level 7), kickshaw, brummagem (BRUHM-uhjum),andbagatelle(BAG-uh-TEL).
Word28:CONTRARIAN(kun-TRAIR-ee-in)
Apersonwhotakesacontrarypositionoropposingview,especiallysomeonewhoopposesorrejectstheopinionofthemajorityorestablished
practice.
The noun contrarian and the adjective contrary come from the Latin contrārius, opposite, against,
opposed.Tobecontrary(KAHN-trair-ee)istobeoppositeoropposedinvariousways—indirection,
position,nature,character,oropinion—andthewordoftenimpliesastubbornunwillingnesstolistenor
obey, as a contrary child. Contrarian may also be used as an adjective to mean opposing prevailing
opinion or established practice, as a contrarian social observer who rails against the tyranny of the
majority.
Itisthenatureofthecontrariantohabituallytakeanopposingviewandrejectprevailingopinionor
practice. If everyone’s going one way, the contrarian goes the other. The word is often applied
specifically to an investor who flouts conventional wisdom and buys when others sell or sells when
othersbuy.Contrarianism(kun-TRAIR-ee-in-iz’m)ishabitualopposition,thetendencytorejectmajority
opinionorestablishedpractice.
Word29:LUMMOX(LUHM-uks)
Aclumsyandstupidperson,usuallyalargeandheavyone;anoaf.
Ah,howthelanguagedothaboundwithwordsforawkward,clumsy,stupid,blundering,andill-mannered
people. Perhaps that’s because there are so doggone many of them! (If that doesn’t make me sound
misanthropic,rereadword14ofLevel5.)
Therearethecommonwordsblockhead,bonehead,dolt,dunce,numbskull,imbecile,nincompoop,
ignoramus(IG-nuh-RAY-mus),andclod,whoseunusualcousinisclodpate (a combination of clod and
pate, which means the head). There are the less common simpleton, dullard, dunderhead, addlepate,
puzzlepate,andwitling.Therearetherudeandsurlyboorandchurl(discussedinword9ofthislevel).
There’sthegaloot(guh-LOOT),whomaybeeccentricandfoolishaswellasawkwardandstupid.And
fromtherusticregionofclumsystupiditycomethebumpkin,clodhopper,yokel(YOH-kul),andhayseed.
Weknowthatourkeyword,lummox,wasbornintheUnitedStatesandhasbeendocumentedinprint
sincethe1820s,butitsoriginisobscure.Somedictionarieslabelitinformalorcolloquial,butdon’tlet
thatdiscourageyoufromusingit.Informaldoesn’tmeansuitableonlyincasualspeech;itmeansmerely
that a word is not likely to occur in especially formal writing, such as a scholarly journal, but it’s
acceptableinotherkindsofwriting,particularlywhenyouwanttoconveyarelaxedandfamiliartone.
TheNobelPrize–winningAmericannovelistJohnSteinbeck,whoknewathingortwoaboutwritingina
natural, unaffected voice, used lummox in this way in his 1952 novel East of Eden. “Those great
lummoxes,”hewrote,“wouldchewalittlethinglikeyoutothebone.”
Word30:FECUND(FEK-undorFEE-kund)
Fruitful,productive;producingorcapableofproducingabundantoffspringorvegetation.Also,extremelyproductiveorcreativeintellectuallyor
artistically.
Prolific (proh-LIF-ik) and fertile are close synonyms of fecund. Antonyms include unproductive,
infertile,barren,sterile,impotent(IM-puh-tint),andeffete(i-FEET).
The adjective fecund comes from the Latin fēcundus, fruitful, abundant. The noun is fecundity,
productivenessortheabilitytoproduceyoung.Theverbisfecundate(FEK-un-dayt),tomakefecundor
fruitful,or,inbiology,tofertilizeorimpregnate.
Fecund soil or a fecund region is abundantly fruitful, producing many crops. A fecund couple or
fecund marriage produces many children. And a fecund artist or a fecund imagination is abundantly
inventiveorcreative.
ReviewQuizforKeywords21–30
Decideifthepairsofwordsbelowaresynonymsorantonyms.Answersappearhere.
1.Foreknowledgeandprescienceare…synonymsorantonyms?
2.Gestureandlocutionare…
3.Olfactoryandnasalare…
4.Word-loverandlogophileare…
5.Mollifyandperturbare…
6.Dissimulateanddiscloseare…
7.Baubleandgewgaware…
8.Gadflyandcontrarianare…
9.Lummoxandgalootare…
10.Fecundandbarrenare…
OnceUponaWord:AreYouaLogophile?
As you learned in logophile, word 24 of this level, the combining form logo- comes from the Greek
logos,word.Ifyou’realogophile,aloverofwords,you’lllovethefollowing“word-words.”
To begin with, a logomaniac (LAHG-uh-MAY-nee-ak) is someone who is nuts about words; a
logolept(LAHG-uh-lept)issomeonewhohasseizuresaboutwords;andlogorrhea(LAHG-uh-REE-uh)
isexcessivetalkativeness,verbaldiarrhea.
Logomachy(luh-GAHM-uh-kee)isawarofwordsorabattleaboutwords(fromtheGreekmache,
battle). Anyone who contends verbally—for example, a lawyer, a politician, or a critic—is a
logomachistorlogomacher(stresson-gom-).Tologomachize(luh-GAHM-uh-kyz)istoengageinawar
oforaboutwords.
Alogogogue(LAHG-uh-gahg)isaperson—notunlikeyourhumbleauthor—wholegislatesormakes
pronouncements about words. Logogogues tend to like logomachy, and they sometimes suffer from
logorrhea.
Finally, one of my favorite dictionaries, Webster’s New International, second edition, defines
logodaedaly (LAHG-uh-DED-uh-lee) as “verbal legerdemain,” using one of my favorite words,
legerdemain (LEJ-ur-duh-MAYN), sleight of hand, artful trickery. The -daedaly half of logodaedaly is
related to Daedalus, the ingenious Athenian architect and inventor who designed the labyrinth for the
MinotaurofCrete(mentionedinlabyrinthine,word18ofthislevel).Logodaedalydenotesaningenious,
intricate,orcunninguseofwords.
***
HerearethenexttenkeywordsinLevel6:
Word31:HOIPOLLOI(HOY-puh-LOY)
Thecommonpeople,thegeneralpopulation,themasses.
InancientGreekhoipolloimeant“themany,”andEnglishhasborrowedthephrasevirtuallyunchangedin
sense.Inmodernusage,wheneverwriterswanttorefertoordinarypeopleintheaggregate,asopposedto
thefewwhohavepower,wealth,andprivilege,theyusehoipolloi:“Youshouldalwaysbewarywhen
big-timeWallStreeterscomeaskingformoneyfromthehoipolloi”(Time);“InPittsburgh…boththehoi
polloi and the high and mighty are constantly brought back down to earth” (Pittsburgh Post-Gazette);
“Sincethebirthofleisuretravel,aristocratshavebeendevisingcreativewaystoisolatethemselvesfrom
hoipolloi”(TheNewYorkTimes).
BecausetheGreekhoimeant“the,”notafewauthoritiesonusage—includingme—havelamentedthat
usingthewithhoipolloiisredundant,meaningliterallythethemasses.But,asyoucanseefromthefirst
twooftheexamplesjustcited,thereisnodenyingthattheisfrequentlypairedwithhoipolloiinedited
writing,andina2002surveyawhopping78percentoftheAmericanHeritageDictionary’susagepanel
admittedusingthisredundantthe.
Whether you choose to embrace this questionable usage or eschew (es-CHOO, avoid, shun) it, you
shouldtakespecialcaretoavoidtheincreasinglycommonmisuseofhoipolloitomeantheelite,upper
crust, or privileged few, the opposite of its proper meaning. This is doubtless a confusion of sound
between hoi polloi, the common people, the masses, and hoity-toity, which means haughty, snobbish.
Here’s one example of the mistake: “Word … spreads through the L.A. police force and criminal
underworldandontotheJazz-AgehedonistsoftheHollywoodhoipolloi”(TheStranger.com).Makethat
theHollywoodeliteoruppercrustinstead.
Word32:FELICITOUS (fi-LIS-i-tis)
Especiallyaptorappropriateinaction,manner,orexpression;“admirablysuitedtotheoccasion”(OED).
FelicitouscomesfromtheLatinfēlīcitās,happiness,goodfortune,success,ultimatelyfromfēlix, happy,
favorable, bringing good luck. From the same source comes the noun felicity (fi-LIS-i-tee), which may
meangreathappiness,bliss,asmaritalfelicity,orskill,appropriateness,andgraceinexpression,asher
felicity with language or his felicity as a painter. Felicity may also refer to an especially skillful,
appropriate,andwell-chosenexpression:“Jordanwasimpressedwiththemanyfelicitiesheheardfrom
theToastmastersthatevening.”
Felicitousischieflyusedofverbalexpressiontomeanwell-suitedtotheoccasion,skillfullyaptor
appropriate.WespeakofafelicitouswriterorspeakerwithafelicitouscommandofEnglishidiomand
theabilitytofindthefelicitouswordorturnofphrase,theonemostappropriatefortheoccasion.Butit’s
not unusual for writers to describe the action or manner of something as felicitous. You can have
felicitoustiming,perfectlysuitedtothemoment.Youcanhaveafelicitousmixofmusicataconcert,with
selections especially appropriate for the audience or mood. You can have a felicitous pairing of wine
withfood.Youcouldevenhaveafelicitouscoincidenceoroutcome,wherewhatmighthavehappened
badlyturnsouttobeappropriateandwelcome.
The antonym of felicitous is infelicitous, inappropriate or ill-timed, ill-suited to the occasion,
awkward, malapropos (MAL-ap-ruh-POH). Like felicitous, infelicitous is often used of verbal
expression, as an infelicitous remark or infelicitous prose. But almost anything that is ill-timed,
inappropriate,unhappy,orunfortunatecanbeinfelicitous,asaninfelicitousphonecall,aninfelicitous
choiceofoutfit,oraninfelicitousmarriage.
Word33:PAEAN(PEE-un)
Asongofpraise,joy,thanksgiving,ortriumph;hence,atributeorexpressionofpraise.
The noun paean comes directly from the Latin paeān, a hymn. The OED notes that the paean was
originallyasolemnsongorchant,usuallyofvictory,addressedatfirsttoApollo—thegodofthesun,of
prophecy,ofmusic,andofpoetry—andlatertoothergods.Fromthishistoricalsensesoondevelopedthe
generalsenseinwhichthewordismostoftenusedtoday:aglowingtributeorexpressionofhighpraise.
Paean is usually used of a work that praises or honors its subject—whether serious, as President
Obama’s paean to the late Senator Ted Kennedy or a paean to the pristine grandeur of Yosemite
NationalPark,ornotsoserious,asapaeantothejoysofkaraokeorapaeantothenobilityofbacon.
But the word is also frequently used to denote praise for a person or thing you wouldn’t expect to be
praiseworthy, as a paean to living fast and dying young or a paean to poor parenting. That usage is
acceptable because praiseworthiness is in the eye of the beholder, and paean merely denotes an
expression of praise. What is not acceptable usage, though, is writing a paean of praise, which is
redundantbecausetheideaofpraiseisimplicitinpaean.
Asyoumayhavenoticedfromtheseexamples,paeanmustbefollowedbytounlessitstandsalone
syntactically,asinthiscitation:“Thehumblecoffeebeanharvested,roastedandgroundisworthyofa
modern-daypaean”(NewStatesman).
Word34:S ERENDIPITY(SER-un-DIP-i-tee)
Theabilitytomake,ortheactofmaking,desirableandfortunatediscoveriesbyaccident.
The adjective is serendipitous (SER-un-DIP-i-tus), characterized by serendipity, making fortunate and
desirablediscoveriesbyaccident.
Perhapsitwasserendipitythatin1754ledtheEnglishnovelistandessayistHoraceWalpoletowrite
aletterinwhichhecoinedthewordserendipityfromaPersianfairytalecalled“TheThreePrincesof
Serendip.” The heroes of the tale, Walpole wrote, “were always making discoveries, by accidents and
sagacity,ofthingstheywerenotinquestof.”
Surely we’ve all had memorable moments of serendipity: you find a twenty-dollar bill on the
sidewalk;yourfriendtellsyouthere’sanicehousedownthestreetforsale,andyouwindupbuyingit;or
you decide at the last minute to go to a party where you meet your future spouse. The two keys to
serendipityare(1)thatyouaren’tlookingforwhatyoudiscover,and(2)thediscoveryisgood.
TheBritishwriterWilliamBoyd,inhis1998novelArmadillo,proposedanantonymforserendipity
thatwasbasedonthenameofableakRussianarchipelagointheArcticOcean.“Thinkofanotherworld
in the far north, barren, icebound, cold, a world of flint and stone. Call it Zembla,” he wrote. “Ergo:
zemblanity [zem-BLAN-i-tee] … the faculty of making unhappy, unlucky and expected discoveries by
design.”
Word35:EPIS TOLARY(i-PIS-tul-er-ee)
Pertainingtoletters;containedin,consistingof,orcarriedonbyletters.
Theadjectiveepistolaryandthenounepistle(i-PIS’l),aletter,especiallyaformalone,comethroughthe
Latin epistula, a letter, written communication, from the Greek epistolé, a message, letter. In the New
TestamentoftheBible,theEpistlesofPaultheApostle,meaninghisopenletters,compriseallthebooks
fromRomanstoHebrews.Anepistolarycollectionisacollectionofletters,oftenformalorinstructive
ones. And the epistolary novel, which is written in the form of letters, is a venerable (VEN-ur-uh-bul)
literaryform.(Venerablemeansworthyofdeeprespectorreverence.)
Beforetheadventofemail,whenpeoplewrotelettersbyhandoronatypewriter,sentthembywhatis
nowdisparagingly(orsometimesnostalgically)called“snailmail,”andthenwaited,oftenforweeks,for
areply,theactofcomposingletterswassometimescalledtheepistolaryart.2Inthosedayslong-distance
friendshipsandloveaffairswerebynecessityepistolary,carriedonbyletters.
Word36:GUS TATORY(GUHS-tuh-TOR-ee)
Oforpertainingtotastingoreating,ortothesenseoftaste.
TheadjectivegustatorycomesfromtheLatingustare,totaste,partakeof,enjoy.Thenounisgustation
(guh-STAY-shin),theactionoftastingorthesenseoftaste.AndfromtheLatinnoungustus,taste,flavor,
comes the familiar word gusto (GUHS-toh), hearty enjoyment, keen appreciation, either of eating and
drinkingoringeneral:“Attheweddingtheydinedwithgusto,thendancedwithevengreatergusto.”
Gustatoryisaneutralwordthatmaybeusedofalmostanythinghavingtodowithtasting,eating,or
thesenseoftaste.Agustatoryexperiencecanbepleasantorunpleasant,agustatorydelightoragustatory
disaster. You can have gustatory refinement, gustatory memories, or a gustatory adventure. Here’s an
interesting use of the word from The New York Times: “[The] crowds witnessed miracles of gustatory
excess:towersofbreakfastcereal,asnarlingbearmadeofprunes,palacesbuiltfromcorn.”
The Latin phrase de gustibus non est disputandum (day GUUS-ti-buus nohn est DIS-puu-TAHNduum)—sometimes shortened to de gustibus—means there is no disputing about tastes. In other words,
tasteisapersonalmatter,notwortharguingabout.
Word37:COS S ET(KAHS-it)
Topamper,coddle,treatasapet,spoilwithkindnessandaffection.
Theverbtocossetcomesfromthenouncosset,whichoriginallymeantapetlamb,onebroughtupwithout
itsdam,ormothersheep,andlaterwasappliedtohumanbeingstomeanaspoiledpet.Thenounisnow
rarebuttheverbisgoingstrong.Todayweusecossetofanythingwetreatorthattreatsusasapet,that
pampersorispampered.Anathleticcoachmaycossetcertainplayers.Amothermaycossetachild.A
goodhostcossetstheguests.Andtheorganizersofafund-raisermustslavishlycossetdonors.
The adjective is cosseted, pampered, spoiled, overindulged, as a cosseted child or the cosseted
passengersinfirstclass.
Word38:RIPOS TE(ri-POHST)
Aquickandsharpreplyorresponse;aretaliatoryansweroraction;acounterstroke.
RipostecomesthroughFrenchultimatelyfromtheLatinrespondēre,togiveananswerto,reply.Whenit
enteredEnglishintheearly18thcentury,aripostewasaretaliatorymaneuverinfencing,aquickthrustof
the sword made after parrying an opponent’s lunge. The word may still be used in this way, of literal
fencing,buttodayitismoreoftenusedoffigurativefencing,ofquicklydeliveredwordsoractionsthat
aresharpandretaliatory.WhenJohnMontagu,thefourthEarlofSandwich3(1718–1792),predictedthat
hisdissolute(word7ofthislevel)politicalrival,JohnWilkes(1727–1797),would“dieeitherofapox
oronthegallows,”Wilkesletflywiththisimmortalriposte:“Thatdepends,mylord,whetherIembrace
yourmistressoryourprinciples.”
The words reply, rejoinder, retort, rebuttal, and riposte are related in meaning. Reply is the most
general,denotinganyanswerorresponse,orsometimesathoroughresponsetoallpointsandquestions
raised.Arejoinder(ri-JOYN-dur)isananswertoareply,andoftenaquick,cleveranswertoanother’s
comment or objection: “Mark thought he had Pamela on the ropes, but her rejoinder nonplussed him.”
(Nonplus is word 14 of Level 3.) A retort (ri-TORT) is a prompt reply, often witty or cutting, that
counters a charge or turns an argument against the person who made it: “Opposing members of the
legislature yesterday hurled accusations and retorts across the aisle like cannon fire.” A rebuttal (riBUHT-ul) is a counterargument, a formal response that counters an accusation or charge by presenting
evidenceorprooftothecontrary.Ourkeyword,riposte,becauseofitsconnectiontofencing,impliesan
especiallyswiftandcuttingreplyorretort,aretaliatorycounterstrokewithwordsoraction:“Jameswas
notintimidatedbythebigman’sinsultsandthreats,andhefolloweduphiswitheringverbalripostewith
a knee-buckling fistic riposte.” (Fistic, which rhymes with mystic, means pertaining to boxing or to
fightingwiththefists.Thenounfisticuffsmeansfightingwiththefists.)
Word39:PATOIS (PA-twah)
Aregionaldialect;aregionalorruralformofalanguagethatdiffersconsiderablyfromthestandardwrittenformofthelanguage.By
extension,anyinformalspeechcharacteristicofaparticularsocialgrouporoccupation.
Patois comes directly from the French patois, which meant literally clumsy speech. Originally patois
referred to any dialect of France or of French-speaking Switzerland that differed enough from standard
writtenFrenchsoastoconfound(word34ofLevel2)thosewhodidn’tspeakit.Fromthisusepatois
came to denote any dialect or regional form of a language, as the Dutch patois of South Africa or
Brooklyn patois, or any informal language used by a particular social or occupational group, as the
patoisoftaxidriversorprisonpatois.
The words jargon, argot, and patois are all used of specialized and often unintelligible language.
Jargon (JAHR-gun) is difficult to understand because it is highly technical and often pretentious, as
medicaljargon,legaljargon,andbusinessjargon.Anargot(AHR-gohorAHR-gut)isaspecializedand
often secret vocabulary used by a particular group for private communication. Argots (AHR-gohz) are
associated chiefly with subcultural groups, as the argot of adolescence and underworld argot. By
derivation patois implies a regional or local form of speech that is difficult to understand because its
vocabulary,idioms,andgrammardiffermarkedlyfromthatofthestandardwrittenformofthelanguage.
Buttodaypatoisisalsooftenused,likeargot,ofinformalspeechusedbyaparticulargroupforprivate
communication.
Word40:ANIMADVERS ION(AN-i-mad-VUR-zhun)
Anunfavorable,censorious(word33ofLevel3),orhostilecomment;also,adverseorhostilecriticism,ortheactofcriticizingunfavorably.
AnimadversioncomesfromtheLatinverbanimadvertĕre,whichinitsneutralsensemeanttotakenotice
of,payattentionto,butwhichalsohadanegativesense:totakenoticeofafault,toblame,censure.Itis
thissensethatinformstheEnglishnounanimadversionandtheetymologicallyrelatedwordsanimosity,
resentment,hostility,andanimus(word20ofLevel4),adeep-seateddislikeorfeelingofillwill.
Animadversionmaybeusedintwoways.Itmaydenoteaparticularremarkthatisseverelycriticalor
hostile:“Foranhourhelistenedtotheiranimadversions,tryingnottolosehistemper.”Oritmayreferto
adversecriticismingeneralortheactofcriticizingunfavorably:“SomeBritishcriticshavelamentedthat
American book reviewers rarely indulge in animadversion”; “This newspaper has never felt that it is
above criticism, especially from politicians and other public officials who take the brunt of our
animadversion”(JamaicaObserver).
The corresponding verb animadvert (AN-i-mad-VURT) means to comment unfavorably, express
strong criticism or disapproval of. Throughout this book I have not been reluctant to animadvert on
commonerrorsofEnglishusageandpronunciation.
ReviewQuizforKeywords31–40
In each statement below, a keyword (in italics) is followed by three definitions. Two of the three are
correct;oneisunrelatedinmeaning.Decidewhichonedoesn’tfitthekeyword.Answersappearhere.
1.Hoipolloimeanstheprivilegedfew,thecommonpeople,themasses.
2.Felicitousmeanswell-suited,especiallyapt,inappropriate.
3.Apaeanisatribute,anaward,anexpressionofpraise.
4.Serendipityisaluckydiscovery,anunexpecteddiscovery,anunwanteddiscovery.
5.Epistolarymeanspertainingtonovels,pertainingtocorrespondence,pertainingtoletters.
6.Gustatorymeanspertainingtoeating,pertainingtoswallowing,pertainingtotasting.
7.Tocossetistoswaddle,pamper,coddle.
8.Ariposteisalunge,counterstroke,sharpreply.
9.Patoisisregionaldialect,jargon,nonsensewords.
10.Animadversionisadversecriticism,unfoundedcriticism,acensoriousremark.
DifficultDistinctions:TorturousandTortuous
Torturous (TOR-chur-us) means causing or involving torture or great suffering; extremely painful.
Tortuous (TOR-choo-us) means winding, circuitous, full of twists and turns. Driving at night in the fog
alongatortuous(winding)roadcanbeatorturous(painful)experience.Thetortuouspathtoeconomic
recovery can be torturous for those at the bottom of the wage-earning barrel. And a book replete with
tortuouslanguagecanbetorturoustoread.
Thissentencemisusesthewindingwordforthepainfulword:“Thiswasacaseofyearsoftortuous
[torturous] abuse” (SouthCoastToday.com). This sentence gets it right: “Dr. Zats is no stranger to the
sometimestorturousfootwearhighfashioncanaskofworkingwomen”(Reuters).
DifficultDistinctions:DiscreetandDiscrete
Theworddiscreet,endingin-eet,andtheworddiscrete,endingin-ete, are soundalikes with different
meanings. Discreet, the better known of the pair, means tactful, prudent, circumspect, showing careful
judgment:“Shetoldhimthenewsinadiscreetwhisper.”Discretemeansseparate,detached,orunrelated,
asdiscreteissuesontheagendaorphysicistsexperimentingwithdiscreteatomicparticles.
***
HereisthelastsetoftenkeyworddiscussionsinLevel6:
Word41:EXEGES IS (EK-si-JEE-sis)
Criticalexplanationorinterpretationofatext.
ExegesiscomesdirectlyfromtheancientGreekexēgēsis,aninterpretation,explanation.Theadjectiveis
exegetic(EK-si-JET-ik),pertainingtoexegesis,criticalexplanation.Thenounisexegete(EK-si-jeet),a
personskilledinexegesis,onewhoundertakesacriticalinterpretationofatext.
Explanationisthegeneralwordforanystatementmeanttomakesomethingclearorunderstandable.
Elucidation(i-LOO-si-DAY-shin)—fromthesamesourceastheadjectivelucid,clear,easilyunderstood
—istheactofcastinglightonsomethingobscureorhardtounderstand.Explication(EK-spli-KAY-shin)
is a detailed explanation or analysis of something, by derivation an unfolding of the meaning. Exegesis
denotesadetailedanalysisofatext,acriticalandscholarlyinterpretationofapieceofwriting.Theword
isoftenusedofaninterpretationoftheBibleorapassagefromit.
Word42:DOYENNE(doy-YEN)
Awomanwhoisaseniormemberofagroup;ahighlyskilledandknowledgeablewomanwithextensiveexperienceinagivenfield.
Doyenneanditsmasculinecounterpart,doyen(pronouncedthesame),aseniormalememberofagroup,
come through French from the Latin decānus, a dean, literally the leader of ten. In modern usage both
wordsdenotehighlyskilled,experienced,andrespectedpeoplewhoareleadersorseniormembersofa
grouporprofession.Whereveryoucouldusetheworddeantodenoteanexperiencedmemberorleader
of a group, you can use doyen or doyenne to imply even greater knowledge, skill, and seniority. For
example, Bill Clinton is a doyen and Hillary Clinton is a doyenne of American politics. Joyce Carol
OatesisadoyenneofAmericanletters,andMerylStreepisadoyenneofHollywood.
The suffix -enne occurs in loanwords from French, forming feminine nouns corresponding to
masculinenounsendingin-enor-an.“ThefewEnglishwordsthatendin-enne … usually carry little
implication of inferiority,” says The Random House Dictionary. Thus, English has comedienne for a
femalecomedian;tragedienneforafemaledramaticactor;Parisienneforafemalenativeorinhabitantof
Paris; equestrienne for a female horseback rider; and doyenne for a female leader, a woman who is a
seniormemberofagroup.
Grande dame (grahnd-DAHM or gran-DAM), which also comes from French and means literally a
great lady, is a close synonym of doyenne. A grande dame is an elderly woman of great dignity and
prestige,orthepreeminentdoyenneofaparticularfield.TheBritishactressJudithDenchwasgiventhe
title Dame, the equivalent of knighthood for a woman, because she is a grande dame of the stage and
screen.
Word43:ACIDULOUS (uh-SIJ-uh-lus)
Somewhatsour,sharp,orharshintasteormanner;also,sour-tempered,bitter.
Acidulous comes from the Latin acidulus, slightly sour, from acidus, sour. By derivation acidulous
suggestsasomewhatsouroracidictaste,astheacidulouspulpofthegrapefruitoranacidulouscigar.
Butacidulousperhapsmoreoftensuggestsnotasourtastebutasourqualityormanner.Whenusedof
expression,ofsomeone’scommentsortoneinspeechorwriting,acidulousimpliesamuchgreaterdegree
of sourness or sharpness. Acidulous criticism is sour-tempered, and therefore harsh, bitter, and often
sarcastic.Theadviceofanacidulousmother-in-lawissharpandbiting.
Synonymsofacidulousinthisfigurativesenseincludecaustic,scathing,mordant,acrimonious,and
virulent(VIR-[y]uh-lint).
Word44:GELD(GELD,gasingo,rhymeswithweld)
Todepriveofstrength,force,vitality,orsomeessentialpart.
TheverbtogeldenteredEnglishabout1300andwasusedofanimalssuchashorsesandpigstomeanto
castrate, deprive of virility, emasculate, as in this quotation from James Boswell’s Life of Samuel
Johnson, published in 1791: “A judge may be a farmer, but he is not to geld his own pigs.” The noun
geldingdenotesacastratedmaleanimal,especiallyahorse.
Togeldmaystillbeusedinthisway,butsinceabout1500thewordhasalsobeenusedfigurativelyto
meantoimpairthestrengthorpowerof,weaken,enfeeble,ordepriveofsomeessentialelementorpart.
Lawmakerscangeldapieceoflegislation,abadeditorcangeldabook,andathiefcangeldyourwallet
ofitscash.
Word45:BATHOS (BAY-thahsor-thaws)
Inwritingorspeech,aludicrousdescentfromtheelevatedorloftytothecommonplaceorridiculous;anticlimax.
Bathos comes directly from the Greek báthos, depth. In 1727, the English poet and essayist Alexander
Pope plucked the word from Greek and used it as the opposite of the sublime, meaning that which is
supreme, exalted, or raised on high. By derivation and in modern usage, bathos refers to writing or
speechwhosetoneiselevatedbutwhosesubjectmatteriscommonplace,specificallyapassingfromthe
sublimetotheridiculous.Bathosisthepropertoneforacomedicnovelorformock-heroicpoetry,but
when a serious novel or poem veers into bathos, descending from the lofty to the ludicrous, from the
sublime to the ordinary, the sudden and unsatisfying anticlimax can alienate the reader. This sort of
descent from the elevated to the commonplace has earned bathos the attendant meanings of excessive
sentimentalityortriteness,inanity,asthepredictablebathosofasoapopera.
Bathosistheoppositeofpathos(PAY-thahsor-thaws),thequalityorpowerinlife,literature,orart
to arouse feelings of sympathy or compassion, as the pathos of Shakepearean tragedy. Bathos is
insincere or exaggerated pathos, comically sentimental and overdone emotion. The corresponding
adjectives are pathetic, arousing pathos, pity or compassion, and bathetic, characterized by bathos,
anticlimax,triteness,orsentimentality.
Word46:OVERWEENING(OH-vur-WEE-ning)
Excessivelyself-confidentorconceited;havinganexaggeratedopinionofoneself.Also,excessive,exaggerated,immoderate.
Synonyms of overweening include arrogant, self-important, overbearing, presumptuous (word 2 of
Level1),high-handed,overconfident,egotistical,imperious(word15ofLevel3),supercilious,andthe
informalhoity-toity.
Overweening comes from the verb to overween, to think too highly of oneself, be arrogant or
conceited,acombinationofover-,toomuch,excessive,andtheobsoleteverbtoween,tothink,suppose,
believe. An overweening coworker is excessively self-confident, always trying to take charge and
impress everyone. An overweening relative is arrogant, overbearing, and presumptuous. Overweening
studentshaveanexaggeratedopinionofthemselves.
Overweeningmayalsobeusedofsomethingexcessive,exaggerated,orimmoderatethatalsoimplies
self-importance, arrogance, or conceit. Overweening pride, to paraphrase the proverb, often leads to a
fall. Overweening ambition can make people arrogant and tempt them to compromise their principles.
And an overweening expectation of success is an exaggerated expectation arising from overconfidence
andconceit.
Word47:FEBRILE(FEE-brulorFEB-rul)
Pertainingto,markedby,orcausedbyfever.
FebrilecomesfromtheLatinfebris,afever,thesourcealsoofthecombiningformfebri-,whichmeans
feverandappearsinseveralwordsusedchieflyinmedicine:febrific(fi-BRIF-ik),feverish;febrifacient
(FEB-ri-FAY-shint), something that causes fever (from the Latin facere, to make or do); and febrifuge
(FEB-ri-fyooj),amedicineoragentthatdispelsorreducesfever,alsocalledanantipyretic(AN-tee-pyRET-ik).The-fugeinfebrifugecomesfromtheLatinfugāre,todriveaway,puttoflight,thesourcealso
oftheEnglishadjectivefugacious(fyoo-GAY-shus),fleeting,passingswiftlyaway.
Febrileheatcancausedehydration,fever,andultimatelyheatstroke.Afebrileconditionisonecaused
or marked by fever. And febrile may also be used figuratively to suggest a fever or feverishness, as a
febrileimaginationorfebriledesire.
Word48:BENIGHTED(bi-NYT-id)
Inastateofmentalormoralignoranceordarkness;unenlightened.
The adjective benighted comes from the archaic verb to benight, to darken, obscure, as clouds that
benight the sky. Benighted may mean to be overtaken by night or darkness, as “The demise of room
service would be … hell for the benighted business traveller” (Irish Independent). But far more often
benightedmeanstobeinfigurativedarkness—namely,astateofintellectual,moral,orculturalignorance
andbackwardness.
The peasants of the Middle Ages were benighted because they couldn’t read and write and knew
nothing of the world beyond their hamlets and villages. A benighted government is ignorant of and
unconcernedwiththeneedsanddesiresofthepeople.Inmyvocabulary-buildingnovelTest of Time, I
usedbenightedtodescribethebackward,unenlightenedstateoftheentirehumanrace:“Afterahundredoddyearsof‘progress,’thosemiserable,benightedcreaturescalledhumanbeingswerestillmakingthe
samestupidmistakesintheirsorrowfulmarchfromcradletograve.”
Because it denotes a lack of light, which figuratively implies a lack of awareness, the word
unenlightened is probably the closest synonym of benighted. Other synonyms include primitive,
backward, crude, unsophisticated, unrefined, uncultured, and uncultivated. Antonyms of benighted
includeeducated,learned(LUR-nid),lettered,enlightened,refined,cultivated,genteel(jen-TEEL),and
urbane(ur-BAYN).
Word49:TURPITUDE(TUR-pi-t[y]ood)
Shamefulwickedness,vileness,basenessofcharacter;also,anevilordepravedact.
ThenounturpitudecomesfromtheLatinturpis,morallyfoul,disgraceful,shameful,base.Synonymsof
turpitude include immorality, corruption, depravity (word 1 of Level 1), vileness, baseness,
degeneracy,sordidness,iniquity(word2ofLevel4),perfidiousness(perfidiousisword17ofLevel5),
and improbity (im-PROH-bi-tee). Antonyms of turpitude include trustworthiness, integrity,
scrupulousness,uprightness,incorruptibility,impeccability,rectitude,andprobity.
Turpitude may mean wickedness, vileness of character, as when Shakespeare writes in Antony and
Cleopatra,“Myturpitudethoudostsocrownwithgold.”Oritmaydenoteashamefullyevilact,asthe
turpitude of the Holocaust. But the word appears most often in the phrase moral turpitude, a legal
conceptthatBlack’sLawDictionarydefinesas“conductthatiscontrarytojustice,honesty,ormorality”
and“shockingtothemoralsenseofthecommunity.”
Word50:IMPRECATION(IM-pri-KAY-shin)
Acurse,ortheactofcursing.
ThenounimprecationcomesfromtheLatinimprecāri,toinvokeharmorcalldownevilupon,theprecise
modern meaning of the verb to imprecate, to invoke harm or evil on someone, to curse. A person who
imprecates is an imprecator, and the adjective is imprecatory (IM-pri-kuh-tor-ee), of the nature of or
containingacurse.
Animprecationmaybeacurse,acallingdownofevilormisfortuneonsomeone,includingoneself,
asinthiscoupletfromthe18th-centuryEnglishpoetAlexanderPope:“Withimprecationsthushefill’d
the air, / And angry Neptune heard th’ unrighteous prayer.” Or imprecation may be the action of
imprecating, cursing, invoking evil or calamity, as in this sentence from George Puttenham’s Arte of
English Poesie, published in 1589: “This was done by a manner of imprecation, or as we call it by
cursingandbanningoftheparties,andwishingalleviltoalightuponthem.”
Synonyms of imprecation include malediction, execration (EK-si-KRAY-shin), and the archaic
malison(MAL-i-zun),anetymologicalcontractionofmalediction.
ReviewQuizforKeywords41–50
Inthisquizthereviewwordisfollowedbythreewordsorphrases,andyoumustdecidewhichcomes
nearestthemeaningofthereviewword.Answersappearhere.
1.Isanexegesisamassdeparture,acriticalinterpretation,ortheremovalofsomethingobjectionable?
2.Isadoyenneawomanwhoiswidowed,whoiselderly,orwhoisaseniormemberofagroup?
3.Issomethingaciduloussomewhatsour,somewhatspoiled,orsomewhatsugary?
4.Istogeldtoblend,toaddornamentation,ortodepriveofstrengthorforce?
5.Isbathosacrisis,ananticlimax,ortheresolutionoftheplot?
6.Wouldsomeoneoverweeningbeexcessivelyfond,excessivelyself-confident,orexcessivelycurious?
7.DoesfebrilemeanpertainingtoFebruary,tofever,ortowildanimals?
8.Isabenightedpersonunenlightened,immoral,orunmanageable?
9.Isturpitudemoralpurity,shamefulwickedness,orfesteringguilt?
10.Isanimprecationasuggestion,anaccusation,oracurse?
APronunciationPrimer
Did you know that primer, meaning an introductory book or treatise, is properly pronounced PRIM-ur,
withashortiasinprint?ThewordisoftenmispronouncedPRY-mur,withalongiasinprime,butthat’s
theproperpronunciationforthewordthat’sspelledthesamewaybutmeansanundercoatofpaint.
Theremaybenoprimeinprimer,butit’salwaysprimetimeforaprimeronpronunciation.Sohere’s
acompendious(word22ofLevel5)listofcommonlymispronouncedwordswiththeirproper,preferred
pronunciations:
Thereisnodayinacademia.It’sak-uh-DEE-mee-uh.
Thereisnoflewinaffluent.It’sAF-loo-int.
Thereisnodoorinambassador.It’sam-BAS-uh-dur.
Thereisnothighorhideinapartheid.It’suh-PAHRT-hayt(likeaparthate),alsouh-PAHRT-hyt(like
apartheight).
Thereisnobeastinbestial.It’sBES-chul.
ThereisnolayinChilean.It’sCHIL-ee-in(likechillyin).
Thereisnosewerinconnoisseur.It’skahn-uh-SUR.
Thereisnocueincoupon.It’sKOO-pahn.
Thereisnodieindais.It’sDAY-is.
Thereisnodayindeity.It’sDEE-uh-tee.
Thereisnoantindefendant.It’sdi-FEN-dint.
Thereisnodipindiphthong.It’sDIF-thahng.
Thereisnoshoeineschew.It’ses-CHOO.
ThereisnoXinespresso.It’ses-PRES-oh.
Thereisnospearinexperiment.It’sek-SPER-uh-mint.
Thereisnofoeorfoilinfoliage.Sayitinthreesyllables:FOH-lee-ij.
Thereisnofoeinforward.It’sFOR-wurd(likeforword).
Thereisnowineingenuine.It’sJEN-yoo-in.
Thereisnohandorchiefinhandkerchief.Hangitall,it’sHANG-kur-chif.
Thereisnorenderinheartrending.It’sHAHRT-REN-ding(threesyllables).
ThereisnoholeorhaulinHolocaust.It’sHAHL-uh-KAWST.
Thereisnohomeinhomicide.It’sHAHM-i-SYD.
ThereisnonoiseinIllinois(it’sveryquietthere).MakeitIL-uh-NOY.
Thereisnopairinincomparable.It’sin-KAHM-pur-uh-bul.
Donotstressthegrewinincongruous.It’sin-KAHNG-groo-wus.
Donotstresstheflueininfluence.It’sIN-floo-ints.
Thereisnopitininterpret.Puttwor’sinit:in-TUR-prit.
ThereisnoeyeinIraq,butyoumayputarockorrackinit:i-RAHKori-RAK.
ThereisnoclueinKuKluxKlan,becausethey’reclueless.It’sKOO-kluhks-.
Thereisnoberryinlibrary.It’sLY-brer-ee.
Thereisnomashinmachination.It’sMAK-i-NAY-shin.
Thereisnooreinmayoral.It’sMAY-ur-ul.
Thereisnomomentinmemento.It’smuh-MEN-toh.
Thereisnocueinnuclear.Please,people:it’sN(Y)OO-klee-ur.
Thereisnoownerinonerous.It’sAHN-ur-us.
Thereisnotanginorangutan.It’suh-RANG-uh-tan.
Thereisnorayinorator.It’sOR-uh-tur.
Thereisnostoreinpastoral.It’sPAS-tur-ul.
Thereisnoplayinpleasure.It’sPLEZH-ur.
Thereisnoposeinpossess.It’spuh-ZES.
Thereisnopurrinprerogative.It’spruh-RAHG-uh-tiv.
There is no rye in ribald, which means humorous in a mildly indecent, coarse, or vulgar way. It’s
RIB-’ld(rhymeswithscribbled).
Thereisnosphereinspherical.It’sSFER-i-kul.
ThereisnoTiainTijuana.It’stee-HWAH-nuhortee-WAH-nuh.
ThereisnoanusinUranus.It’sYUUR-uh-nus.
Thereisnoaerialinvenereal.It’svuh-NEER-ee-ul.
Thereisnobrayinvertebrae.It’sVUR-tuh-BREE.
Thereisnowarinwash.It’sWAHSH.
Thereisnozealinzealous.It’sZEL-us.
Thereisnozooinzoology.It’szoh-AHL-uh-jee.
And,asanastonishingnumberofeducatedpeoplefailtorealize,thereisnonouninpronunciation.
Makesuretoputanuninit:pruh-NUHN-see-AY-shin.
You’llfindmoreontheseandmanyothercommonlymispronouncedwordsinmyBigBookofBeastly
Mispronunciations.
AnswerstoReviewQuizzesforLevel6
KEYWORDS1–10
1.No.Ineluctablemeansnottobeevadedorresisted,unavoidable,inevitable.
2.No.Moribundmeansdying,closetodeath.
3.Yes.Abellwetherisonewhotakestheinitiative;also,aleadingindicatorofatrend.
4.Yes.Apermutationisathoroughorfundamentalchange,atransformation.
5.Yes.Tointerlopeistointerfere,intrude,thrustoneselfintoothers’affairs.
6.No.Tohectoristobullyorbedomineering,tointimidateortorment.
7.No.Dissolutemeanslackingmoralrestraint,giventoimmoralbehavior.
8.Yes.Lineamentsaredistinguishingfeaturesordistinctivecharacteristics.
9.Yes.Churlishmeansrude,ill-mannered,ungracious.
10.Yes.Prepossessingmeansattractive,engaging,pleasing,comely.
KEYWORDS11–20
1.True.Elegiacmeansexpressinggrief,sorrow,orlamentation.
2.False.Aukaseisanauthoritativeorderorcommand.
3.False.Abossshouldtreatemployeeswithcourtesyandrespect,notasperity,whichmeansharshness,roughness;sharpnessofmanner,
temper,ortone;orhardship,rigor.
4.True.Delectationisgreatpleasure,enjoyment,ordelight.
5.False.Abootlessattemptisauseless,unprofitable,vainattempt.
6.False.Toextricateistoremovefromadifficultsituation.Toexplicateistopresentadetailedexplanationoranalysisof.
7.False.Pejorativemeanshavinganegativemeaningorforce;uncomplimentary.
8.True.Labyrinthinemeanslikealabyrinthormaze;hence,complicated,intricate.
9.False.Leoninemeansrelatingtoorresemblingalion.
10.True.Adoctrinairepersonisinflexiblyorfanaticallyweddedtocertainideasorbeliefsandintentonimposingthemonothers.
KEYWORDS21–30
1.Synonyms.Bothforeknowledgeandpresciencemeanknowledgeofeventsbeforetheyhappenorofthingsbeforetheyexist.
2.Nearantonyms.Agestureisamotionwithsomepartofthebody.Alocutionisverbal:aparticularword,phrase,expression,oridiom.
3.Nearsynonyms.Nasalmeanspertainingtothenoseandolfactorymeanspertainingtosmellingorthesenseofsmell.
4.Synonyms.Alogophileisaloverofwords.
5.Antonyms.Tomollifyistosoothe,pacify.Toperturbistotroubleordistressgreatly.
6.Antonyms.Todiscloseistomakesomethingknown,especiallysomethingsecret.Todissimulateistodisguiseorhideunderafalse
appearance.
7.Synonyms.Bothbaubleandgewgawdenoteashowy,inexpensiveornament;atrinket.
8.Nearsynonyms.Agadfly(word50ofLevel3)isapersonwhocontinuallypesters,criticizes,orprovokesothers.Acontrarianisa
personwhohabituallytakesacontrarypositionoropposingview.
9.Synonyms.Lummoxandgalootbothdenoteaclumsy,stupid,usuallybig,andoftenfoolishperson.
10.Antonyms.Barrenmeansnotfertileorproductive.Fecundmeansfruitful,productive.
KEYWORDS31–40
1.Theprivilegedfewistheoppositeofhoipolloi,thecommonpeople,themasses.
2.Inappropriateistheoppositeoffelicitous,especiallyaptorwell-suited.
3.Apaeanmayaccompanyanaward,butitisanexpressionofpraise,atribute.
4.Serendipityappliestodiscoveriesthatareluckyandunexpected,notunwanted.
5.Youcanwriteanepistolarynovel,butthewordmeanspertainingtolettersorcorrespondence.
6.Pertainingtoswallowingdoesn’tfit.Gustatorymeanspertainingtotastingoreating.
7.Swaddledoesn’tfit.Tocossetistopamper,coddle,spoilwithaffection.
8.Lungedoesn’tfit.Ariposteisaresponsetoalunge,acounterstrokeorsharpreply.
9.Nonsensewordsdoesn’tfit.Patoisisregionaldialect,jargon,orinformalspeech.
10.Unfoundedcriticismdoesn’tfit.Animadversionisadversecriticismoracensoriousremark.
KEYWORDS41–50
1.Exegesisisacriticalinterpretationorexplanationofatext.
2.Adoyenneisawomanwhoisarespectedseniormemberofagroup.
3.Somethingacidulousissomewhatsourintasteorharshinmanner;also,sour-tempered,bitter.
4.Togeldistodepriveofstrength,force,vitality,orsomeessentialpart.
5.Bathosisanticlimax,aludicrousdescentfromtheloftytothecommonplace.
6.Someoneoverweeningisexcessivelyself-confidentorconceited;overweeningmeanshavinganexaggeratedopinionofoneself.
7.Febrilemeanspertainingto,markedby,orcausedbyfever.
8.Abenightedpersonisunenlightened,inastateofmentalormoralignoranceordarkness.
9.Turpitudeisshamefulwickedness,vileness;also,anevilordepravedact.
10.Animprecationisacurseortheactofcursing.
LEVEL7
Word1:S IMPER(SIM-pur)
Tosmileinasilly,self-consciousway.
The verb to simper and the noun simper, a silly, self-conscious smile, probably come from the Danish
dialectalwordsimper,whichmeantaffectedorcoy.Inmodernusagesimperdoesoftenimplyaffectation
orcoyness,asacoquettishsimperorasimperingbridesmaid.Simperalsostronglyimpliessillinessand
often simplemindedness; for example, fools are often described as simpering, smiling in an absurd and
obvious way, and a simpering manner is a silly, self-conscious manner. To simper may also mean to
expresswithasimper,astosimperanapology.
Dictionaries often give smirk as a synonym of simper. Although both words denote smiling, simper
suggestssmilinginasilly,self-conscious,orsimplemindedway:“Browning’sroleissounderwrittenthat
allsheisrequiredtodoissimper”(TheGuardian).Smirkusuallysuggestssmilinginasmug,scornful,
or self-righteous way: “The council members ignored the public’s testimony and instead smirked and
snickeredamongthemselves.”
Word2:DENUDE(di-N[Y]OOD)
Tostrip,makenaked,laybare;hence,tostripordepriveof(apossession,quality,etc.).
The verb to denude comes from the Latin dēnūdāre, to lay bare, make naked, uncover, also to rob,
plunder.TheultimatesourceistheLatinnūdus,naked,bare,fromwhichalsocometheEnglishnudeand
nudity.
Todenudeistostripofallcoveringorclothingortostripofsomeimportantquality,characteristic,
attribute,orpossession;ingeology,denudeisusedtomeantolaybareoruncoverbyerosion.Theword
usuallyimpliesaforcefulorviolentstrippingorlayingbare.Forinstance,adenudedhillsideisabare
hillside, stripped of vegetation. A denuded orange has been stripped of its covering or peel, and a
denudedpersonhasbeenstrippedofclothing.Alumberingoperationcandenudeamountainofitstrees.
Acompanydenudedofitsassetsisabankruptcompany.Aneditor’sjobistodenudeawriter’sstyleof
faults such as redundancy and circumlocution (word 44 of Level 3). And a quotation denuded of its
context—deprivedofsurrounding,clarifyingwordsorhistoricalbackground—canbenotonlyambiguous
butalsowillfullymisleading.
The noun denudation (DEN-yuu-DAY-shin) means the act of denuding, stripping, depriving, or the
stateofbeingdenuded.
Word3:S UIGENERIS (SOO-ee-JEN-uh-risorSOO-eye-)
Beingtheonlyoneofitskind;constitutingaclassbyitself;unique.
Suigeneris,whichhasbeenEnglishsincethe18thcentury,comesdirectlyfromLatin:suī means of its
own,andgenerisisthegenitiveofgenus,kind.Thatwhichissuigenerisisliterallyofitsownkind,one
ofakind.
InAmo,Amas,AmatandMore:HowtoUseLatintoYourOwnAdvantageandtotheAstonishment
ofOthers,EugeneEhrlichobserves,“Oneshouldtakesomecareinapplyingsuigeneris,lestthephrase
lose its value. Properly used, sui generis requires that the person, place, or thing be of an entirely
distinctivecharacter.”Likethewordunique,whichcomesfromtheLatinūnus,one,andproperlyisan
absoluteadjectivethatshouldnotbequalifiedbywordssuchasalmost,somewhat,andcompletely,that
whichissuigenerisshouldbetheonlyoneofitskind,constitutingaclassbyitself,neverthatwhichis
justmoreunusualthanordifferentfromsomethingelse.
Ifsomethingisunique,itstandsaloneandhasnoequal.Forexample,yourdaughterisuniquebecause
there is no one else exactly like her. Strictly speaking, she cannot be very unique or more unique than
otherpeople;thatjustmeansshe’sspecialorunusualinsomeway,butnotunique,matchless,peerless,
unrivaled.Likewise,ifsomethingissuigenerisitistheonlyoneofitskind;itoccupiesaclassbyitself.
InEnglishliterature,Shakespeareissuigeneris;nooneelsecanmatchhisgenius.TheGrandCanyonis
geologicallysuigeneris;thereisnothingelselikeitintheworld.“Wehumans…aretheonlyanimals
whosebrainsareknowntoatrophyaswegrowolder,”writesPatriciaMarxinTheNewYorker,“and…
wearealsosuigenerisinsufferingfromAlzheimer’sdisease.”
Word4:JEREMIAD(JER-uh-MY-id)
Aprolongedexpressionofsorroworgrief,oralong,mournfulcomplaint,oftenlacedwithoutrage;alengthyandoftenangrylamentation.
The suffix -ad means derived from, concerning, or related to, as in Olympiad, derived from Mount
OlympusandrelatedtotheOlympicGames,ortheIliad,Homer’sepicpoemabouttheTrojanWar,which
concerns Ilion (IL-ee-un), the Greek name for the ancient city of Troy. Thus, the suffix -ad in jeremiad
means derived from or related to the Old Testament prophet Jeremiah, the author of Lamentations and
Jeremiah.Jeremiadisthusaneponymousword,andinhisDictionaryofEponyms Robert Hendrickson
explainsthat“Jeremiah’slongandsorrowfulcomplaintswereaprotestagainstthesinsofhiscountrymen
andtheircaptivity.”
The Century Dictionary notes that jeremiad is often used “with a spice of ridicule or mockery,
implyingeitherthatthegriefitselfisunnecessarilygreat,orthattheutteranceofitistediouslydrawnout
andattendedwithacertainsatisfactiontotheutterer.”Thus,jeremiadisakindofmock-seriouswordthat
canbeappliedtoanylongandtediouscomplaint,ortoanylengthyandexaggeratedlament,thatgrateson
the nerves and patience of those listening: “He has prolonged his complaint into an endless jeremiad,”
wrotetheEnglishessayistandcriticCharlesLamb(1775–1834).
Word5:S OBRIQUET(SOH-bri-kay)
Adescriptivenameornickname,especiallyanaffectionate,humorous,orfancifulone.
SobriquetenteredEnglishfromFrenchinthe17thcentury;beforethat,itsoriginisuncertain.Theunusual
correspondingadjectiveissobriquetical(SOH-bri-KET-i-kul),ofthenatureofasobriquet.
Nickname,fromtheMiddleEnglisheke,also,andname,isthegeneraltermforadescriptivename
given to a person, place, or thing: The Big Apple is the nickname of New York City. A nickname is
sometimesalsocalledapetname,andthefancywordforapetnameishypocorism(hy-PAHK-ur-iz’m).
A hypocorism is a kind of endearment, a word or expression that shows affection. Lovers use
hypocorisms like sweetie and honey, and parents typically shower their kids with hypocorisms—often
personalizedoneslikeJoojy-Pie,theoneIuseformyyoungerdaughter,Judith.
Ourkeyword,sobriquet,denotesanicknamethatisusuallyaffectionateandoftencleverorfunny.For
example, the legendary baseball slugger Babe Ruth’s sobriquet was Sultan of Swat. And when Mark
Twainburstontheeasternliteraryscenewithhisstory“TheJumpingFrogofCalaverasCounty,”hewas
giventhesobriquet“TheWildHumoristofthePacificSlope.”
Word6:REGNANT(REG-nint)
Ruling,reigning,dominant;exercisingpower,authority,orinfluence.
TheadjectiveregnantcomesfromtheLatinregnāre,toexerciseroyalauthority,ruleasakingorqueen,
whichisalsothesource,ultimately,oftheEnglishverbtoreign,torule,exercisepowerasamonarch.
You may use regnant to mean ruling or reigning as a monarch, as the regnant king, or simply ruling,
dominant,exercisingpower,authority,orinfluence:“Inademocracythepeopleareregnant”;“Weliketo
thinkofJacquelineKennedyregnantinherpillboxhat”(Newsweek).
Regnantmayalsobeusedtomeanreigninginthesenseofhavingthechiefpowerorbeingthechief
authority: “After twenty years at the State Department she had become the regnant expert on Middle
Easternaffairs.”Youmayalsouseregnanttomeanprevalentorwidespreadinadominantorinfluential
way:“SuperstitionandilliteracywereregnantintheMiddleAges.”
Finally,regnantisalsosometimesusedpostpositively—meaningafterthenounitmodifiesinsteadof
before—mostofteninthephrasequeenregnant,meaningarulingqueen,oneinpower:“Thehusbandofa
queenregnanthasnoofficialpositionintheBritishmonarchy.”
Word7:HAUTEUR(hoh-TUR)
Arrogance,haughtiness,condescension;alofty,lordly,ordomineeringmanner.
Synonyms of hauteur include snobbishness, pretentiousness, pomposity, contemptuousness,
imperiousness,andsuperciliousness.
Thenounhauteurandtheadjectivehaughtyareetymologicalcousinswhoseclosestantecedentisthe
French haut, high. And both haughty and hauteur strongly imply high-and-mightiness, lordliness of
manner.Butwhilehaughtinessiseitheraninstinctiveoranaffectedarrogance,hauteursoboldlyaspires
to the heights of arrogance, and so fully expects others to view condescension as its birthright, that,
dependingonthecontext,theeffectcanbearresting,evenintimidating—ordownrightfarcical.
Think of the stereotype of the grim and gaunt waiter in a fancy French restaurant—in France—who
alternately sneers at and ignores foreign customers: that’s hauteur. Think of the lordly posture of proud
flamenco dancers in a vibrant duet: that’s hauteur. Think of the 19th-century Irish playwright and poet
OscarWilde,who,whenpassingthroughcustomsonavisittotheUnitedStates,said,“Ihavenothingto
declare but my genius”: that’s hauteur. Or if you’d prefer an example from popular culture, there’s the
maliciously condescending Cruella de Vil in Disney’s 101 Dalmatians. That “cruel devil” is the
embodimentofhauteur!
Word8:PATERFAMILIAS (PAY-tur-fuh-MIL-ee-usorPAT-ur-orPAH-tur-)
Amanwhoistheheadofahouseholdorthefatherofafamily;byextension,amanwhoistheleaderofatribe,community,ormovement.
Thepluralofpaterfamiliasispatresfamilias(PAY-treez-fuh-MIL-ee-us).
PaterfamiliascomesfromtheLatinpaterfamiliās,afatherorheadofahousehold,frompater,father,
and familia, a household. Its female counterpart is materfamilias (MAY-tur-fuh-MIL-ee-us), a woman
who is the head of a household or the mother of a family, from the Latin mater, mother, and familia, a
household.
In Roman history the paterfamilias was a male head of a household who had absolute legal power
overhisextendedfamily,servants,andslaves.EnglishadoptedthewordfromLatininthe15thcentury
anduseditinalessauthoritariansensetomeananymaleheadofahouseholdorfatherofafamily,asin
this1754quotationfromTheGray’sInnJournal:“IamhereaKindofPater-familiaswithallmylittle
BroodofHensandChickensaroundme.”Thewordeventuallybroadenedtodenoteamaleleaderofany
group, community, or enterprise: “Ernest Hemingway was the paterfamilias of the so-called Lost
Generation,theAmericanexpatriatewriterswholivedinEuropeafterWorldWarI.”
The words paterfamilias and patriarch (PAY-tree-ahrk) both denote a father or male leader. But
patriarch,whichdatesbackinEnglishtobefore1200,originallymeantahigh-rankingbishopintheearly
Christianchurchor“oneofthescripturalfathersofthehumanraceoroftheHebrewpeople”(MerriamWebster’sCollegiate).Later,patriarchcametomeanafoundingfatherofsomegrouporinstitution,orthe
oldestormostrespectedmemberofagroup:“RalphWaldoEmersonwasthepatriarchoftheAmerican
schooloftranscendentalphilosophy.”Thus,theroleofthepatriarchisgenerallymoredignifiedthanthat
ofthepaterfamilias,andthepersonwhooccupiesitmorevenerable;thepaterfamiliasleadsafamilyor
groupbutmayormaynotcommanditsrespect.
Word9:APOGEE(AP-uh-jee)
Thepointatwhichaheavenlybodyorobjectorbitingtheearthisatitsgreatestdistancefromtheearth;byextension,thehighestpoint,the
climaxorculmination.
ApogeecomesfromtheGreekapogaion,farfromorawayfromtheearth,fromapo-,away,off,apart,and
gaia,avariantofgē,theearth.YoucanseethisGreekgēinthemanyEnglishwordsbeginningwiththe
combining form geo-, meaning pertaining to the earth or ground, such as geology, geometry, and
geophagy(jee-AHF-uh-jee),thepracticeofeatingdirt,chalk,orclay,fromgeo-andtheGreekphagein,
toeat.
Apogee was originally used in the astronomical system devised by Ptolemy (TAHL-uh-mee) of
Alexandria,asecond-centurymathematician,geographer,andastronomerwhopositedthattheearthwas
thestationarycenteroftheuniversearoundwhichthesun,moon,andstarsrevolved.Inmodernastronomy
apogeeisusedofthingsthatactuallyorbittheearth,suchasthemoonorasatellite,butitisalsousedof
thepointinanyorbitthatisfarthestfromthebodybeingorbited,astheapogeeintheearth’srevolution
around the sun. The opposite of the apogee is the perigee (PER-i-jee), the point at which something
orbitingtheearthisnearesttotheearth.
Apogeeisoftenusedfigurativelytomeanthehighestpoint,theclimaxorculminationofsomething,as
theapogeeofMayancivilizationinthe8thand9thcenturies,orsheisattheapogeeofhercareer.In
this figurative sense apogee is synonymous with the words summit, pinnacle, apex, acme, vertex, and
zenith.Theantonymofallthesehighest-pointwordsisthenadir(NAY-dur),thelowestpoint.
Word10:MIEN(MEEN,likemean)
Aperson’sbearing,air,ormanner,especiallywhenitrevealscharacter,personality,attitude,orfeeling;one’sdemeanor,deportment,or
carriage.
The noun mien is a shortening of the obsolete noun demean, bearing, behavior. Over time, the word’s
spellingchangedfrommeantomientodistinguishthetwowords.
Aperson’smiencanshowseveralthings.Itcanindicateafeelingormood,asa downcast mien, a
wistfulmien,orahauntedmien.Itcanindicateanattitudeormanner,asa humble mien or a haughty
mien. And it can indicate a person’s bearing or behavior, as an imposing mien or a widowlike mien.
“Fopsatallcorners,ladylikeinmien,”wrotetheEnglishpoetWilliamCowper(KOO-pur)in1775.(A
fopisavain,effeminatemanoverlyconcernedwithhisdressandmanners.)Thecontextinwhichmien
appears often reveals something about a person’s character or personality: “At seventy, white of beard
and hair, Turrell combines the mien of a courtly Western rancher with that of a loquacious youthful
enthusiast”(PeterSchjeldahl,TheNewYorker).
Thenounsdeportment,demeanor,andmienarecloseinmeaning.AccordingtoMerriam-Webster’s
CollegiateDictionary,deportment“suggestsactionsorbehaviorasformedbybreedingortraining,”as
deportment appropriate to a formal event. Demeanor “suggests one’s attitude toward others as
expressed in outward behavior,” as her unwelcoming demeanor or the doctor’s calm and reassuring
demeanor. Our keyword, mien, “is a literary term referring both to bearing and demeanor,” says
Merriam-Webster.Yourmienishowyoucarryyourself,howyoubehave,andwhatthatrevealsaboutyou
toothers.
ReviewQuizforKeywords1–10
Considerthefollowingquestionsanddecidewhetherthecorrectanswerisyesorno.Answers appear
here.
1.Doesasimperingpersonneedtobecomforted?
2.Canyoudenudeanorange?
3.Aretwosimilarthingssuigeneris?
4.Isajeremiadpleasanttolistento?
5.Isasobriquetakindofepithet?
6.Isaregnantwomangoingtohaveababy?
7.Dohumblepeopleexhibithauteur?
8.InRomanhistory,wasapaterfamiliasamaleslave?
9.Istheapogeethelowestpoint?
10.Doesaperson’smienoftenrevealcharacterorpersonality?
DifficultDistinctions:AppraiseandApprise
Theverbstoappraiseandtoappriseareoftenconfused,usuallywiththeformermisusedinplaceofthe
latter.Forexample,inRight,Wrong,andRisky,MarkDavidsoncitesaCNNnewscasterwho“reported
accusations that Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld had not been kept sufficiently ‘appraised’ by U.S.
militaryleaders.Aboutaminutelaterthenewscasternotedthatheshouldhaveusedthewordapprised.”
Toappraise(uh-PRAYZ,almostlikeupraise)istoofficiallydecidetheworthorpriceof,evaluate,
estimate, judge. Local governments appraise property so they can levy taxes. And you can appraise an
antique,apieceofartwork,orararemanuscript,determineitsworthorprice.Toapprise(uh-PRYZ,like
aprize)istoinformornotify.Youapprisesomeoneofthelatestnews,oryoucanbeapprisedofwhat’s
happening.Parentswanttheirteenagechildrentokeepthemapprisedoftheirwhereabouts.
***
HereisthenextsetoftenkeywordsinWordWorkout:
Word11:DYS PEPTIC(dis-PEP-tik)
Irritableandgloomy;grouchyandmorose;ill-humoredandpessimistic.
TheadjectivedyspepticcomesfromGreek,combiningdys-,bad,ill,ordifficult,andpepsis, digestion.
The noun dyspepsia (dis-PEP-see-uh) is bad digestion, indigestion. The antonyms of dyspepsia and
dyspepticareeupepsia(yoo-PEP-see-uh),goodornormaldigestion,andeupeptic(yoo-PEP-tik),having
gooddigestion.
The combining form dys- is used in medicine to form words denoting an impaired or abnormal
condition. For instance, the familiar word dyslexia refers to various linguistic learning disabilities,
including reading disorders. Dyspnea (DISP-nee-uh) is difficult or labored breathing; dysphagia (disFAY-juh)isdifficultyswallowing;dysosmia (dis-AHZ-mee-uh) is an impairment of the sense of smell;
dysmenorrhea(DIS-men-uh-REE-uh)isdifficultandpainfulmenstruation;anddysgraphiaisaninability
towritecausedbyalesion,or,informally,writer’scramporwriter’sblock.
Dyspepticmaybeusedliterallytomeansufferingfromdyspepsia,indigestion,butitisprobablymore
oftenusedfigurativelytomeanexhibitingtheemotionalsymptomsofdyspepsia,suchasgloominessand
irritability.Dyspepticpeople,alsocalleddyspeptics,tendtobegrouchyandpessimistic,asa dyspeptic
neighbororadyspepticmoviecritic.Butdyspepticmaybeappliednotonlytopeoplebutalsotothings.
Forexample,anykindofexpression—abook,anessay,aspeech,acomment,andevenadigitalmissive
(word 14 of this level)—can be dyspeptic, ill-humored and morose: “Senator Chuck Grassley is well
knownasoneofCongress’smostheroicusersofsocialmedia,sendinglegendarilyillegible,frequently
dyspeptictweets”(TheHuffingtonPost).
Word12:ANAPHORA(uh-NAF-uh-ruh)
Inrhetoric,afigureofspeechinwhichawordorphraseisrepeatedatthebeginningofsuccessiveclauses,sentences,orverses,asinthese
linesfromPsalm23intheKingJamesBible:Hemakethmetoliedowningreenpastures:heleadethmebesidethestillwaters.He
restorethmysoul.
ThenounanaphoracomesfromtheGreekanapherein,tobringorcarryback.Theadjectiveisanaphoric
(AN-uh-FOR-ik).
OneofthemostfamousexamplesofanaphoraisWinstonChurchill’sthrillingspeechtotheHouseof
CommonsonJune4,1940,attheheightoftheBattleofBritainduringWorldWarII.Hereisanexcerpt
fromitsconclusion:“Weshallnotflagorfail.Weshallgoontotheend.…Weshallfightonthebeaches,
weshallfightonthelandinggrounds,weshallfightinthefieldsandinthestreets,weshallfightinthe
hills;weshallneversurrender.”
AnotherfamoususeofanaphoraisMartinLutherKing’srepetitionofthephraseIhaveadreaminhis
speechfortheMarchonWashington,August28,1963.Whatmostofusdon’trememberaboutthatgreat
speechishowKingalsousedseveralotherphrasesanaphorically,includingOnehundredyearslater,We
refusetobelieve,Wecannotbesatisfied,andLetfreedomring.
As you have probably surmised—to surmise (sur-MYZ) is to come to a conclusion by using one’s
intuition or imagination—anaphora is common in speechwriting. It is also a common device in poetry,
where the repetition of an initial word or phrase can be incantatory.1 Anaphora also contributes to the
solemn, earnest tone of the Bible, and Julius Caesar’s famous declaration, I came, I saw, I conquered,
maybethemostterseuseofanaphorainhistory.
In rhetoric—the art of using words effectively—the opposite of anaphora is the figure of speech
calledepistrophe(i-PIS-truh-fee),repetitionofawordorphraseattheendofsuccessiveverses,clauses,
or sentences. Abraham Lincoln used epistrophe at the close of the Gettysburg Address: “… and that
governmentofthepeople,bythepeople,forthepeople,shallnotperishfromtheearth.”AndinGeorge
BernardShaw’s1912playPygmalion,AlfredDoolittleuttersthismemorablecombinationofanaphora
andepistrophe:“I’mwillingtotellyou.I’mwantingtotellyou.I’mwaitingtotellyou.”
Word13:PHILANDER(fi-LAN-dur)
Ofaman,toflirtwithandseducewomenwithouthavinganyseriousintentions.
PhilandercomesfromtheGreekphilandros,onewholoves,acombinationofphilo-,loving,andandro-,
aman,male.“InRenaissanceliterature,[Philanderwas]acommonnameforaflirtatiousmalecharacter
whohasmanyloveaffairs,”saysMerriam-Webster’sEncyclopediaofLiterature.Fromthenameweget
theverbtophilander, to court many women but commit to none. Philandering, as a noun, is the act of
engaginginmultiplecasualromanticencounters.
Philander is usually used either of adulterous men who have casual sex outside marriage or of
flirtatious single men who consider themselves, to use a current slang term, players. According to the
online Urban Dictionary, a player is “a male who is skilled at manipulating (‘playing’) others, and
especiallyatseducingwomenbypretendingtocareaboutthem,wheninrealitytheyareonlyinterestedin
sex.” (That definition could also serve for the noun philanderer, a man who flirts with and seduces
women.)Butoccasionallytheverbtophilanderisusedfigurativelyofintellectualflirtationorseduction,
asinthis1951quotationfromInternationalOrganization:“Theyphilanderedwiththeforcesoffascism
inthevainhopethatthelatterwouldmoveeastwardandcrushcommunism.”
Word14:MIS S IVE(MIS-iv)
Aletter;awrittenmessageorcommunication.
The noun missive comes from the Latin mittere, to send, the source of many English words including
submission, literally something sent in; missile, literally an object sent out forcefully; emission, a
discharge,literallysomethingsentout;andintermittent,happeningatintervals,occasional,literallysent
outbetween.
Amissivemaybeanysortofletterorwrittenmessagelongerthanabriefnote,whetherhandwritten,
typed,ordigitized.Butmissivemayalsodenoteamoreformalwrittenannouncement,similartoapress
release: “Steve Jobs has posted a 1,700-word missive on Apple’s website.” In this sense missive is
synonymouswiththewordsbulletin,dispatch,andcommuniqué(kuh-MYOO-ni-KAY).Othersynonyms
ofmissiveincludeepistle(i-PIS’l,discussedinepistolary,word35ofLevel6),andbillet-doux (BILay-DOO),aloveletter,whichwasborroweddirectlyfromFrench,whereitmeantliterallyasweetnote.
A tweet,2 a posting on the social networking service Twitter, is also a missive—or an emissive, my
proposedwordforanemailmessageorotherelectroniccommunication.
Word15:PENULTIMATE(pe-NUHL-ti-mit)
Nexttothelast;secondtolast;beingthelastbutone.
PenultimatecomesfromtheLatinpaeneultima,inwhichpaenemeansalmost,nearly,andultimameans
thelast.Byderivation,thatwhichispenultimateisalmostthelast.Specifically,itmeansnexttothelast,
asthepenultimatechapterofthebook.
Penultimatemaybeusedgenerallyofanythingthatissecond-to-last,asthepenultimatedayofour
vacationorthepenultimateepisodeofaTVshow.Butitalsohasaspecificuseinprosody(PRAH-suhdee),thestudyofpoeticmeterandversification,whereitdenotesthesecond-to-lastsyllableofaword,
the last syllable but one. This next-to-last syllable is also sometimes called the penult (PEE-nult). For
example, the penultimate syllable, or penult, in the word penultimate is -ti-. And the antepenultimate
(AN-tee-pe-NUHL-ti-mit)syllableistheonebefore,ante-,thepenultimate,hencethethirdtolast:veristheantepenultimatesyllableofversify.
Penultimateisoftenmisconstruedasbeinganemphaticsynonymofultimate,whichmeansthelastor
theutmost.Thesetwowordsare,mostemphatically,notsynonymous.Reservepenultimateforwhenyou
meannotthelastbutthenexttolast.
Word16:ZEITGEIS T(TSYT-gyst,rhymeswithslightdiced)
Literally,thespiritofatimeorage;thegeneraltrendofthoughtorfeeling,ortheintellectualorculturalclimate,ofaparticularperiodor
generation.
Zeitgeistisamid-19th-centuryGermanloanwordformedfromtheGermanZeit,time,andGeist,spirit—
the same Geist as in poltergeist (POHL-tur-gyst), a spirit or ghost that makes noises, from the German
poltern,toknock,makenoise.
The zeitgeist is the spirit of a given time, the general trend of its thought and feeling, as the antirational zeitgeist of the Romantic era, the freewheeling zeitgeist of the 1960s, and the zeitgeist of
greedinthe1980s.Novelists,playwrights,andfilmmakersoftentrytocaptureandsometimesinfluence
thezeitgeist,thegeneraltrendofthoughtorfeeling,intheircreativework.Zeitgeistcanalsosometimes
refer to the prevailing intellectual or cultural mood of a particular group in a particular time, as the
zeitgeistofthemillennialgenerationorthezeitgeistofSiliconValley.
Untilrecently,zeitgeistwasprintedinitalicswithacapitalZ,butitisnowafullyEnglishwordthat
shouldbeprintedinlowercaselettersandromantype.
Word17:S ENTENTIOUS (sen-TEN-shus)
Fullof,orgiventousing,aphorismsormaxims,orshort,meaningfulsentences.Byextension,aboundinginorgiventopompousmoralizing;
self-righteous.
Way back in the discussion of adage (word 23 of Level 1) I noted that an aphorism (AF-ur-iz’m) is a
generaltruthorshrewdobservationexpressedinaterse,forceful,thought-provokingway,whileamaxim
(MAKS-im) is a guiding principle or rule of conduct that expresses a general truth drawn from
experience.Here’sanaphorismfromMarkTwain:“Thelackofmoneyistherootofallevil.”Andhere’s
amaximfromMarkTwain:“Irreverenceisthechampionoflibertyanditsonlysuredefense.”
The adjective sententious—which comes through the Latin sententiōsus, full of meaning, from
sententia,opinion,thought,meaning,thesourceoftheEnglishsentence—meanshavinglotsofaphorisms
and maxims, as a sententious book, or given to using lots of aphorisms and maxims, as a sententious
clergyman.Poetsandprophetsareoftensententious;professorsandphilosophersgenerallyarenot.
The pompous Polonius in Shakespeare’s Hamlet is sententious, and probably because sententious
peoplecanbepronetomoralizing,likePolonius,sententiouscametobeusedtomeanself-righteousand
moralistic, or pompously formal, as in this 1850 citation from Washington Irving’s Mahomet: “His
ordinary discourse was grave and sententious”; and this one from Charles Kingsley’s 1855 historical
novelWestwardHo!:“alongsententiousletter,filledwithLatinquotations.”
Synonyms of sententious include terse, pithy, succinct, aphoristic, and epigrammatic (EP-i-gruhMAT-ik). Challenging antonyms of sententious include circumlocutory (discussed in circumlocution,
word 44 of Level 3), prolix (PROH-liks), tautological (TAW-tuh-LAHJ-i-kul), and pleonastic
(pleonasmisword6ofLevel8).
Word18:INTERDICT(IN-tur-DIKT)
Toprohibitorforbid,especiallybyformalcommandorauthoritativedecree.
Synonyms of interdict include to ban, bar, outlaw, disallow, embargo, and proscribe. Antonyms of
interdictincludetopermit,legalize,authorize,andsanction.
TointerdictcomesthroughtheLatininterdictum,aprohibition,fromtheverbinterdīcere,tostopby
comingbetween,frominter-,between,anddīcere,tospeak.
When the verb to interdict entered English in the late 13th century it was an ecclesiastical term
meaningtoplaceunderaninterdict(IN-tur-dikt),whichtodaymeansanyofficialprohibition,asfroma
court, but which originally was an authoritative decree of the Roman Catholic Church prohibiting a
personorplacefromreceivingreligiousbenefitsandprivileges.Sincetheearly16thcenturytointerdict
hasbeenusedinitsmodernsense,toforbidorprohibit,especiallybyformalcommand:“Amemberofthe
Royal Virgin Islands Police Force has been interdicted from duty amid allegations of indecent assault”
(BVIBeacon).Sincethemid-20thcenturyinterdicthasalsobeenusedtomeantoimpedeordestroy,as
to interdict the enemy’s supply lines, or to interrupt or intercept, as to interdict a shipment of illegal
drugs.
To forbid, prohibit, and interdict all mean to stop or disallow something. Generally speaking, an
individualforbidswhileaninstitutionorgovernmentprohibits.Thus,parentsmayforbidstayingoutlate
andateachermayforbidtalkinginclass,whilebusinessesprohibitsmokingandthelawprohibitsdriving
withoutalicense.Tointerdictmayapplytoanindividualortoaninstitution,butitisthemostformaland
authoritativeofthesethreewords.
The noun is interdiction (IN-tur-DIK-shin), the act or an instance of interdicting: forbidding,
prohibiting,impeding,orintercepting.
Word19:MALAIS E(muh-LAYZ)
Avagueandgeneralfeelingofphysicaldiscomfortormentaluneasiness.
Malaise is borrowed directly from the French malaise, discomfort, uneasiness, a combination of mal-,
bad,andtheMiddleFrenchaise,thesourceoftheEnglishease.
WhenmalaiseenteredEnglishinthemid-18thcenturyitwasusedofavagueandgeneralfeelingof
physical weakness or discomfort, often signaling the onset of an illness, and the word is still used this
waytoday,asinthisquotationfrom1981:“Inmildercases,thereisjustafeelingofmalaise,withsome
shivering,pallor…andnausea”(OliverSacks,Migraine).Butovertimethewordcametobeusedmore
broadly and figuratively to include mental uneasiness or discomfort, as the malaise of an unhappy
marriage,oravagueandgeneralstateofunhealthiness,asaneconomysufferingfromchronicmalaise.
Word20:PROGENY(PRAH-juh-nee)
Offspring,children,descendants,spawn.
ProgenycomesfromtheLatinprōgeniēs,offspring,descendants.Thewordisusuallyconstruedasplural,
denoting someone’s children or offspring, as the philanderer’s legitimate and illegitimate progeny.
(Philander is word 13 of this level.) But progeny is occasionally used to mean a single child or
descendant:“Theinvestigationdeterminedthatshewasherprogeny.”
Progeny has also often been used figuratively to mean a person’s “spiritual, intellectual, or artistic
descendants”(OED):“ThesemendicantmonksaretheprogenyofSt.Francis.”(Mendicantisword24of
Level4.)Inthissenseprogeny is synonymous with successors, followers, and disciples. Progeny may
also denote something that results from something else, the product, issue, or outcome, as when the
lexicographerSamuelJohnson,in1750,wrote,“FalsehoodwastheprogenyofFolly.”
But most often progeny is used to mean the offspring or descendants of human beings, animals, or
plants.Loversofhorseracingwonderiftheprogenyofagreatracehorsewillbegreattoo.Saplingsare
theprogenyoftrees.Andthehopeofeverygenerationofhumankindistomaketheworldabetterplace
foritsprogeny.
Aprogenitor(proh-JEN-i-tur)isacreatorofprogeny,hence,anancestor,precursor,ororiginator.
ReviewQuizforKeywords11–20
Considerthefollowingstatementsanddecidewhethereachoneistrueorfalse.Answersappearhere.
1.Dyspepticpeopletendtobecheerfulandcarefree.
2.Anaphoraistherepetitionofawordorphraseattheendofsuccessiveverses,clauses,orsentences.
3.Tophilanderistohavemanyloveaffairs.
4.Amissivecouldbeamessagesentinabottle.
5.Thepenultimatesyllableisthefinalsyllable.
6.Ifyoucontradictthezeitgeist,youcontradictthespiritoftheageortimes.
7.Asententiouspersoniscircumlocutory.
8.TheFDAcanapproveorinterdictthesaleofanyfoodordrug.
9.Amalaiseisafeelingofuncertaintyorperplexity.
10.Yourchildren’schildrenarenotyourprogeny.
FiguresofSpeechThatEveryWriterShouldKnow
InLevel1youlearnedaboutthefigureofspeechcalledalliteration,andafewkeywordsagoIintroduced
youtoanaphoraandepistrophe.Nowlet’stakealookatsomeothercommonfiguresofspeechthatyou
canputinyourrhetoricaltoolbox.
Assonance(AS-uh-nints)ispartialrhymeorharmonyofvowelsoundsatthebeginningofneighboring
words, as in the lady had a baby or now comes the cover of night. The opposite of assonance is
consonance(KAHN-suh-nints),harmonyofthefinalconsonantsoundsinneighboringwords,asinAnd
thenitrainedandruinedeverythingoranintricateanddelicatecontrivance.
Anadiplosis(AN-uh-di-PLOH-sis)istherepetitionofanendingatthenextbeginning,asinWhen I
love,Ilovefully,orasinthislinefromEcclesiastes9:10intheBible:“Whatsoeverthyhandfindethto
do,doitwiththymight.”
Antithesis (an-TITH-uh-sis) is the juxtaposition (placing side by side) of sharply contrasting or
directlyopposedideas,asinGivemelibertyorgivemedeath—which,withitsrepetitionofgivemein
successiveclausesisalsoanexampleofanaphora.
Asyndeton (uh-SIN-duh-tahn) is the omission of a conjunction that would normally join words or
clauses,asinthetitleofElizabethGilbert’sbestsellingmemoirEat,Pray,Love, which is missing and
before Love. By contrast, polysyndeton (PAH-lee-SIN-duh-tahn) is the addition of conjunctions,
especially and, where they are not normally required, as in to work and hope and struggle and never
giveup.
Finally, dissonance (DIS-uh-nints) or cacophony (kuh-KAHF-uh-nee) is the use of harsh-sounding
wordsoraharshcombinationofsounds,asinahorridscreechthatsplittheair,andthenthesickening
thudandcrunchofbone.
Learningtorecognizethesefiguresofspeechandusetheminyourownwritingwillmakewhatyou
havetosaymoreinteresting,moremusical,andmorememorable.
***
HerearethenexttenkeywordsinLevel7:
Word21:BELIE(bi-LY)
Togiveafalseimpressionorrepresentationof,tomisrepresentordisguise;ortoshowtobefalseormistaken,tocontradict.
The verb to belie dates back more than a thousand years to Old English, where it meant to deceive by
lying.InMiddleEnglishtobeliecametomeantotellliesabout,toslander.Thissenseisnowarchaic.
Sincethe16thcenturybeliehasbeenusedtomeantomisrepresentorbemisleading:“Hisyouthfullooks
beliehisage”;“Recenttrainwrecksbelieimprovingrailsafetyrecord”(AssociatedPress).Andsince
the17thcenturybeliehasalsobeenusedtomeantoshowtobefalseormistaken:“Thefactsbeliesuch
easy answers” (The Wall Street Journal); “The record turnout belied predictions of widespread voter
indifference.”
Takecarenottousebelieasasynonymofrevealorindicate,asheraccentbeliedherNewEngland
roots. This erroneous usage is almost the opposite of the word’s true meaning: to misrepresent or
disguise,ortoshowtobefalseormistaken.
Word22:FACTOTUM(fak-TOH-tum)
Apersonemployedtodoallkindsofwork,ahandyman,jack-of-all-trades;hence,anemployeeorassistantwhohasmanydifferentdutiesor
responsibilities.
Factotum comes from the Late Latin factōtum, a combination of fac, the imperative of facere, to do,
make,andtōtum,everything,thewhole.Thiswordforapersonwhoishandyatallkindsofworkcan
comeinhandytodescribeeitherapersonskilledinvarioustrades,whocandoallsortsofoddjobsand
manuallabor,orsomeonewhohandlesavarietyoftasksorshouldersnumerousresponsibilities.Thus,if
you’renotado-it-yourselfexpertit’shelpfultohaveafactotumtodotheupkeeponyourhouse;butifyou
are a do-it-yourself expert then you’re probably your own factotum, a jack-of-all-trades. And business
ownersalwaysappreciatehavingafactotum,anemployeewillingtotakeonmanymoredutiesthanare
listedinthejobdescription.
Word23:JINGOIS M(JING-goh-iz’m)
Overzealousandaggressivepatriotism,oranaggressiveandbelligerentforeignpolicy.
Thenounjingodenotes“apersonwhoprofesseshisorherpatriotismloudlyandexcessively,favoring
vigilant preparedness for war and an aggressive foreign policy,” says The Random House Dictionary.
Thisuseofjingo,explainsWebster2,“aroseinEngland,wherethewordwasoriginallyanicknamefora
supporter or praiser of Lord Beaconsfield’s3 action in sending a fleet to Turkish waters to oppose
Russia’sadvancein1878.Itisderivedfromthechorusofapopularmusic-hallsongofthetimes:“‘We
don’twanttofight,butbyJingo!ifwedo,/We’vegottheships,we’vegotthemen,andgotthemoney
too.’”4 The jingoes or jingoists, as they were called, were zealous, militant patriots who believed that
might is always right. An 1881 article in Gentleman’s Magazine observed that “the Jingo is the
aggregationofthebully.Anindividualmaybeabully;but,inordertocreateJingoism,theremustbea
crowd.”
Jingoismis“ablind,flag-wavingnationalismthatrefusestoacknowledgeanyfailingswhatsoeverof
oursociety”(TheWallStreetJournal).Theadjectiveisjingoistic,whichmeanseithercharacteristicof
jingoes,overzealouspatriots,orexpressiveofjingoism,belligerentpatriotism.
Theeponymouswordchauvinism(SHOH-vuh-NIZ’m) is a close synonym of jingoism. In my book
VerbalAdvantageIrecountthestoryofa19th-centuryFrenchmannamedNicolasChauvin,who“wasa
veteran of the Napoleonic wars and a fervent follower of the emperor. After the defeat and exile of
Napoleon, Chauvin became so zealous in his demonstrations of patriotism and allegiance to the fallen
emperor that people began to ridicule him.… The French coined a word for his blind love of country,
whichsoonmadeitswayintoEnglish.”
Word24:GAINS AY(gayn-SAYorGAYN-say)
Todeny,contradict,oroppose;todeclaretobeuntrue.
Synonymsofgainsayincludetodispute,disavow,disown,repudiate,controvert,andabnegate (AB-nigayt).
The verb to gainsay begins with the Anglo-Saxon prefix gain-, which corresponds to the more
common prefix re-, from Latin, and signifies “opposition, return, or reversal” (OED). By derivation,
when you gainsay you speak against something, either to deny or contradict it. To gainsay a charge or
accusationistodeclareittobeuntrue.Thepasttenseisgainsaid (gayn-SED or GAYN-sed). Facts or
evidencethatcannotbegainsaidcannotbedeniedoropposedbyargument.
Garner’s Modern American Usage observes that “originally gainsay was the popular word and
contradict the erudite [learned, scholarly] one. Today just the opposite is true.” Contradict, the more
learned word from Latin, has nearly supplanted (word 17 of Level 2) gainsay, the once-popular word
fromAnglo-Saxon.TogainsayisnowmorecommoninBritishEnglishthaninAmerican,butitwouldnot
beinappopriateforanAmericantouseitinaformalordignifiedcontext.
Word25:NEOLOGY(nee-AHL-uh-jee)
Theinventionofnewwords,phrases,usages,meanings,orexpressions.
Neology is borrowed from French; the combining form neo- means new, and the combining form -logy
designatessciences,disciplines,orspheresofknowledge.
Neology is the coining of new words and meanings. A neologism (nee-AHL-uh-jiz’m) is a newly
mintedlocution(word22ofLevel6)oranewmeaningofaword.Toneologize(nee-AHL-uh-jyz)isto
inventnewwords.Andthepeoplewhocoinnewwordsarecalledneologists (nee-AHL-uh-jists). The
rest of the population is the court of no appeal, which decides whether these creations will thrive or
expire.
Here’soneexampleofhowswiftandarbitrarythatjudgmentcanbe.Inthemid-19thcentury,when
people needed a word for someone who collects postage stamps, somebody proposed timbromaniac
(fromtheFrenchtimbre-poste,apostagestamp).That’saperfectlygoodword,Isuppose,butthemoment
somebodyelsecameupwiththemoreelegantwordphilatelist(fi-LAT-uh-list),pooroldtimbromaniac
waslicked.
Since Geoffrey Chaucer, way back in the 14th century, borrowed from French to create the words
attention,duration,fraction,andposition,therehavebeensomegreatEnglishneologistsandsomegreat
successesinEnglishneology.SirThomasMorepublishedabookin1516whosetitlehasenduredasthe
wordforanidealsociety,aparadiseonearth:utopia.ThepoetJohnMiltonwaslookingtheotherway
when,in1667inhisepicpoemParadiseLost,hecoinedthewordpandemonium(literally,theplaceof
all the demons) for Satan’s palace in hell. Milton also gave us earthshaking, impassive, infinitude,
lovelorn, and sensuous. Sir Francis Bacon gave us placid in 1626; Sir Thomas Browne gave us
hallucination in 1629; John Dryden gave us witticism in 1677; and, because somebody had to do it,
AlexanderPopegaveusanticlimaxin1710.
ThomasJeffersonwasbelittledbytheBritishforinventingtheusefulwordbelittle.SamuelJohnson,
whopublishedalandmarkdictionaryin1755,coinedthehumorouswordfiddledeedee,unawarethathis
creationwouldachievedubiousimmortalityintheDisneyversionofPinocchio.AndJonathanSwift,in
his1726satiricalromanceGulliver’sTravels,introducedthewordyahootodenote“amemberofarace
ofbrutes…whohavetheformandallthevicesofhumans.”
WherewouldEmilyPostandMissMannersbehadLordChesterfieldnotpolitelypluckedtheword
etiquette from French in 1750? And where would the pocket-protector crowd be had Theodor Seuss
Geisel,knowntomillionsasDr.Seuss,notinventedthewordnerdinhis1950bookIfIRantheZoo?
Neology, the invention of new locutions and meanings, is essential to the growth and survival of a
language.Evenifyou’venevercoinedawordyouarestillpartoftheprocessofembracingorrejecting
words as they come along, giving them life and breath or giving them a shove in the direction of the
dustbin.
Word26:EXCRES CENCE(eks-KRES-ints)
Anoutgrowth,lump,enlargement,orprojection,especiallywhenabnormal.
Challenging synonyms of excrescence include protuberance (proh-T[Y]OO-bur-ints) and intumescence
(IN-t[y]oo-MES-ints),fromtheLatintumēre,toswell,thesourceoftheEnglishtumor.Theadjectiveis
excrescent (eks-KRES-int), forming an excrescence, growing abnormally or superfluously out of
somethingelse.
The noun excrescence comes from the Latin excrescĕre, to grow out, spring up, from ex-, out, and
crescĕre,togrow,springforth,thesourceoftheEnglishcrescent,whichasanadjectivemeansgrowing,
asacrescentmoon,andthenouncrescendo(kruh-SHEN-doh),whichinmusicmeansagradualincrease
involume.
An excrescence may be a benign and harmless growth or projection, such as a mole, pimple, or
blister;oritmaybeanabnormalgrowth,especiallyanabnormalswellingorlump,suchasawart,cyst,
boil, pustule (PUHS-chool), wen, or tumor. The bumpy taste buds on your tongue are normal
excrescences,butpolypsinyourcolon—evenwhenbenign—areabnormalexcrescences.Asyouageyour
bonescandevelopexcrescences,bumpsorprojections,fromcalciumdeposits.Andoncertainanimals,
hornsarenormalexcrescences.
Sometimesexcrescenceisusedfigurativelyofanyunwantedordisfiguringenlargementoraddition,
asthegaudyexcrescenceofherweddingringortheexcrescenceofthefederalbureaucracy.
Word27:CORBEL(KOR-bul,rhymeswithwarble)
Abracket;specifically,inarchitecture,aprojectionfromwithinawallthatsupportsaweight,suchasagirder.
CorbelcomesfromtheLateLatincorvellus,thediminutiveofcorvus,araven.Whatdoesabrackethave
todowithabigblackbird?Theanswerisn’tclear,buttheOEDnotesthatcorbelswereoriginallycuton
aslantsothattheywouldlooklikeabird’sbeak.Inmedievalarchitecturecorbelswereoftenelaborately
carved,whichmayhaveledSirWalterScotttowrite,inhis1805poem“LayoftheLastMinstrel,”that
“[t]hecorbelswerecarvedgrotesqueandgrim,”butinmodernarchitecturecorbelsareusuallyfunctional
ratherthanornamental.
Agargoyle(GAHR-goyl)andacorbelarebotharchitecturalprojections.Agargoyleisaspout—in
theformofagrotesquelycarvedhumanoranimalfigurewithanopenmouth—thatprojectsfromaroof
gutter and throws rainwater clear of the building. A corbel is a bracket—generally of wood, stone, or
brick—projectingfromtheverticalfaceofawalltosupportsomehorizontalweight,suchasabeam,a
cornice,oranarch.
Word28:S EDULOUS (SEJ-uh-lus)
Involvingorcharacterizedbycarefulandpersistenteffort;requiringoraccomplishedbypainstakingattentionorapplication.
SedulouscomesthroughtheLatinsēdŭlus,busy,diligent,careful,fromsēdolō,literallywithoutguileor
trickery.Byderivationthesedulouspersonworkshonestlyandcarefullytoaccomplishthetaskathand.
Sedulousisoftenappliedtopeopleandcreatures:thesedulousstudentburningthemidnightoil;the
sedulous lawyer working late writing a brief; the sedulous beaver building a dam; or the sedulous
bumblebee tirelessly collecting pollen. The word may also be used of actions to mean done in a
persistent,painstakingway:sedulousattention,sedulousinvestigation,sedulouspreparation,sedulous
listening.
Synonyms of sedulous include busy, industrious, diligent, painstaking, persevering, unremitting,
indefatigable (word 21 of Level 2), and assiduous (uh-SIJ-oo-us). Antonyms of sedulous include
lethargic, languid, indolent (word 48 of Level 4), phlegmatic (fleg-MAT-ik), slothful, shiftless, and
otiose(OH-shee-ohs).
Sedulousness,thenoun,meansdiligence,industriousness,carefulandpersistenteffort:“Thecaptain
toldthecrew,‘Thislonganddifficultmissionwillrequireyourunwaveringsedulousness,ifweareto
succeed.’”
Word29:MAUNDER(MAWN-dur)
Totalkinarambling,dreamy,ormeaninglessway;tospeakincoherentlyorfoolishly.Also,tomoveoractinanaimless,idle,ordreamy
manner.
Theoriginoftheverbtomaunderisuncertain.
Therearevariouswaystousemaunderinthesenseofspeakinginaramblingorincoherentmanner.
You can simply maunder: “She saw the old folks maundering in wheelchairs in the hallways of the
nursing home.” You can maunder over something: “It’s odd to see some brawny guy maundering over
someuglylittledog.”Youcanmaunderon:“Judithstoppedlisteningasherfathermaunderedon.”You
canmaunderabout:“Afterafewdrinkshestartedmaunderingabouthistroubles.”Andyoucanmaunder
onabout:“RuthfidgetedwhileAnitamaunderedonaboutherfailingmarriage.”
Maundermayalsobeusedtomeantomoveoractinanidle,dreamyway,astomaunderthroughthe
woodsortomaunderdowntheprimrosepath.
Here’sasentencethataccomplishestheneattrickofusingtherambling,aimlessmaunderinbothits
talkinganditsmovingsenses:“Hiscolumnsfrequentlywanderandmaunder,headingthiswayandthat,
butneveractuallyarrivinganywhere”(JeffreyShallit,pandasthumb.org).
Word30:S ALTATION(sal-TAY-shin,notsawl-)
Theactofleapingorjumping,oraleap,jump;hence,theactofdancing,oradance.
Saltation comes from the Latin saltāre, to dance, the frequentative of the verb salīre, to leap, jump,
bound, spring. Saltation has specific uses in the sciences of geology and evolutionary biology, but in
generalliteraryuseitmeanstheactofleapingorjumpingortheactofdancing:“Stillkeepingtimetothe
musiclikeHarlequininapantomime,hethrustaletterintoourhero’shand,andcontinuedhissaltation
without pause or intermission” (Sir Walter Scott, Waverley, 1893); “Life must be taken with a grain of
saltation:letthespiritdanceameasureortwoereitcollapse”(ChristopherMorley,Pipefuls,1920).
The adjective saltatory (SAL-tuh-tor-ee) means pertaining to or adapted for saltation, leaping or
dancing, and the adjective saltant (SAL-tint) means leaping or dancing. The unusual verb to saltate
(SAL-tayt)meanstoleaporjump.
ReviewQuizforKeywords21–30
Decideifthepairsofwordsbelowaresynonymsorantonyms.Answersappearhere.
1.Belieandproveare…synonymsorantonyms?
2.Factotumandjack-of-all-tradesare…
3.Jingoismandchauvinismare…
4.Togainsayandtoconfirmare…
5.Neologyandverbicideare…
6.Excrescenceandprotuberanceare…
7.Corbelandbracketare…
8.Sedulousandindolentare…
9.Tomaunderandtorambleare…
10.Saltationandtorporare…
TheGreatestNeologist
The English language’s greatest neologist was a man who contributed at least 1,500 items to our
wordstock,alongwithcountlessidiomsandexpressionsthataresofamoustheyhavebecomecliché.He
wasanElizabethanplaywrightandpoetwho,hadhisfathernotdecidedtomovethefamilytoStratfordon-Avonshortlybeforehisbirth,wouldbeknowntoustodayastheBardofSnitterfield.
William Shakespeare was, quite simply, a world-champion wordmaker. As Jeffrey McQuain and
StanleyMallesstellusinCoinedbyShakespeare,weencounterhiswordseveryday,fromassassination
to zany. Shakespeare’s creations are so firmly embedded in the language that, like the conveniences of
modernlife,youcan’timagineatimewhentheydidn’texist.
HowwouldwemakelovehadShakespearenotgivenusthewordsembrace,courtship,undress,and
kissing?Wherewouldoureconomybewithoutemployer,manager,investment,andretirement? Where
would religion be without pious and sanctimonious? Where would journalism be without reword,
misquote,andcritic?Wherewouldcriticismbewithoutfashionable,monumental,andworthless? And
wherewouldallofEnglishliteraturebehadShakespearenotgivenussuchsimpleandbeautifulwordsas
gloomy,hurry,generous,unaware,andlonely?
ShakespearewasalsotheEnglishlanguage’sgreatestphrasemaker:“Therehasneverbeenanyoneto
match him,” says Bill Bryson in The Mother Tongue. For ever and a day (Taming of the Shrew),
Shakespearelaiditonwithatrowel(AsYouLikeIt)andshowedusinonefellswoop(Macbeth) and
withnoapparentfoulplay(KingJohn)whatitwasliketobeinapickle(TheTempest),tobefancy-free
(MidsummerNight’sDream),tobeggaralldescription(AntonyandCleopatra),tobeeatenoutofhouse
andhome(HenryIV,Part2),andtowearyourheartonyoursleeve(Othello).Withthemilkofhuman
kindness(Macbeth)hetookusonawild-goosechase(RomeoandJuliet),gaveusshortshrift(Richard
III),andsentuspacking(HenryIV,PartI).Hemadeourhairstandonend(Hamlet)becausehewasas
merryasthedayislong(MuchAdoAboutNothing)andaspureasthedrivensnow(TheWinter’sTale
andMacbeth).Surelyhiswordswillneverbecometoomuchofagoodthing(AsYouLikeIt)orvanish
intothinair(Othello).
And that’s the long and the short of it—an idiom that the Bard, in The Merry Wives of Windsor,
originally wrote as “this is the short and the long of it.” As the 19th-century Irish poet and playwright
OscarWildedrylyobserved,“NowwesitthroughShakespeareinordertorecognizethequotations.”
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabularyforanothertenkeyworddiscussions.
Word31:ANODYNE(AN-uh-dyn)
Amedicine,drug,oragentthatrelievespain;hence,anythingthatsoothesthemindorfeelingsorthatalleviatesanxietyordistress.
ThenounanodynecomesfromtheGreekanódynos,painless,acombinationoftheprivativeprefixan-,
without,andódyne,pain.Originallyananodynewasamedicineordrugthatalleviatedpain:laudanum
(LAWD’n-um), a tincture or preparation of opium, was once a popular anodyne. But perhaps because
emotional pain is as prevalent as physical pain, anodyne was soon used of other things that alleviated
anxietyordistress:“Listeningtobeautifulmusiccanbeananodyneforgrief”;“Devouringapintofice
creameverynightisnotasensibleanodyneforstress.”
Theunusualwordnepenthe(nuh-PEN-thee)isaclosesynonymofanodyne.Nepenthecomesfromthe
Greek nēpenthēs, banishing pain and sorrow, and means a magical drug or drink that makes you forget
yoursorrowsormisfortune.InhisepicpoemTheFaerieQueene(1590–1609),EdmundSpenserwrites,
“Nepentheisadrinkofsovereigngrace,/Devisedbythegods,fortoassuage/Heart’sgrief,andbitter
gall away to chase.” And in Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven” (1845), the depressed narrator moans,
“Quaff [KWAHF], oh quaff this kind nepenthe and forget this lost Lenore!” (To quaff is to drink a
beverage,especiallyanintoxicatingone,deeplyandheartily.)
Ourkeyword,anodyne,mayalsobeusedasanadjectivetomeanrelievingpain,soothingtothemind
or feelings, or not likely to offend or arouse ill will: “For some people canned background music in
publicplacesisirritatingandinvasive,whileforothersitisanodyne.”
Word32:AUTODIDACTIC(AW-toh-dy-DAK-tik)
Self-taught;acquiringknowledgebyoneself.
Autodidacticistheadjectivecorrespondingtothenounautodidact(AW-toh-DY-dakt).Anautodidactis
a self-taught person, one who has gained knowledge or skill without the benefit of a teacher or formal
education.
The combining form auto-, self, comes directly from the Greek autós, self, and appears in many
English words, such as autograph, literally self-writing; automatic, literally moving by oneself;
autocracy,governmentbyonepersonwithsolepower;andtheunusualautochthonous,combiningautowiththeGreekchthón,earth,land,tomeanliterallyofthelanditself,hencenative,aboriginal,indigenous
(in-DIJ-i-nus).
Autodidactic combines auto-, self, with the adjective didactic, designed to teach, instructive.
Throughout history, many great writers, artists, and musicians have been autodidactic, self-taught, and
even some eminent scholars and scientists were autodidacts—for example, the 18th-century English
lexicographerSamuelJohnson,who,forlackofmoney,hadtoabandonhisstudiesatOxfordafteronlya
year,andtheprolificAmericaninventorThomasEdison,whoasayouthhadjustthreemonthsofformal
schooling.
Word33:JOCUND(JAHK-und,firstsyllablelikejock,notjoke)
Merry,cheerful,mirthful,filledwithhighspirits,livelyandlighthearted.
TheadjectivejocundcomesfromtheLateLatinjocundus,analterationoftheLatinjūcundus, pleasant,
delightful, from the verb juvāre, to help, benefit, or to please, delight. In English jocund may be used
eitherofpeopleorofthingstomeancharacterizedbymerrimentandmirth,fullofhighspirits.Agathering
oragreetingcanbejocund,fullofgoodcheer.Someone’sexpressionormannercanbejocund,merryand
lively:inShakespeare’sHenryIV,SirJohnFalstaffisajocundreveler.Andevenmusiccanbejocund,as
in this sentence from The Duke’s Children (1879) by the English novelist Anthony Trollope: “It was a
sweetandjocundair,suchaswouldmakeyoungpeoplepronetorunandskip.”
Becauseoftheirsimilarsound,theadjectivesjovial,jocose,jocular,andjocundshouldbecarefully
distinguishedinmeaning.Jovial(JOH-vee-ul),whichcomesfromtheRomangodJove,orJupiter,who
wasrenownedforhisloveoffeastingandmerriment,meansliterallylikeJove,good-humored,friendly,
andconvivial:jovialconversation.Jocose(joh-KOHS)andjocular(JAHK-yuh-lur)bothhailfromthe
Latinjocus,ajoke(thesourceoftheEnglishjoke),andbothmeanhumorous,witty,orhabituallygivento
joking, as a jocose drunkard or a jocular play on words. Our keyword, jocund, may suggest wit or
playfulhumor,butitprimarilysuggestscheerfulmerrimentandhighspirits;thatwhichisjocundislively,
lighthearted,andexhilarating:theirhilariousandjocundbanter.
The corresponding nouns are joviality (JOH-vee-AL-i-tee), jocosity (joh-KAHS-i-tee), jocularity
(JAHK-uh-LAR-i-tee),andjocundity(joh-KUHN-di-tee).
Word34:S IMULACRUM(SIM-yuh-LAY-krum)
Animageorrepresentation,oraninsubstantialorunreallikeness;asemblance.
English borrowed simulacrum in the late 16th century directly from the Latin simūlācrum, an image,
likeness,portrait,effigy.ThestandardpluralofsimulacrumfollowstheLatin:simulacra(SIM-yuh-LAYkruh).
Asimulacrummaybe,likeitsLatinsource,animageorlikenessofaperson,asasimulacrumofthe
GreekgodApollo;arepresentationofathing,astheplay’ssetisasimulacrumofasubwaystation;ora
representation of a concept, as a convincing simulacrum of reality. Or a simulacrum may be a vague,
unreal,insubstantialimageorlikeness,asemblance.Forexample,toanyonewhoappreciatesgood,real
food,Kraftmacaroniandcheeseisasimulacrumofthegenuinearticle.Anandroidisasimulacrumofa
humanbeing.Andthestrange“phantomlimb”sooftendescribedbyamputeesisasimulacrum,avague
andshadowymentalimageoftheabsentlimb.
Simulacrum is sometimes mispronounced with lock in the penultimate (word 15 of this level)
syllable; dictionaries do not record this variant. And despite what you may see in your dictionary, the
penultimatesyllableshouldn’tbelackeither.Mostauthoritiesrecognizeonlythetraditionalpronunciation
withlay:SIM-yuh-LAY-krum.
Word35:LAMBENT(LAM-bint)
Lambenthasthreesenses:(1)movingorplayinglightlyoverasurface,flickering;(2)softlyradiantorbright;or(3)expressedinalightand
brilliantstyle.
Ihavelistedthesethreesensesoflambentintheirorderofdevelopment,notintheirorderoffrequency.
Sense1datesfromthe17thcentury,sense2fromtheearly18thcentury,andsense3,themostextended
one,fromthelate19thcentury.
LambentcomesfromtheLatinverblambĕre,whichmeanttolick,lap,orwashandwasusedofwater
orfire.Initsoriginalsense,lambentsuggestsfire,flame,orlightthatflickers,shimmers,orplayslightly
over a surface, as lambent candles, lambent stars, or lambent moonlight on the water. In its second
sense,lambentsuggestssomethingsoftlybrightorradiant,eitheremittingorsuffused(word17oflevel3)
withlight,asalambentjewel,lambenteyes,orthelambentscreenofherKindle.Andinitsthirdsense,
lambent is used figuratively to suggest a light, playful, brilliant style, as lambent flashes of wit or the
lambentmelodiesofMozart’scomicoperas.
Word36:S UPERVENE(SOO-pur-VEEN)
Tohappenafterwardasanadditional,unrelated,orunexpectedconsequence.Also,tofollowcloselyorcomeshortlyafter,especiallyasa
consequence;toensue.
The verb to supervene comes from the Latin supervenīre, to come down on top of, or to come up
unexpectedly, a combination of super-, over, above, beyond, and venīre, to come. By derivation, when
somethingsupervenesitcomesfromaboveorbeyond;theword“suggeststhefollowingorbeginningof
somethingunforeseenorunpredictable”(Merriam-Webster’sCollegiate).Specifically,whatsupervenes
happens or follows, usually soon after, as an additional, unrelated, or unexpected consequence. If
Congress passes a bad law, a lawsuit challenging its constitutionality may supervene. Farmers are
suprisedwhenabadharvestsupervenesafterafavorablegrowingseason.Aheadachemaysupervenea
night of partying, or heartburn may supervene overeating. And pneumonia often supervenes in the final
stagesofasevereillness.
Thenounissupervention,theactoraninstanceofsupervening,followingafterasaconsequence.
Word37:VAINGLORIOUS (vayn-GLOR-ee-us)
Boastful,excessivelyproudoforvainaboutone’sabilitiesorachievements.
The adjective vainglorious and the noun vainglory (VAYN-glor-ee) come from the Middle Latin vāna
glōria,literallyemptygloryorfame.Vaingloryisboastfulpride,excessiveandpretentiouselationover
one’saccomplishments;vaingloriousmeanscharacterizedbyorgiventovainglory.
Vaingloriouspeoplebehaveasiftheyaresmarter,moretalented,andmoreimportantthaneveryone
else,andtheytypicallydonotsurroundthemselvesorconsortwithpeoplewhomightchallengethatview.
Celebrities whose heads have been puffed up by fame can be vainglorious, taking unwarranted and
excessiveprideintheirstatusandachievements.Andtosomepeople,theownersoffancysportscarsare
vainglorious—obnoxiouslyproudofandboastfulabouttheirexpensivevehicles.
Take care not to confuse the adjectives glorious and vainglorious. Glorious is positive and means
worthy of great praise or honor. Vainglorious is negative and means boastful, full of pride. Thus, a
gloriousnovelisquitedifferentfromavaingloriousone.
Word38:PETRIFACTION(PE-tri-FAK-shin)
Theactorprocessofturningintostone,orsomethinglikestone;also,thestateofbeinghardenedorturnedintostone.
The noun petrifaction and the verb to petrify come ultimately from the Latin petra, a stone, rock, and
facere,todo,make.Topetrifymaymeantoconvertintostoneorsomethinglikestone,aspetrifiedwood.
It may mean to harden, deaden, or immobilize, as his emotions were petrified. Or, in its best-known
sense,itmaymeantostunorparalyzewithfear:“Thehorrormoviepetrifiedthechild.”Petrifaction is
theactorprocessofpetrifyinginanyofthesesenses,orthestateofbeingpetrified,hardened,paralyzed,
orturnedtostone.
Petrifaction is used literally in science and medicine of any conversion into stone or a stony
substance, such as fossilization or calcification. It is also used to mean a hardening, deadening, or
immobilization, a figurative turning into stone: “As Manny got older his inflexible political opinions
underwentevengreaterpetrifaction”;“Hershockingwordscausedpetrifactionintheaudience.”
Word39:FECULENT(FEK-yuh-lint)
Foul,filthy,filledwithwastematter;hence,disgusting,offensive,revolting.
The adjective feculent, the noun feculence, and the noun feces (FEE-seez), excrement, waste matter
discharged through the anus, all come from the Latin faex, faecis, which meant the dregs of any liquid,
especiallywine,or,figuratively,thedregsorlowestorderofsociety.
Inmodernusagefeculentisusedliterallyofanythingthatisfilledwithwastematter,suchasdregs,
garbage,orexcrement,andalsofigurativelyofanythingthatisfoulorfilthyasiffilledwithdisgusting
wastematter.Thus,intheliteralsenseyoucanhavefeculentstreetsorfeculentwater,andinthefigurative
sense you can have feculent words, feculent lies, a feculent movie, or feculent music. This sentence
illustratestheliteraluse:“Theodorthatroseupfromthemuckwashorrible—stiflingandfeculent”(John
Dalton,Heaven Lake). And this sentence illustrates the figurative use: “These fellows were simply the
feculentscum…ofcivilization”(WilliamCowperBrann,1898).
Word40:S OLOMONIC(SAH-luh-MAH-nik)
Showinggreatwisdomandgoodjudgment,especiallyindifficultsituations;wise,reasonable,andfair.
SolomonicisaneponymouswordderivedfromthenameSolomon,abiblicalking,thesonandsuccessor
of David, who led the ancient Hebrews in the 10th century B.C. According to legend, Solomon was an
exceptionally wise man. The Old Testament (1 Kings 3) recounts how God appears to Solomon in a
dreamandsays,“AskwhatIshallgivethee.”WhenSolomondoesnotaskforrichesoralonglifebut
insteadfor“awiseandanunderstandingheart,”Godispleasedwithhishumilityandgrantstherequest.
Straightaway,Solomon’swisdomandjudgmentaretested.Twowomencometothenewkingwitha
babythattheybothclaimtobethemotherof.TosilencetheirbickeringSolomonasksforasword,and
whenitarriveshesays,“Dividethelivingchildintwo,andgivehalftotheone[mother],andhalftothe
other.”Fairenough—onpaper,atleast.Butwhentheyareabouttocleavethepoorbaby,thetruemother
criesout,beggingSolomontoletthechildliveandgiveittothefraudulentmother,whilethefraudulent
mothercoldlysays,“Letitbeneitherminenorthine,butdivideit.”Withthat,thekingknewwhichwoman
wasthetruemotherandhegavethechildtoher.AndwhentheIsraelitesheardofhisshrewddecision,
“theysawthatthewisdomofGodwasinhimtodojudgment.”ThatiswhytodaySolomonicisusedto
meansuggestiveofthewisdomofSolomon,showingfairnessandgoodjudgment.
Synonyms of Solomonic, which is still customarily printed with a capital S, include judicious,
prudent,sage,sapient(SAY-pee-int),shrewd,sagacious,astute,andperspicacious(word44ofLevel
4).
ReviewQuizforKeywords31–40
In each statement below, a keyword (in italics) is followed by three definitions. Two of the three are
correct;oneisunrelatedinmeaning.Decidewhichonedoesn’tfitthekeyword.Answersappearhere.
1.Ananodyneisacharm,adrug,amedicine.
2.Ifyouareautodidacticyouareself-trained,self-involved,self-taught.
3.Ajocundpersonismerry,cheerful,self-assured.
4.Asimulacrumisacopy,alikeness,asemblance.
5.Tobelambentistoflicker,begentle,besoftlyradiant.
6.Tosuperveneistohappenafterward,happensuddenly,ensue.
7.Avaingloriouspersonispowerful,proud,boastful.
8.Petrifactionisthestateofbeinghardened,theprocessofbecomingstone,theprocessofbecomingold.
9.Somethingfeculentisfoul,stifling,revolting.
10.TobeSolomonicistobefair,firm,wise.
TheStyleFile:Don’tThinktoYourself
NearlyeverydayIreadorhearasentencelikethisonewrittenbyJimmyGolenofTheAssociatedPress:
“Andhethoughttohimself,‘We’renext.’”
Unlessyou’rethinkingoutloud,youalwaysthinktoyourself.Thereisnootherwaytothink.Inany
such construction involving thinking—or wondering, reflecting, musing, and ruminating—adding the
prepositiontoandareflexivepronounsuchasmyself,yourself,orherselfisredundant.Thegoodstylist
letstheverbstandalone.Sodon’tthinkinyourheadorwondertoyourself.Justthinkandwonder.
***
HerearethenexttenkeywordsinLevel7:
Word41:LEITMOTIF(LYT-moh-TEEF)
Inapieceofmusic,ashort,recurringthemeormelodicpassageassociatedwithaperson,thing,idea,orsituation;byextension,anyrecurring
idea,feature,ortheme.
LeitmotifisaGermanloanwordthatmeansliterallyaleadingmotif.Amotif(moh-TEEF)isadistinctive
subject,centraltheme,ordominantfeatureinaworkofart,literature,ormusic:“Resilienceisthemotif
intheseremarkablewomen’sstories.”Inmusic,amotifisabriefmelodicthemeorpassagefromwhich
more complex passages are developed. By contrast, a leitmotif is a short recurring musical theme or
passagethatevokesaparticularperson,situation,thing,oridea—akindofmusicalquotation.
The leitmotif is often associated with the 19th-century German composer Richard Wagner (VAHGnur), who used it often in his lengthy operas. But Wagner did not invent the leitmotif for it occurs in
earlier compositions, including Mozart’s comic opera Così fan tutte (1790). In Peter and the Wolf
(1936),SergeiProkofiev’sbelovedsymphonicfairytaleforchildren,eachcharacterhasathemethatis
initially played in full, then briefly repeated throughout the composition as a leitmotif to musically
illustrate the narrator’s story. The flute plays the leitmotif of the bird; the oboe that of the duck; the
clarinetthatofthecat;theFrenchhornthatofthewolf;thebassoonthatofthegrandfather;andthestrings
playPeter’sleitmotif,whichisoftenevokedinjustsixnotes.
Incurrentusageleitmotifisalsousedmoregenerallyofanyrecurringtheme,idea,orfeature:“Curry
is a leitmotif in the cuisine of India and Thailand”; “Obama promised many things and set lofty goals
—‘change’washisleitmotif”(TheHuffingtonPost).
Word42:S CARAMOUCH(SKAR-uh-moochor-moosh)
Acowardlyrascalorbuffoon;ascamp.
Scaramouch, with a capital S, is the name of a stock character in farce and commedia dell’arte (kuhMAY-dee-uh-del-AHR-tay, Italian popular comedy of the 16th to 18th centuries), a foolish, cowardly,
boastfulrascalwhoiscontinuallyfloggedbythecharacterHarlequin.Withalowercases,scaramouchis
a term of contempt for any boastful rascal or cowardly buffoon—not necessarily someone who is
regularlybeaten,butsomeonewhoperhapsdeservestobe.IntheIrishwriterJustinHuntlyMcCarthy’s
1901playIfIWereKing,acharacterasks,“Whyarethewomenallsunflowerstothisscaramouch?”
The unusual word poltroon (pahl-TROON), from the Old Italian poltrone, a cowardly idler, is a
colorfulsynonymofscaramouch.Butapoltroonisascaramouchsquared:notjustaboastful,cowardly
buffoonbutawretched,worthlesscoward.
Word43:EFFLORES CE(EF-luh-RES)
Tobloom,blossom,burstforthintoflowers.Figuratively,toflower,flourish,thrive.
Theverbtoeffloresce,theadjectiveefflorescent(EF-luh-RES-int),andthenounefflorescence(EF-luhRES-ints)allcomefromtheLatinefflōrescĕre,toblossom,breakintobloom,acombinationofex-, out,
and flōrescĕre, to begin to blossom, come into flower. The ultimate source is the Latin flōs, flōris, a
flower, blossom, the source of various English words, such as floral, pertaining to or consisting of
flowers, and its fancier synonym, floriated, decorated with flowers; florist, a seller of flowers;
floriculture,thegrowingofflowers;andfloriferous(flaw-RIF-ur-us),bearingflowers.
By derivation, something that effloresces doesn’t just bloom; it bursts into bloom. In New England,
whereIgrewup,thecrocuses,thosewelcomeharbingers(word38ofLevel4)ofspring,pushupthrough
the half-frozen soil and effloresce, bloom swiftly and spectacularly. And in my backyard in Southern
California, where I live now, the agapanthus (AG-uh-PAN-thus) effloresce in June, breaking into a
brilliant display of globular (GLAHB-yuh-lur) flowers that look like miniature fireworks. (Globular
meansglobe-shaped,spherical.)
Youmayalsouseeffloresce,efflorescent,andefflorescenceofanythingthatflowersfiguratively,that
developsswiftlyandflourishesorthrives.ThetremendousgrowthinthevocabularyofEnglishduringthe
Elizabethan era (1533–1603) was an effloresence, a period of great flowering, for the language. An
efflorescentartistisablossoming,thrivingartist,onewhoisburstingwithcreativeoutput.Anditisevery
parent’shopethattheirchildrenwillgrowupandeffloresce,flourishandsucceed.
Word44:S KEIN(SKAYN,rhymeswithtrain)
“Alengthofthreadoryarnwoundinalooselongcoil”(AmericanHeritage).Byextension,(1)anythingsuggestingthecoilsortwistsofa
skein;(2)aflockofwildfowlinflight;and(3)anysuccessionofrelatedthings:aseries.
SkeinmaycomefromtheVulgarLatinscamniare,towindyarn.Initsoriginalsense,whichdatesfromthe
15thcentury,askeinis“alooselycoiledlengthofyarnorthreadwoundonareel”(Merriam-Webster’s
Collegiate),asaskeinofwool,cotton,orsilk.
By the early 17th century skein had come to be used figuratively to mean something suggesting the
coilsofaskein,acomplextangleorweb,asaskeinoflies,askeinofredtape,or“askeinofAfghan
tribal politics that we will never understand” (The Wall Street Journal). “For love is but a skein
unwound/Betweenthedarkanddawn,”wrotetheIrishpoetW.B.Yeatsin1932.Skeinhasalsobeen
usedofaflockofgeese,ducks,orotherwildfowlinflight,andfromthisuse,perhaps,wegettheword’s
mostrecentandextendedsense:aseriesofsimilarorrelatedthings,aswatchingaskeinofboxcarspass
byontherailroadtracksorherlifehasbeenaskeinoftragedies.
Word45:INTERS TICE(in-TUR-stis)
Asmallornarrowspace,gap,opening,orbreakbetweencloselyspacedthingsorparts.
ThenounintersticecomesfromthepastparticipleoftheLatinverbintersistĕre,topause,makeabreak,
acombinationofinter-,between,andsistĕre,tocausetostand,set,place.Byderivationanintersticeis
something that stands between or creates a break between things, hence, a small or narrow gap or
opening,asanintersticeinthecloudsthroughwhichasinglesunbeamshone;“Wealllookedonwith
horrifiedamazementaswesaw…thewoman,withacorporealbodyasrealatthatmomentasourown,
passthroughtheintersticewherescarceaknifebladecouldhavegone”(BramStoker,Dracula).
Interstices (in-TUR-sti-seez), the plural, are often small spaces or breaks between closely spaced
thingsorparts.PicketfencesandVenetianblindshaveinterstices.Theintersticesintileworkarefilled
withgrout.Evenyourthoughtshaveinterstices—breaksorintervalswhereyourmindisnotfocusingon
anythinginparticular.
Synonymsofintersticeincludecleft,slit,rift,chink,crevice,cranny,andlacuna(luh-K[Y]OO-nuh).
Theadjectiveisinterstitial(IN-tur-STISH-ul),ofthenatureofaninterstice,orformingorsituatedinan
interstice,asmallspaceorgap.
Word46:COMMENTARIAT(KAH-mun-TAIR-ee-it)
Thenewsmedia,seenasaclass;especially,thosemembersofthenewsmediawhoseroleitistocommentonpoliticsandcurrentevents.
Commentariat is a freshly minted word, a neologism, coined in the United States in the 1990s. It is a
portmanteauword,ablendofcommentaryandproletariat,theworkingclass.Althoughcommentariatis
sowetbehindtheearsthatitisnotyetlistedinsomecurrentdictionaries,youcanbetthatitwillbesoon,
becauseinrecentyearsitsusehasexploded.Todayitappearsfrequentlybothinprintandonline.Here’s
oneexamplefromTheWallStreetJournal:“HewasactivelyopposedbyamajorityoftheCongressand
acommentariatthatarguedforeverythingfromwithdrawingimmediatelytopartitioningthecountry.”
The words commentariat and punditocracy are close in meaning. Punditocracy (PUHN-dit-AHkruh-see), which was coined in the 1980s, is based on pundit (word 10 of Level 4), an expert who is
calledontoexpressopinionstothepublic.Thepunditocracycomprisesmembersofthenewsmediaas
wellasexpertswhoopine(word13ofLevel2)publiclyonvarioussubjectsofgeneralinterest.Initially
thecommentariatdesignatedthosemembersofthenewsmediawhoopineonpoliticsandcurrentevents,
but the word is showing signs of differentiating itself from punditocracy by suggesting a broader and
moreplebeian(word20ofLevel5)groupthatincludesnonprofessionals,asthe online commentariat,
thepeoplewhobroadcasttheiropinionsonwebsitesandblogs.
Word47:PEREGRINATION(PER-i-gri-NAY-shin)
Travelfromoneplacetoanother;ajourney,especiallyoneonfoot.
Peregrination comes from the Latin peregrīnātio, a traveling or a staying in foreign countries, from
peregrīnus,foreign,strange.Originallyaperegrinationwasthespiritualjourneyofaperson’slife,one’s
sojourn(word35ofLevel2)onearth.Laterperegrinationwasusedasasynonymofpilgrimage,asa
peregrinationtoRome.Butthedominantmeaninginmodernusage,whichtookrootinthe16thcentury,is
atravelingorjourneyfromoneplacetoanother,especiallyonemadeonfoot.
A peregrination may be fairly short, as a week of peregrination in the Cotswolds. But it is usually
long, as his six-month peregrination around Europe. And sometimes a peregrination is very long, as
severaldecadesofpersistentperegrinationintheremotestpartsoftheworld.Thewordisalsooften
usedintheplural,peregrinations,tomeantravels,wanderings,ramblings:“Hisbookisanentertaining
travelogue,anamusingaccountofhisperegrinations.”
Theverbisperegrinate(PER-i-gri-nayt),totravel,journey,astoperegrinatefromtheEastCoastto
the West. The adjective is peregrine (PER-i-grin), traveling, wandering, as a peregrine minister or a
peregrinespirit.Theperegrinefalcon,literallyawanderinghawk,isprizedforitsswiftandpowerful
flight.
Word48:FILIGREE(FIL-i-gree)
Ornamentation,embellishment;anythingverydelicate,intricate,andfanciful.
Filigree comes from the Latin fīlum, a thread, and grānum, a grain or seed. Originally, filigree was
ornamental jewelry work made of grains or beads; later, filigree was made of delicate threads of fine
gold,silver,orothermetalwireformedintolacy,intricatescrollsandpatterns.Earrings,bracelets,rings,
necklaces, buttons, goblets, window glass, the frames of paintings or mirrors, fabrics, containers,
silverware, pens, and even doors, cabinets, and gates were applied with the delicate, intricate, and
fanciful ornamentation of filigree. Eventually filigree also came to be used figuratively of any sort of
delicate, fanciful ornamentation, whether fabricated or natural, as a filagree of poetic images or a
filigree of frost on frozen branches, or of any fine and showy embellishment, as the harp’s rich,
cascadingfiligree.
Youmayalsousefiligreeasaverbtomeantoadornwithorasifwithfiligree,orasanadjective,
spelledeitherfiligreeorfiligreed,tomeandelicately,intricately,andfancifullydecorated,asa filigree
patternorfiligreedlanguage.
Word49:GIMCRACK(JIM-krak)
Showybutuseless,trivial,orworthless.
Theoriginofgimcrackisobscure.Thewordmaybeusedasanounmeaning“acheapandshowyobject
oflittleornouse”(AmericanHeritage),asthegimcrackstheygiveforprizesatthecountyfair.Orit
may be used as an adjective to mean “flimsy or poorly made but deceptively attractive” (New Oxford
AmericanDictionary),asthegimcrackprizesatthecountyfair.
Gimcrack cookware, gimcrack jewelry, or gimcrack furniture—also called borax—may be goodlookingbutischeaplyandpoorlymade.Gimcrackproseoragimcracktheoryisshowyandattractiveon
thesurfacebuttrivialorworthlessoncloserinspection.AndAmericansareobsessedwiththegimcrack
glamourofHollywood,otherwiseknownasTinseltown.
Synonymsofgimcrackincludeshoddy,tasteless,gaudy,andtrumpery(TRUHM-puh-ree).Thenoun
isgimcrackery(JIM-krak-uh-ree),cheapandshowyornaments,uselesstrifles,trinkets,knickknacks,or
baubles(word27ofLevel6).
Word50:IMMITIGABLE(i-MIT-i-guh-bul)
Notabletobemitigated;thatcannotbelessenedorsoftenedinforceorintensity.
Theverbtomitigate means to lessen in intensity, make less severe, and the adjective mitigable means
capableofbeingmitigated,abletobesoftenedorsoothed.Becauseimmitigablebeginswiththeprivative
prefix im-, not, it means not mitigable, unable to be made less intense or severe. These words come
ultimatelyfromtheLatinmītigāre,tosoften,calm,soothe.
Anythingthatcannotbemitigated—moderatedoralleviated—isimmitigable.Immitigablepaincannot
be lessened and immitigable sorrow cannot be relieved. A judge’s immitigable sentence cannot be
lessenedorappealed.Immitigabledarknessisconstantdarkness.Immitigablestubbornnessisunrelenting;
itnevergivesup.Andimmitigablehungerisinsatiable,unabletobesatisfied.
Unappeasableandimplacable(im-PLAK-uh-buul)aresynonymsofimmitigable.
ReviewQuizforKeywords41–50
This time the review word is followed by three words or phrases, and you must decide which comes
nearestthemeaningofthereviewword.Answersappearhere.
1.Isaleitmotifafunnystory,arecurringtheme,oraningeniousplot?
2.Isascaramouchalover,ajoker,orarogue?
3.Whensomethingeffloresces,doesitbreakapart,breakintobloom,orbreakintosong?
4.Isaskeinasmallflaw,atangle,orashamefulsecret?
5.Isanintersticeanarrowspace,apointofconnection,oranunspokencontract?
6.Isthecommentariatthevoters,thespeechwriters,orthenewsmedia?
7.Isaperegrinationaquestion,ajourney,oranordeal?
8.Isfiligreeanancestralline,fineornamentation,orafoolishfancy?
9.Issomethinggimcrackfirst-rate,eccentric,orworthless?
10.Wouldimmitigabledestructionbepartial,avoidable,orunstoppable?
OnceUponaWord:Semordnilap
“Dear Wordmaster,” writes James Phelan on my website. “My son has a boy whose name is Aidan. A
neighborhasachildnamedNadia,whichisthereverseofAidan.Isthereanameforthis?”
I would call that delightful coincidence a “name semordnilap” (sem-ORD-ni-lap). Semordnilap—a
wordthathaslongbeenusedinrecreationallinguisticsbutthathasnotyetfounditswayintoadictionary
forlackofmoregeneraluse—isthewordpalindromesspelledbackward.Apalindrome(PAL-in-drohm)
is a word, phrase, or sentence that says the same thing when read either forward or backward, as in A
man,aplan,acanal,PanamaandGohangasalami,I’malasagnahog.Aword-unitpalindromereads
the same, word for word, forward and backward, as in All for one and one for all. By contrast, a
semordnilap is a word that means one thing when read forward and another when read backward; for
example,partturnedaroundbecomestrap,wolfbecomesflow,woodbecomesdoom,andstrawbecomes
warts.BobandEvearenamepalindromes;AidanandNadiaisanamesemordnilap.Anotherexampleof
anamesemordnilapisHarpoandOprah.
AnswerstoReviewQuizzesforLevel7
KEYWORDS1–10
1.No.Awhimperingpersonneedstobecomforted.Tosimperistosmileinasilly,self-conscious,andoftenaffectedorsimplemindedway.
2.Yes.Todenudeistostrip,makenaked,ortodepriveofsomething.
3.No.Suigenerismeansnotlikeanythingelse,oneofakind,inaclassbyitself.
4.No.Ajeremiadisaprolongedexpressionofsorroworgrief,oralong,mournfulcomplaint,oftenlacedwithoutrage.
5.Yes.Bothasobriquetandanepithetaredescriptivenamesornicknames.
6.No.Apregnantwomanisgoingtohaveababy.Regnantmeansruling,reigning,dominant;exercisingpower,authority,orinfluence.
7.No.Hauteuristheoppositeofhumility—arrogance,haughtiness,condescension.
8.No.Apaterfamiliasisamanwhoistheheadofahouseholdorthefatherofafamily;byextension,amanwhoistheleaderofatribe,
community,ormovement.
9.No.Theapogeeisthehighestpoint,climax;originally,thepointatwhichaheavenlybodyorobjectorbitingtheearthisatitsgreatest
distancefromtheearth.
10.Yes.Yourmienisyourbearing,air,ormanner,especiallywhenitrevealscharacter,personality,attitude,orfeeling.
KEYWORDS11–20
1.False.Dyspepticpeopleareirritableandgloomy,grouchyandmorose.
2.False.Anaphoraisrepetitionofawordorphraseatthebeginningofsuccessiveverses,clauses,orsentences.Epistropheisrepetition
ofawordorphraseattheend.
3.True.Tophilanderistoflirtwithandseducemanywomen.
4.True.Amissiveisaletter,awrittenmessageorcommunication.
5.False.Penultimatemeansnext-to-last,notlast.
6.True.Zeitgeistmeansthespiritoftheageortimes.
7.False.Circumlocutorymeansspeakingindirectlyorinaroundaboutway.Sententiousmeansfullof,orgiventousing,aphorismsor
maxims,orshort,meaningfulsentences.
8.True.Tointerdictistoprohibitorforbid,especiallybycommandordecree.
9.False.Malaiseisavague,generalfeelingofdiscomfortoruneasiness.
10.False.Bothyourownchildrenandyourdescendantsareyourprogeny.
KEYWORDS21–30
1.Antonyms.Tobelieistomisrepresentordisguise,ortoshowtobefalseormistaken.
2.Synonyms.Afactotumisapersonemployedtodoallkindsofwork,ahandyman,jack-of-all-trades;hence,anemployeeorassistantwho
hasmanydifferentduties.
3.Synonyms.Bothjingoismandchauvinismmeanoverzealous,aggressivepatriotism.
4.Antonyms.Toconfirmistoprove,verify.Togainsayistodenyorcontradict.
5.Antonyms.Verbicide,asdefinedbythewriterandphysicianOliverWendellHolmes(1809–1894),is“violenttreatmentofawordwith
fatalresultstoitslegitimatemeaning”;byderivationverbicideisthekillingofaword.Neologyistheinventionofnewwords,phrases,usages,
meanings,orexpressions.
6.Synonyms.Anexcrescenceisanoutgrowth,lump,enlargement,orprojection,especiallywhenabnormal.
7.Synonyms.Acorbelisabracketthatprojectsfromawallandsupportsaweight.
8.Antonyms.Indolent(word48ofLevel4)meanslazy,idle,inactive.Sedulousmeansinvolvingorcharacterizedbycarefulandpersistent
effort;diligent,painstaking.
9.Synonyms.Tomaunderistotalkinarambling,dreamy,ormeaninglessway;ortomoveoractinanaimless,idle,ordreamymanner.
10.Antonyms.Torpor(seetorpid,word38ofLevel5)isastateofmentalorphysicalsluggishnessordullness.Saltationistheactof
leapingorjumping,aleaporjump;hence,theactofdancing,oradance.
KEYWORDS31–40
1.Charmdoesn’tfit;anamuletisacharm.Ananodyneisadrugormedicinethatrelievespainoranxiety.
2.Self-involveddoesn’tfit.Autodidacticmeansself-taught,self-trained.
3.Self-assureddoesn’tfit.Jocundmeansmerry,cheerful,mirthful.
4.Copydoesn’tfit.Asimulacrumisalikenessorrepresentation,asemblance.
5.Begentledoesn’tfit.Lambentmeans(1)movingorplayinglightlyoverasurface,flickering;(2)softlyradiantorbright;or(3)expressed
inalightandbrilliantstyle.
6.Happensuddenlydoesn’tfit.Tosuperveneistohappenafterwardasanunrelatedorunexpectedconsequence,ortofollowcloselyor
comeshortlyafter,ensue.
7.Powerfuldoesn’tfit.Vaingloriousmeansboastful,excessivelyproud.
8.Theprocessofbecomingolddoesn’tfit.Petrifactionistheactorprocessofturningintostone,orsomethinglikestone;also,thestateof
beinghardenedorturnedintostone.
9.Stiflingdoesn’tfit.Feculentmeansfoul,filthy;hencerevolting,disgusting.
10.Firmdoesn’tfit.Solomonicmeansfair,wise,reasonable,just.
KEYWORDS41–50
1.Aleitmotifisashort,recurringthemeormelodicpassageassociatedwithaperson,thing,idea,orsituation;byextension,anyrecurring
idea,feature,ortheme.
2.Ascaramouchisacowardly,boastfulrascalorrogue.
3.Whensomethingefflorescesitbreaksintobloomorflourishes,thrives.
4.Askeinisalongloosecoilofthreadoryarn;byextension,anythingsuggestingthecoilsortwistsofaskein,suchasacomplexwebor
tangle.
5.Anintersticeisasmallornarrowspace,gap,opening,orbreakbetweencloselyspacedthingsorparts.
6.Thecommentariatisthenewsmedia,especiallythosememberswhoseroleitistocommentonpoliticsandcurrentevents.
7.Aperegrinationisajourney,travelfromoneplacetoanother,especiallyonfoot.
8.Filigreeisfineornamentation,anythingverydelicate,intricate,andfanciful.
9.Somethinggimcrackisshowybutuseless,trivial,orworthless.
10.Immitigabledestructionwouldbeunstoppablebecauseitcannotbelessenedorsoftenedinforceorintensity.
LEVEL8
Word1:PANOPLY(PAN-uh-plee)
Animpressivearrayorsplendiddisplay.
PanoplycomesfromtheGreekpanoplía,frompan-,all,andhopla,arms,armor,thepluralofhoplon,a
weapon,tool,orpieceofarmor,especiallytheheavyshieldwornbythehoplites(likehop lights), the
heavilyarmedfootsoldiersofancientGreece.
A panoply may be a full suit of arms and armor, as the panoply of a knight; or, by extension, a
panoplymaybeaprotectiveorcompletecovering,asthequilledpanoplyoftheporcupineorapanoply
ofice.Thewordisalsooftenusedofanysplendiddisplayoffullceremonialattireandaccessories,asin
the panoply of a military parade, or “Last came the knightly Normans … with all the panoply of
chivalry”fromSirWalterScott’s1821novelKenilworth.
Fromtheseearlierandstillcurrentusesofthewordhascomethemostpopularsense:anymagnificent
array or striking display. You can have a panoply of shiny medals or colorful flags. You can have a
panoply of heavenly stars or a panoply of Hollywood stars. You can have a panoply of tantalizing
appetizers or desserts, or a panoply of high-priced lawyers or political consultants. You can even use
panoply of an impressive or striking array of some intangible thing, as a panoply of reforms, or “a
panoplyofgrimsecrets”(TheGuardian).
Word2:RECHERCHÉ(ruh-shair-SHAY;also,andchieflyBritish,ruh-SHAIR-shay)
Soughtoutwithgreatcare;hence,veryrare,obscure,exotic,exquisite,orrefined.
Recherché comes from the past participle of the French verb rechercher, to search for carefully,
investigate,thesourcealsooftheEnglishresearch.AlthoughrecherchéenteredEnglishabout1700and
is no longer printed in italics (which indicates a foreign borrowing), the word retains a French acute
accentoverthefinale.
Recherché is used of things that must be sought out or procured with care and effort, and that are
thereforerare,exotic,orobscure.Thewordisfrequentlyusedoffineart,asa recherché collection of
pre-Columbianfigurines;offinefoodandwine,asarecherchébanquetthatbeganwithoysters,caviar,
andchampagne;andoflanguage,asarecherchéexpression.WilliamF.BuckleyJr.wasrenowned,and
often criticized, for displaying his large and often recherché vocabulary on his television show Firing
Line.AndMarkTwainhadsomesatiricalfunwiththewordwhen,inhis1869travelogueTheInnocents
Abroad,hedescribedanimpressivegroupofEgyptiandonkeysas“thebestwehadfoundanywhere,and
themostrecherché.Idonotknowwhat‘recherché’is,butthatiswhatthesedonkeyswere,anyhow.”
Because recherché implies a rare and sophisticated knowledge or taste, it is often applied to
something or someone who is overly elegant or refined, to the point of being affected, precious, or
pretentious. For example, in his 1914 novel The Titan, Theodore Dreiser describes a member of
Chicago’sbusinesseliteasbeing“asmall,polite,recherchésoul,suggestingmansionsandfootmenand
remoteluxury…”
Word3:VERTIGINOUS (vur-TIJ-i-nus)
Dizzy,orcausingdizziness.
Synonymsoftheadjectivevertiginousincludegiddy,lightheaded,disordered,andreeling.Antonymsof
vertiginous include sober, steady, clearheaded, composed, unruffled, self-possessed, and
imperturbable.
VertiginouscomesfromtheLatinvertīgo,aturningorwhirlinground,whichcomesfromvertere, to
turn,thesourceofrevert,literallytoturnback,convert,literallytoturnwith,andvertigo(VUR-ti-goh),
thetechnicaltermfordizziness.
Vertiginousisperhapsmostcommonlyusedtomeanaffectedwithvertigo,dizzy,orcausingdizziness:
“Shespunarounduntilshewasvertiginous”;“Theygaspedwhentheyreachedthevertiginousedgeofthe
cliff.”Itmayalsobeusedofafigurativedizzinessorgiddiness:“Theprospectofgainingsuddenwealth
makessomepeoplevertiginous.”Butthewordhastwoothermeaningsingeneraluse.
Vertiginous may be used to mean unstable, unsettled, or inconstant, apt to change quickly, as a
vertiginouseconomyorthecourtofpublicopinionisnotoriouslyvertiginous. It may also be used to
mean whirling, spinning, rotating or revolving, as the vertiginous motion of the earth on its axis or a
vicious,vertiginoustornado.
Word4:KIS MET(KIZ-metorKIZ-mit)
Fate,destiny,fortune;one’slotorportioninlife.
The noun kismet entered English in the mid-19th century, coming through Turkish and Persian from the
Arabicqisma,portion,lot,fate,fromqasama,todivide,allot.
Thewordsfate,destiny,fortune,karma,andkismetallrefertowhathappenstoapersoninthislife
orthenext.
Fateisaninevitableandoftenpredeterminedconditionoroutcome,especiallyabadoneresultingin
destructionordeath:“ThefateoftheConfederacywassealedwhenVicksburgfell”(UlyssesS.Grant).
Destinysuggestsan“invinciblepowerconceivedofascontrollinghumanlifeandtheoperationsof
theuniverse”(Funk&WagnallsStandardDictionary):“IfeltasifIwerewalkingwithdestiny,”wrote
WinstonChurchillinTheGatheringStorm(1948),“andthatallmypastlifehadbeenbutapreparation
forthishourandthistrial.”
Fortune is the result of mysterious and incomprehensible controlling forces, good or bad. You can
seekyourfortuneinlife;youcanbe“fortune’sfool,”likeShakespeare’sRomeo;or,likehisHamlet,you
can“suffertheslingsandarrowsofoutrageousfortune.”
InHinduismandBuddhism,karmaistheforcecreatedbyaperson’sactions,regardedasdetermining
his or her fate either in this life or in reincarnation. In current usage karma is often used loosely and
informallytomeanmerelygoodorbadluck.
Dictionaries define our keyword, kismet, as synonymous with fate or destiny, but while the latter
wordssuggestaninevitableoutcomedeterminedbysomecontrollingforce,kismetismorelikekarmain
suggestinganunknownorunexpectedoutcome,oftenaluckyandadvantageousone,determinedbyone’s
actionsorbychance.Inotherwords,yourdestinycandealyouabadhandandfatecansealyourdoom,
whilekismetcangiveyouthetalentyouneedtosucceedandputyouintherightplaceattherighttime.If
thathappens,besuretothankyourluckystars—otherwiseknownaskismet.
Word5:TEMPORIZE(TEM-puh-ryz)
Toactevasivelyorbeindecisivesoastogaintime;tostallorhedge.
TheverbtotemporizecomesfromtheMedievalLatintemporizāre,tohangback,delay,waitforone’s
time.Byderivation,temporizingistheactofdelayingorhangingbackuntilamorefavorabletime.
Temporizeneatlycapturesinonewordwhatvariouscommonidiomsexpressinseveral.Forexample,
todragone’sfeet,tositonthefence,tosleeponit,tobideone’stime,andtoseewhichwaythewind
blowsareallwaysofsayingtotemporize,todelayactingsoastogaintime.
Temporizingisawayoflifeinpoliticsanddiplomacy,whereideologicalopponentsorparticipantsin
negotiationsoftenactevasivelyanddrawthingsoutsoastogaintime:“Aselectedofficialspostureand
temporize, families are bankrupted by health-care costs and forgo treatment they can’t afford”
(Newsweek).Temporizingisalsooftenapopularofficialstrategyindealingwiththeever-changingwinds
oftheeconomy:“Forawhile,theTreasury[Department]cantemporizewithcreativeaccounting,shifting
moneyfromonepiletoanother”(TheWallStreetJournal). But you can temporize on a more mundane
levelaswell—forexample,inyourrelationshipsatworkandathome—byactingevasivelysoastogain
time,avoidaconflict,orputoffadecision.
Word6:PLEONAS M(PLEE-uh-naz’m)
Theuseofmorewordsthanarenecessarytoexpressanidea;also,anexampleofthis.
TherhetoricaltermpleonasmcomesthroughLatinfromtheGreekpleonasmos,abundance,whichcomes
inturnfrompleonazein,tobeexcessive,andpleion,more.Theadjectiveispleonastic(PLEE-uh-NAStik),andtherarewordpleonast(PLEE-uh-nast)denotesapersonaddictedtopleonasm.
Thefamiliarwordredundancy is the generic term for needless repetition in the use of words. Like
redundancy, pleonasm can refer to any superfluous repetition. More specifically, it denotes a word or
phrase that can be deleted without altering the meaning, or “the use of words whose omission would
leaveone’smeaningintact”(Webster2).“Weknowwehaveapleonasm,”writesArthurQuinninFigures
ofSpeech:60WaystoTurnaPhrase,“whenwecaneliminatewordswithoutchangingmeanings.”
Everywhere you look you will find pleonasms embedded in our speech and writing, from the
substandardwhereisitat?andmorepreferabletotheubiquitousfreegiftandcloseproximity.Pleonasm
takes root in the innocently redundant habits of childhood, as in My friend, she told me (a double
subject), and reaches full flower in the countless excesses of adulthood that we utter without thinking,
such as hot water heater, future plans, past history, added bonus, three a.m. in the morning, and the
reason…isbecause(becausemeans“forthereasonthat”).
Therearescoresofpleonasticsetphrasesinthelanguage—suchaswritedown,tinybit,tinylittle,
noneatall,tempertantrum,andupintheair—thatonlyapedant1wouldfretabout.Buttherearealso
manycommonwordcombinationsthatcarefulusersofthelanguagewouldfindobjectionablypleonastic.
Considertheexcessverbiage(VUR-bee-ij:threesyllables,nottwo)inthephraseexcessverbiage—have
weforgottenthatverbiagemeansanoverabundanceofwords?Nowconsiderthesuperfluouswordsin
suchfamiliarphrasesassafehaven,lagbehind,mypersonalopinion,filledtocapacity,bestever,brief
summary,pickandchoose,ultimategoal,rootcause,pizzapie,andemptyhole.Wesayandprintthose
andmanyotherpleonasmscountlesstimesaday.
Manypleonasticphrases—suchasanyandall,fitandproper,aidandabet,saveandexcept,sole
and exclusive, null and void, terms and conditions, cease and desist, and various and sundry—have
beenadoptedfromlegaljargon.Othercommonpleonastictwinsthatusageauthoritiescondemnincludeif
andwhen,unlessanduntil,compareandcontrast,firstandforemost,andthemuch-despisedeachand
every.
Let’s close this discussion with a short list of hackneyed (word 1 of Level 4) phrases that are
indefensibly pleonastic: final conclusion; end result; new recruit; temporary reprieve; necessary
requirement;advancewarning(orplanning);openinggambit;compete(ormeetorinteract)witheach
other; true (or actual or real) fact; passing fad; fresh new (idea, look, etc.); new beginning (or
innovation); general consensus; congregate together; continue to remain; endorse on the back; and
dwindlingdown,whichmywifegleefullycaughtmesayinglongago,inmypleonasticyouth.
Word7:VERIS IMILITUDE(VER-i-si-MIL-i-t[y]ood)
Theappearanceoforresemblancetotruthorreality.
ThenounverisimilitudecomesfromtheLatinvērisimilitūdo,probability,whichcomesinturnfromvērī,
the genitive of vērum, the truth, reality, and similis, like, resembling. From the same source comes the
uncommonadjectiveverisimilar(VER-i-SIM-uh-lur),whichmeanshavingtheappearanceoftruth,asa
verisimilarstory.
Ifitistruethatartimitateslife,thenartistsmustbeconcernedwithverisimilitude,thequalityintheir
work that makes it seem lifelike, real, and believable. The sculptures and frescoes of the neoclassical
artist Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564) are brilliant examples of verisimilitude, so convincing in
theirresemblancetorealitythatweoverlookhowthepeopleandthingsportrayedaremuchlargerthan
life. Writers of realistic fiction and drama must also strive for verisimilitude, creating characters who
seemlikerealpeopleandsettingsthatevokerecognizableplaces.Modernfilmmakersemployallmanner
ofspecialeffectstoachieveverisimilitude,andvideogamedesignerspridethemselvesonthelevelof
verisimilitudetheycangivetheiranimateddigitalcreations.
Word8:CABAL(kuh-BAHLorkuh-BAL)
Agroupofsecretplotters,aconspiracy;also,theplotorschemeofsuchagroup.
The noun cabal comes from the Hebrew qabbālāh, tradition, literally something received or handed
down, the source also of the English cabala (KAB-uh-luh or kuh-BAH-luh), an esoteric and mystical
system of interpreting Scripture, developed by rabbis, that arose in the 7th century and lasted into the
18th.“CabalisticinterpretationofScripturewasbasedonthebeliefthateveryword,letter,number,and
even accent contained mysteries interpretable by those who knew the secret,” says the Columbia
Encyclopedia.“Thesystemdegeneratedintojugglingwithlettersandformulasandbecamethebasisof
muchmedievalmagic.”
Cabal was initially a variant of cabala, but since the mid-17th century cabal has been used of any
smallgroupofplotterswhoconspireagainstagovernmentoragainstsomeoneinauthority.In1865,the
actorandConfederatesympathizerJohnWilkesBoothledacabalthatplottedtheassassination,onApril
14,ofPresidentAbrahamLincoln.
The word cabal was also famously applied to five cabinet ministers of Charles II, king of England
from1660to1685.Althoughthisgroupdidnotconspireagainstthethrone,peopleweremuchtakenby
thefactthatthefirstlettersoftheirnames—Clifford,Arlington,Buckingham,Ashley,andLauderdale—
happenedtospellcabal.
Word9:POS TPRANDIAL(pohst-PRAN-dee-ul)
Happeningordoneafterameal,especiallyafterdinner.
PostprandialcomesfromtheLatinpost,after,andprandium,ameal,repast.Thewordmayrefertoany
meal, but it is usually used of dinner: a postprandial speech, a postprandial snifter of brandy, a
postprandialstroll,or,fortheelderly,apostprandialnap.Anteprandial,beginningwiththeLatinante,
before,meanshappeningordonebeforeameal.Andprandial,asyoumightguess,meansoforpertaining
toameal,relatingtodinnerordining,asaprandialinvitationorprandialexpenses.
Word10:ONOMATOPOEIA(AHN-uh-MAT-uh-PEE-uh)
Theformationoruseofawordinimitationofthesoundthatathingoranactionmakes.
Onomatopoeia comes from the Greek onomatopoíia, the making of words, a combination of onoma, a
name,andpoiein,tomake,theultimatesourceoftheEnglishwordpoet.Theadjectiveisonomatopoeic
(AHN-uh-MAT-uh-PEE-ik)
WhenIwasakidIlovedtoreadcomicbooksaboutsuperheroesbattlingsupervillainsinamythic
clashbetweengoodandevil.Becausecomicsdon’thavesoundtracks,theillustratorwouldincludebig,
bold words with exclamation points to depict the sounds of the struggle: Wham! Bash! Crunch! Pow!
Kaboom!Ididn’tknowitthen,butallthesesmashingwordswereclassicexamplesofonomatopoeia.
“The sound must seem an echo of the sense” proclaimed the 18th-century English poet Alexander
Pope,providinguswithaconciseguidelineforcreatingonomatopoeicwords,onesformedinimitationof
asound.Today,theEnglishlanguagecontainsavastnumberofonomatopoeicwords,mostofthemshort
andvividlikethesoundstheyrepresent.Manyimitatethesoundsthatanimalsmake:thebuzzofabee;the
bowwowofadog;thecroakofafrog;thesibilant(word9ofLevel4)hissofasnake;andthelyrical
cock-a-doodle-dooofarooster.Manyothersimitatesoundsinnature,suchascrack, thud, clunk, pop,
plop,andwhoosh,orthesoundsthatobjectsmake,suchastheding-dongofabell;theclackety-clackof
a keyboard; the tick-tock of a clock; the bang or rat-a-tat-tat of a gun; and the beep! of almost every
dadblamedthinginthisdigitizedage.Stillothersimitatesoundshumanbeingsmakethatconveymeaning,
suchasshush,pssst,brrrr,ahem,hmmm,pshaw,andphew.
Onomatopoeia is commonly mispronounced with monna in the middle: ono-MONNA-poeia. Take
caretoputamatintheword:onna-MAT-opoeia.
ReviewQuizforKeywords1–10
Considerthefollowingquestionsanddecidewhetherthecorrectanswerisyesorno.Answers appear
here.
1.Wouldapanoplybeimpressive?
2.Issomethingrecherchéexoticorobscure?
3.Doessomethingvertiginousmakeyouimpatient?
4.Canyoudetermineorshapeyourkismet?
5.Ifyoutemporize,doyoustall?
6.Iscompletelysurroundedapleonasm?
7.Doabstractexpressionistpaintingshaveverisimilitude?
8.Isacabalagroupofplutocrats?
9.Wouldapostprandialcigarbesmokedafterdinner?
10.Isonomatopoeiatheformationofwordsfromnames?
StyleFile:FindthePleonasms
Ineachofthefollowingsentencesthere’sacommonpleonasmthateludedacopyeditor.Ifyoucanspot
themall,youhaveafineeyeforsuperfluouswords.
1.“FederalandlocalauthoritiessurroundedasmallbankinBuenaParkwhereanarmedgunmanwassaidtobeholdingatleastone
hostage”(LosAngelesTimes).
2.“Banksbeganofferingcardswithavarietyofdifferentinterestratesandfees”(TheNewYorkTimes).
3.“Hehas…justrecentlyreleasedhisfirstdocumentaryfilm”(Reuters).
4.“Thebandperformedthreeoriginalnumbersthattheyhadwritten”(SanDiegopublicradio).
5.“Lynchburgispresentlyfacinga$500,000free-speechcomplaint”(LynchburgNews&Advance,Virginia).
6.“Upuntilnow,premiumproducerslikeMercedes-Benzhavehadaneasiertimeweatheringeconomicstorms”(BusinessWeek).
7.“TheirhomeisstillintheprocessofbeingrenovatedafterHurricaneKatrina”(AssociatedPress).
8.“Theycontinuedonfor600miles”(TheWashingtonTimes).
9.“Akeylesschuckisincludedwithit”(PittsburghPost-Gazette).
10.“Bothauthorandillustratorfocusinontheboyashewondersaloudwhatlifewillbelikeforhimwhenhe’sgrown”(TheNewYork
Times).
EXPLANATIONS
1.Agunmanisapersonarmedwithagun.Strikearmed.
2.Thewordvarietymeans“anumberofdifferentthingsthoughtoftogether”(Webster’sNewWorldCollegeDictionary),sopairingitwith
differentispleonastic.
3.Pairingjustwithrecentlyispleonastic.Useoneortheother.
4.Thelastfourwords,thattheyhadwritten,arerepetitiveandsuperfluous.Oryoucouldkeepthemanddeleteoriginal.
5.Presentlyfacingispleonastic;facingconveysthemeaningbyitself.
6.Untilmeans“uptothetimeof,”sopairingitwithupisredundant.Makeituntilnoworuptonow.
7.Thephraseintheprocessofaddsnothingbutbaggagetothesentence.
8.Onaftercontinueorproceedispleonasticbecausethoseverbsmeantogoon.
9.Strikewithitandletincludeddoitsworkalone.
10.Whenyoufocus,youconcentrateyourattentiononsomething.Thewordinisunnecessaryafterfocus.Ifyoumeantobringintocloseup,aswithaphotographiclens,usezoominoninstead.
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabularyforLevel8.
Word11:DUDGEON(DUHJ-un)
Afeelingorasuddenfitofanger,resentment,orindignation.
Theoriginofdudgeonisunknown.
Inmodernusagedudgeonusuallyappearsaftertheadjectivehigh—“Shestormedoutofthemeeting
inhighdudgeon”—orsometimesaftergreat:“Nothingcouldmollifyhergreatdudgeon.”Butyoucanalso
expressyourdudgeon,nurseyourdudgeon,andgohomeinadudgeon.Here’sacitationfromThe Wall
Street Journal for the unmodified dudgeon: “The boxing world is in a dudgeon about these
recommendations.”
Thenounsumbrage,pique,huff,anddudgeonallsuggest“anemotionalresponsetooranemotional
stateresultingfromaslightorindignity,”saysMerriam-Webster’sCollegiateDictionary.
Umbrage(UHM-brij),fromtheLatinumbra,shade,suggestsaperson“shadowedinoffendedpride,
retreating into the darkness of proud indignation.”2 Umbrage usually appears in the phrase to take
umbrage, meaning to take offense because of an insult or slight to one’s dignity or pride: “She took
umbrageathisrudemanner.”Youmayalsofeelumbrage,resentment,orgiveumbrage,offense,butthese
locutionsarelesscommon.(Locutionisword22ofLevel6.)
Pique(pronouncedlikepeek),fromtheFrenchpiquer,toprick,suggestsatemporaryfeelingofanger
or resentment because of an insult to one’s vanity or self-respect. You can be in a pique, have a fit of
pique,orjustfeelpique:“John’spiqueoverMorty’sinsolentremarksputRachelinapiquetoo,andthey
bothsoonleftthepartyinadoublefitofpique.”
Ahuffisapeevishorpetulant(word35ofLevel4)fitofsulkingorbroodinganger,usuallyprompted
byasmall,insignificantslight:“Theywereinahuffovertheumpire’squestionablecall”;“Theargument
endedwithhimmarchingoffinahuff.”
Our keyword, dudgeon, may suggest a feeling of anger or resentment prompted by some real or
imaginedoffense,butitoftensuggestsafitofself-righteousangerorindignation:“Thechairmanresigned
fromthecommitteeinhighdudgeon.”
Word12:HEGEMONY(hi-JEM-uh-nee)
Leadership,dominance,preponderantinfluenceorauthority.
Thenounhegemony,whichenteredEnglishinthe16thcentury,comesfromtheGreekhegemon, leader,
whichforalittleoveracenturyhasalsobeenanEnglishnounmeaningaleaderorrulingpower,aperson
or nation that exercises hegemony. A 1904 issue of The Forum contained this sentence: “The hegemon
[HEJ-e-mahn]oftheWesternhemisphereistheUnitedStates.”
Hegemony, leadership, dominance, is commonly exercised by a nation, state, or confederation. In
ancient Greece, the city-states of Athens and Sparta continually vied for hegemony, and for centuries
Britain, France, and Spain fought for hegemony in Europe. But hegemony may also be exercised by a
dominant social, cultural, or ideological group. For example, liberals and conservatives battle for
political hegemony, the United States and China compete for economic hegemony, Yale and Harvard
contendforintellectualhegemony,andAmazon.comhasachievedhegemonyintheonlineretailworld.
Theadjectiveishegemonic(HEJ-i-MAH-nik),whichmaymeaneitherruling,leading,predominant,
asthehegemonicpowerintheregion,orpertainingtoorcharacterizedbyhegemony,asa nation with
hegemonicambitions.
Word13:PREMONITORY(pre-MAH-nuh-tor-ee)
Givingwarning;servingtonotifybeforehand.
Theadjectivepremonitoryandthebetter-knownnounpremonition(PREE-muh-NISH-un)comefromthe
Latinpraemonēre,toforewarn,advisebeforehand.Apremonitionmaybeaforewarning,butitisusually
usedtomeanafeelingofanticipationoranxietyaboutafutureevent;presentiment(pri-ZEN-ti-ment)isa
closesynonymofpremonition.Anadmonition,fromtheLatinadmonēre,towarn,remind,isastrongbut
gentlyexpressedwarningorreminder.Andtheadjectivemonitorymeansgivinganadmonition,servingto
warnorremind:“Heheardthechill,monitorywailofanairraidsiren”(EileenDunlop,TheHouseon
theHill,1987).
Premonitory adds to monitory the implication of warning or alerting someone well before an
anticipated event. You can detect premonitory symptoms of a disease or experience the premonitory
tremorsofanearthquake.Apremonitoryspeechorletterwarnsofsomethingtocome—usuallysomething
adverseordisastrous.Andapremonitorydreamgivesforewarning,servingtonotifyyouofsomefuture
event.
Word14:RETRONYM(RE-truh-nim)
“Anadjective-nounpairinggeneratedbyachangeinthemeaningofthenoun,usuallybecauseoftechnology”(RichardLederer,Crazy
English).
Retronymcombinesretro-,backorbackward,and-onym,awordorname,fromtheGreekonoma,name.
Thewordwascoinedinthe1970sbyFrankMankiewicz,thepresidentofNationalPublicRadio,who
was intrigued by the proliferation (proh-LIF-uh-RAY-shin, rapid growth or spread) of what William
Safire,thelongtimelanguagecolumnistforTheNewYorkTimes,oncedescribedasnounphrases“created
todenotethingsthathavebeenovertakenbyevents.”
When the world changes, the English language changes right along with it, and retronyms are an
obvious manifestation of that change, especially when it is driven by advances in technology. For
example,weusedtohaveaguitar,butnowwehavetheretronymselectricguitar and acoustic guitar.
Weusedtohavebooks,buttheadventofpaperbackbooksbegotthephrasehardcoverbooks, and now
wealsohaveebooks.Weusedtohaveplainoldmilk,butnowwehavewhole milk, reduced-fat milk,
andfat-freeorskimmilk.Andweusedtohavemail,butnowwehaveemail,voicemail,andsnailmail.
The word telephone has spawned a slew of retronyms in recent years. Once there were only
telephones, but then the rotary phone was supplanted (word 17 of Level 2) by the touch-tone phone,
whichwassupplantedbythecordlessphone,whichmaybesupplantedbywhatwasfirstamobilephone,
thenacellphone,andthenasmartphone.
Retronyms can also reflect societal as well as technological reforms. For example, when people
began to challenge and redefine the traditional concept of marriage, we invented the retronyms gay
marriage,same-sexmarriage,andheterosexualmarriage.
Word15:RECUS E(ri-KYOOZ)
Toremoveordisqualifyoneselfasajudge,authority,orparticipanttoavoidanysuspicionofbiasorconflictofinterest.
The verb to recuse, which dates back to the 14th century, comes ultimately from the Latin recusāre, to
objectto,protestagainst,refuse,reject.Recuseisusedchieflyinlawineitheroftwoways.Itmaymean
toobjecttoorchallengeajudge(orsometimesanattorneyorjuror)asunqualifiedtohearacasebecause
of prejudice or conflict of interest: “The defense filed a motion to recuse the trial judge.” More often,
though,andespeciallyinAmericanusage,torecusemeanstoremoveoneselffromapositionofjudgment
or authority to avoid the perception of personal interest or partiality: “When it came to light that
CouncilmemberBurnsownedsharesinSmarmoCorporation,whichisbiddingforthecitycontract,she
recusedherselffromthedeliberations.”
In Coming to Terms, William Safire observes that recuse “has a more legal connotation than
disqualify, is more pointed than excuse and contains a reason that is not available in remove or
withdraw.”
The corresponding noun is recusal (ri-KYOO-zul), the removal of oneself as a judge, authority, or
participant because of actual or perceived bias or conflict of interest. A recusant (REK-yuh-zint) is a
personwhorefusestosubmittoauthorityorobeyalaworcommand,or,historically,anEnglishRoman
CatholicwhorefusedtoattendservicesoftheChurchofEnglandbetween1570and1591.
Word16:PENURY(PEN-yuh-ree)
Extremepoverty.
Synonyms of penury include privation (word 16 of Level 3), indigence, and destitution. Antonyms of
penuryincludeaffluence(AF-loo-ints;stressthefirstsyllable,notthesecond),prosperity,andopulence
(AHP-yuh-lints).
Penury comes from the Latin pēnūria, a lack, want, especially a lack of the necessities of life.
PēnūriacomesinturnfromtheGreekpeina,hunger.
Penuryhasbeenusedtomeanseverepovertysincebefore1500.Here’showtheAnglo-Irishwriter
MariaEdgeworthusedpenuryinher1801novelBelinda:“Herfatherhadasmallplaceatcourt,lived
beyondhisfortune,educatedhisdaughter…asifsheweretobeheiresstoalargeestate;thendied,and
lefthiswidowabsolutelyinpenury.”Andhere’sacontemporarycitationfromTheHuffingtonPost: “It
canmeanthedifferencebetweenowningahomeorrenting,sendingyourkidstocollegeversussending
themtoflipburgers,andadecentretirementversuspenuryinoldage.”
Theadjectiveispenurious(pe-NYOOR-ee-us),livinginorcharacterizedbypenury,extremepoverty.
Word17:ROUÉ(roo-AY,rhymeswithdosay)
Alecherous,dissoluteman,onedevotedtoimmoralbehaviorandsensualpleasure.(Dissoluteisword7ofLevel6.)
EnglishborrowedthenounrouédirectlyfromFrenchinthelate18thcentury.Thewordmeansliterallya
personbrokenonthewheel,foritwasformedfromthepastparticipleoftheFrenchverbrouer,tobreak
on the wheel, which goes back to the Latin rota, a wheel, the source of the English rotate, rotary, and
rotavirus,anyofagroupofwheel-shapedvirusesthatcauseintestinaldistress.
Why is a roué, a dissolute man, by derivation someone broken on the wheel? The word was first
appliedtotheprofligatecompanionsofPhilippeII(DukeofOrleansandRegentofFrancefrom1715to
1723), who, because of their dissolute and depraved lifestyle, were said to deserve this punishment.
Becauseofthisderivation,rouéwasforalongtimeappliedchieflytodissipatedyoungmenofwealth
andprivilege,asinthissentencefromthe1847novelJaneEyrebyCharlotteBrontë(properlyBRAHNtee,not-tay):“Iknewhimforayoungrouéofavicomte[Frenchforviscount,pronouncedVY-kownt]—a
brainlessandviciousyouth.”However,theOEDnotesthatincurrentusagearouéisoftenadebauched
elderlyman,soitappearsthatyoungroués,iftheysurvivetheirearlyexcesses,cangrowuptobeold
ones—notunlikeMickJaggerandKeithRichards,thosericketyrouésoftheRollingStones.
Synonymsofrouéincludeplayboy,rake,lecher,andlibertine(LIB-ur-TEEN).
Word18:LUDDITE(LUH-dyt)
Apersonfanaticallyopposedtotechnologicalinnovation,especiallytoanymachineorlabor-savingdeviceperceivedtoreplaceworkers.
TheeponymousnounLuddite,whichisstillprintedwithacapitalL,comesfromthenameNedLudd,“a
Leicestershirevillageidiot…whointhelateeighteenthcenturybrokeseveralstockingframesbelonging
tohisemployer,”saystheMorrisDictionaryofWordandPhraseOrigins. “The name was taken by a
group of workers who, between 1811 and 1816, tried to halt what came to be called the Industrial
Revolutionbysmashingnewlabor-savingtextilemachinery.”
InhisDictionaryofEponyms,RobertHendricksonexplainsthat“themaskedbandsofworkerswho
made night raids on English factories were protesting layoffs, low wages, and poor quality goods, all
caused by the large-scale introduction of textile machines to replace handicraft.… Today a Luddite is
anyonewhofearsandwouldeliminateautomation—notonlyfortheunemploymentitcreates,butforits
effectonthequalityoflife.…Inourrebellionagainstanimpersonalsocietythewordisusedmuchmore
sympatheticallythanbefore.”
In other words, in hindsight the Luddites were prescient about the consequences of technology.
(Prescience is word 21 of Level 6.) Sociologically speaking, the Industrial Revolution made the
individualsubordinatetothemachine.That’ssomethingtokeepinmindbeforeyouusethewordLuddite
forapersonwhoismistrustfulofprogressorwhoisreluctanttoembracetechnologicalchange.Betterto
reservethewordforsomeoneunreasonablyorfanaticallyopposedtoanykindofinnovation.
Word19:S CHADENFREUDE(SHAHD-’n-FROY-duh)
Maliciousjoyinthemisfortuneofothers;pleasurederivedfromanother’stroubles.
Schadenfreude is a German loanword, a combination of the German Schaden, harm, and Freude, joy.
Though it has been used in English since the 19th century, it is still sometimes (unnecessarily) printed
withacapitalS.
In They Have a Word for It, Howard Rheingold asks, “Why do people laugh at cartoons that show
peopleslippingonbananapeels?WhatissofunnyaboutthewaytheThreeStoogesbonkoneanother?
One of the peculiar defining characteristics of the human race seems to be related to our strange and
sometimessadisticsenseofhumor.”
IncontemporaryAmerica,wherenoopportunitytomakeabuckisoverlooked,peoplehavemadea
thrivingbusinessoutofschadenfreude.Fromtabloidsthatrevelinexposingthefoiblesandmisfortunesof
celebrities to TV shows featuring home videos of embarrassing and often injurious mishaps, other
people’s pain has become our pastime and our guilty pleasure. And now you have a word for that:
schadenfreude.
Word20:COS TIVE(KAHS-tivorKAW-stiv)
“Sloworreluctantinspeechoraction”(NewOxfordAmericanDictionary).
The adjective costive comes from the Latin constipāre, to press or crowd together, the source of the
Englishverbtoconstipate,whichoriginallymeanttocrowdorpresstogetherbutwhichnowmeansto
confinethebowels.
WhenitenteredEnglishabout1400,costivemeantconstipated,sufferingfromconstipation,andthis
meaningisstillingoodstanding,asacostivedietoracostiveanimal.Butthewordisalsooftenused
figurativelytomeanuncommunicative,unforthcoming,sloworreluctanttospeakoract:“Shesatdownat
thenarrowdining-table,andheseatedhimselfopposite,withthecostivefeelingofonewhocannotfind
wordsthatwillringtrue”(JohnGalsworthy,TheSilverSpoon,1926);“Gradually,theBritishwithdrew
into a private and costive and repressed universe where eventually they could say … ‘We don’t rule
[India]anymore.Wepresideoverit’”(ChristopherHitchens,TheAtlantic,2008).
ReviewQuizforKeywords11–20
Considerthefollowingstatementsanddecidewhethereachoneistrueorfalse.Answersappearhere.
1.Whenyou’reinadudgeon,you’reconfused.
2.Anationthatexerciseshegemonyhasleadershiporswayoverothernations.
3.Apremonitoryphonecallinformsyouofsomethingbadthat’shappened.
4.Electriccarisaretronym.
5.Whenyourecuseyourself,youassertyourinnocence.
6.Someonelivinginpenuryisservingtimeinjail.
7.Ifyourhusbandisaroué,he’sfaithfultoyou.
8.PeoplewhoarefanaticallyopposedtonewtechnologyareLuddites.
9.Schadenfreudeistheexperienceoffeelingsomeoneelse’spain.
10.Atalkativepersoniscostive.
DifficultDistinctions:ForbiddingandForeboding
Theadjectiveforbidding(for-BID-ing),fromtheverbtoforbid,isusedofthatwhichforbidsorstrongly
discourages approach. Something forbidding may appear hostile, menacing, or sinister, as a forbidding
stranger,aforbiddingscowl,orforbiddingstormclouds.Somethingforbiddingmayalsobeuninviting
because it is bleak or grim, as a rocky, forbidding coastline or a forbidding fortress. Or something
forbiddingcanbedangerousorthreatentoobstructorhinderprogress,asadense,forbiddingjungle.
The word foreboding (for-BOH-ding), which begins with the combining form fore-, beforehand,
comesfromtheverbtoforebode,whichmaymeantopredictorgiveanomenof,foretell,portend,asto
forebodeevil,ortoanticipateafutureevent,especiallyabadorunfortunateone:“Themomentshesaw
himsheforebodedmischief.”Asanounforebodingisasynonymofpremonition(PREE-muh-NISH-un)
and means a sense or sign of impending evil or misfortune, as a foreboding of coming trouble or an
atmosphere of dread and foreboding. As an adjective foreboding means ominous, portending evil or
misfortune,astheforebodingmusicofAlfredHitchcock’smovies.
Thecommonmistake,easilyfoundonGoogleNews,istousetheadjectiveforeboding,ominous,to
mean forbidding, uninviting, dangerous, or menacing. For example, in a foreboding challenge,
foreboding woods, and the creepy and foreboding Roderick Usher, foreboding should properly be
forbidding.
***
HerearethenexttenkeywordsinLevel8:
Word21:GALLIMAUFRY(GAL-i-MAW-free)
Ajumbledorconfusedmixture.
Thepluralisgallimaufries(GAL-i-MAW-freez).
GallimaufrycomesfromMiddleFrenchgalimafree,asteworsauce,awordofunknownoriginthat
is probably a conflation3 of galer, to amuse oneself, make merry—the source of the English adjective
gallant—and mafrer, to gorge oneself. Although gallimaufry has been used to mean “a dish made by
hashingupoddsandendsoffood”(OED),thatsenseisnowrareandthefigurativemeaning,ajumbledor
confusedmixture,hasprevailedsincethemid-16thcentury.
GallimaufryisoneofmanycolorfulEnglishwordsformiscellaneousmixtures.Itssynonymsinclude
hodgepodge,medley,miscellany,mishmash,pastiche,salmagundi,mingle-mangle,mélange,potpourri,
olio,ollapodrida,andfarrago.Let’stakeacloserlookattheseinterestingwords.
Thewordhodgepodge(HAHJ-pahj)isanalterationofhotchpotch,athicksouporstewofvegetables
andmeat.Itmayrefertoanydiversemixture,asahodgepodgeofhumanity,butitmayalsoreferto“a
clumsymixtureofingredients”(OED),athoughtlessjumble,asahodgepodgeofarchitecturalstyles.
Amedley(MED-lee)maybeanymixtureofdissimilarordiverseelements,butspecificallytheword
referstoamusicalcompositionconsistingofshortpiecesorpassagesfromavarietyofsources.
Miscellany(MIS-ul-ay-nee)isthenouncorrespondingtotheadjectivemiscellaneous.Likeamedley,
a miscellany may be any miscellaneous collection of things, or the word may refer specifically to a
literaryworkcomposedofwritingsbydifferentauthorsonvarioustopics.
Mishmash (pronounced to rhyme with fish hash), which is sometimes spelled mishmosh (and
pronouncedtorhymewithpish-posh),comesfromMiddleEnglishbutisprobablyrelatedtotheGerman
Mischmasch and the Yiddish mish-mash. There is no question that Jewish culture has done much to
popularize the word in the United States. In The Joys of Yinglish, Leo Rosten defines it not just as a
jumbleorhodgepodge,asdictionariesoftendo,butas“amess,”“afouled-upstateofthings,”“confusion
galore.”Whenyouthinkofamishmash,thinkofachaoticmixture,amuddle,asabookthatpresentsa
mishmashofideasseeminglychosenatrandom.
Pastiche(pas-TEESH)comesthroughFrenchfromtheItalianpasticcio,apiemadefromamixtureof
meatandpasta.InEnglish,pastichemayrefertoanartisticwork—suchasanovel,painting,ormusical
composition—thatborrowsvariousstyles,selections,ormotifsfromotherworks,oritmayrefertoan
artisticworkthathumorouslyimitatesorparodiesaparticularstyleoranotherartisticwork.
A salmagundi (SAL-muh-GUHN-dee) is, by derivation, a kind of salad made of chopped meat or
fish,eggs,anchovies,onions,sometimesothervegetables,andoil.Sincethe18thcenturysalmagundihas
also been used figuratively of any diverse mixture or medley, as “Her memoir is a salmagundi of
experienceseasonedwithwitandwisdom.”
Mingle-mangle combines the verbs to mingle, to mix or associate with, and to mangle, to injure,
spoil,orruin.Likegallimaufryandhodgepodge,mingle-mangleusuallyreferstoaconfusedorjumbled
mixture. The English language, which has freely and often haphazardly borrowed its vocabulary from
dozensofforeignlanguages,isamingle-mangleofwordsandtongues.
The noun mélange—may-LAH(N)ZH, with a nasalized French n—is related to the verb to meddle,
which once meant to mix or mingle. In current usage a mélange is any mixture, blend, or collection,
especially one composed of unrelated or inharmonious elements: “The Indian-style pizza is a spicy
mélange of garam masala, ginger, turmeric, paprika, spinach, cilantro and green onions” (San Jose
MercuryNews).
A potpourri (poh-puh-REE) was originally a stew made with a mixture of meats; by derivation the
wordmeansarottenpot(fromFrenchpourrir,toberotten).Thatsensebecameobsoleteandpotpourri
came to denote various things: a mixture of fragrant dried flower petals and spices used to perfume a
room or closet; a musical medley; a literary miscellany; and finally, any mixture or miscellaneous
collectionofthingsorpeople,asaninterestingpotpourriofartobjectsfromallovertheworld.
Botholio(OH-lee-oh)andollapodrida(AHL-uh-puh-DREE-duh)comefromtheSpanisholla,apot
orstew,andanollapodrida is literally a rotten pot, like a potpourri. Both words may denote a spicy
SpanishorPortuguesestewofmeatandvegetables,butmoreoftentheyareusedofanydiversemixture
andarevirtuallyinterchangeablewithhodgepodge,medley,andpotpourri.
Farrago (fuh-RAY-goh) comes from a Latin word meaning mixed fodder for animals, a jumbled
assortmentofgrains.Inmodernusagefarragomayrefertoanymixture,especiallyaconfusedorjumbled
mixture, as “the farrago of errors known otherwise as Wikipedia, which … is regarded by many as a
reliableresearchtool”(DavidPenberthy,HeraldSun,Australia).
Ourkeyword,gallimaufry,mayapplyeithertothingsortopeopleandrefersto“anyinconsistentor
ridiculousmedley”(TheCenturyDictionary),asagallifmaufryofuselessanddiscardedobjects,ora
gallimaufryoflies,talltales,andsuperstition.Butgallimaufry(andfarrago)canbeneutraltoo,asin
thisexcerptfromI.MoyerHunsberger’sintroductiontoTheQuintessentialDictionary:“Mywifeandall
seven of our offspring provided a veritable farrago of advice, a gallimaufry of helpful ideas, and
omniscientencouragementasthisdictionarywasbeingcompiled.”
Word22:ANALECTS (AN-uh-lekts)
Selectedwrittenpassages,extracts,orfragmentsfromanauthororvariousauthors;especially,acollectionofsuchwrittenpassages:an
anthology.
InclassicalLatin,thewordanalectawasusedforaslavewhosejobwastocleanthetableafterameal,
collecting any crumbs or scraps of food left behind. Originally in English analects followed this
derivation literally; in his Universal Etymological English Dictionary of 1721, Nathan Bailey defined
the word as “fragments gathered from Tables.” But in postclassical Latin analecta came to mean a
collectionofliteraryfragmentsorextracts—afteritsownsource,theGreekanalégein,topickup,gather
up,collect—anditisthissensethathassurvivedintheEnglishanalects:aselection,oracollection,of
literarypassages,extracts,orfragmentsbyoneauthororseveral.
Inmodernusagethepluralnounanalects(thesingularanalectissorarethatmostdictionariesdon’t
list it) is most closely associated with The Analects of Confucius, a compilation of the maxims,
aphorisms, and teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius, dating from the 4th century B.C. But
analects can denote any collection of literary passages and tidbits, especially a miscellaneous or
anecdotalcollection,astheanalectsofthesages(asageisaverywiseperson).
The Latin plural analecta is still sometimes used, but Garner’s Modern American Usage says the
Englishformanalectsispreferred.
Word23:PARTURITION(PAHR-chuu-RISH-inorPAHR-tyuu-RISH-in)
Childbirth;theactorprocessofbringingforthoffspring.
ThenounparturitioncomesfromtheLatinparturīre,tobeinlabor.Thewordischieflyusedinmedicine
andbiology,althoughitoccursoccasionallyinothernonfictionandinliterature,asinthissentencefrom
the 1973 novel The Rachel Papers by Martin Amis: “Mother’s was a … generally rather inelegant
parturition.” The word may also be used figuratively of something that resembles childbirth; the long
laborofwritingabook,forexample,isakindofparturition.
Theadjectiveparturient(pahr-T[Y]UUR-ee-int)meanspertainingtochildbirthorbearingoffspring.
The phrase parturient amnesia has been proposed for the act of forgetting, or the ability to forget, the
pain of labor and delivery. In my book There’s a Word for It, I wrote that “parturient amnesia is the
oblivion that preserves our species, for without it, how many women would choose to have another
child?”
The medical term parturifacient (pahr-t[y]uur-i-FAY-shint) may be a noun meaning a medicine or
agentthatinducesoraccelerateslabor,oranadjectivethatmeansinducingoracceleratinglabor.Inboth
these senses parturifacient is synonymous with oxytocic (AHK-si-TOH-sik), which comes from the
Greekoxys-,sharp,quick,acute,andtokos,childbirth.
Word24:ATRABILIOUS (A-truh-BIL-ee-us)
Gloomyandirritable;peevishlymelancholy.
Synonymsofatrabiliousincludesullen,morose,surly,crabbed(KRAB-id),splenetic(word50ofLevel
5), hypochondriacal (HY-poh-kun-DRY-uh-kul), saturnine (SAT-ur-NYN), and dyspeptic (word 11 of
Level 7). Antonyms include mirthful, exuberant, vivacious (word 15 of Level 1), sanguine (SANGgwin),andjocund(word33ofLevel7).
TheadjectiveatrabiliouscomesfromtheLatinātrabīlis,blackbile,whichinancientandmedieval
physiology was one of the four humors, or bodily fluids, thought to determine a person’s health or
disposition.Ifyouwerefullofblood,alsoknownasthesanguinehumor,youwerecheerfulandconfident.
Ifyouwerefullofcholer(pronouncedlikecollar),alsoknownasyellowbile,youwerepassionateor
hot-tempered.Ifyouwerefullofphlegm(FLEM)—fromwhichwegetthewordphlegmatic(fleg-MATik), having a sluggish or apathetic temperament—you were either cool and indifferent or dull and
sluggish.Andifyouwerefullofmelancholy,alsoknownasblackbile,youweregloomy,miserable,or
dejected.
Byderivation,atrabiliousmeansfullofmelancholyorblackbile,andthereforegloomyordepressed.
Buttheword,whichenteredEnglishinthe17thcentury,hastakenonanotherdimensioninmodernusage,
suggesting not only a melancholy or morose disposition but also an irritable, dyspeptic one. An
atrabilioustemperamentisgloomybutalsosourorsurly,melancholybutalsocrossorcantankerous,glum
but also peevish or petulant, as in this sentence from The Huffington Post: “No doubt the usual
cavalcade4ofatrabiliousright-wingcommentatorswillworkovertimeto…distortObama’sremarks.”
Atrabilious may be used of people or, figuratively, of things. “The Professor did not like Mr.
Simpson,” wrote the British-American writer Frank Harris (1856–1931) in his 1895 short story
“Gulmore, the Boss.” “The atrabilious face, the bitter, thin lips, and grey eyes veined with yellow,
remindedhimindefinablyofawildbeast.”
Word25:TRANS MOGRIFY(tranz-MAHG-ri-fy)
Tochangeortransform,especiallyinastrange,grotesque,orpreposterousway.
The origin of the verb to transmogrify is uncertain. Coined sometime in the mid-17th century, it is
probably a humorous pseudo-Latinism, meaning a word that looks like Latin but isn’t, and in modern
usage transmogrify usually implies a change or transformation that is humorous in a preposterous,
bizarre,andsometimesgrotesqueway,aswhenthefroginthefamousfairytaleistransmogrifiedintoa
prince.
Totransmute,transfigure,metamorphose,andtransmogrifyallmeantochangeortransform.
Totransmute,fromtheLatinmūtāre,tochange,alter,shift,istochangecompletelyfromalowerstate
toahigherormorerefinedone:themedievalalchemiststriedtotransmuteleadintogold.
Totransfigureiscloselyassociatedwithchapter17oftheGospelofSt.Matthew,whichtellshow
Jesus“wastransfiguredbeforethem:andhisfacedidshineasthesun,andhisraimentwaswhiteasthe
light.” Because of this transfigure often implies a change in outward appearance, especially one that
glorifiesorexalts:“Asmilebrokeoverhisface,oneofthosepowerfulsmilesthattransfigurethevery
featuresofsomemen”(AnnS.Stephens,TheOldHomestead,1855).
Tometamorphose(MET-uh-MOR-fohz),theverbcorrespondingtothenounmetamorphosis,suggests
acompleteandusuallystrikingchange,oftenoneeffectedbymagicorsupernaturalmeans:“Incantations
are muttered, a wand is waved, and your body begins to metamorphose into a horse” (The Wall Street
Journal).
Ourkeyword,totransmogrify,impliesagreattransformationthatisstrangeandoftenpreposterous:“I
was afraid to walk across the green shag broadloom because I thought there was a chance it would
transmogrifyintotheIndianOceananddrownme”(SamanthaBee,iknowiam,butwhatareyou?).
Word26:S CREED(rhymeswithspeed)
Alongandtediousspeechorpieceofwriting.
The noun screed comes from the Middle English screde, a torn fragment, the source also of the word
shred,acutortorn-offfragmentorstrip.Originallyscreedwasasynonymorvariantofshred; later it
wasusedofastriporparceloflandandofaborderingedge,suchasthefrillofacap.Themodernuseof
screed in plastering and concrete work to mean a strip of plaster, wood, or metal used as a guide or
levelingdeviceprobablycamefromthesearchaicsenses.
The figurative use of screed to mean a long, monotonous discourse arose in the late 18th century,
probablyfromtheassociationofanarrowortorn-offstripwiththeideaofalongrollorlist.Inmodern
usageascreedisoftenroughlythesameasarant(word9ofLevel1),adiatribe(word1ofLevel2),or
a harangue, denoting not only a lengthy and boring speech, essay, or book but also one that is angry or
impassioned. As you can infer from that, screed is usually used pejoratively (pejorative is word 17 of
Level 6), as an illiterate, racist screed or a rambling, witless screed. But once in a while you see it
used, almost ironically, in a positive context: “In 1950, Dr. Seuss published a charming little animalliberationscreedtitledIfIRantheZoo”(vanityfair.com).
Word27:MATUTINAL(muh-T[Y]OO-ti-nul)
Pertainingto,happening,orperformedintheearlymorningortheperiodafterwaking.
TheOEDshowsthatmatutinalhasalsooccasionallybeenusedtomean“risingearly;activeoralertin
the morning,” as in this surprisingly modern-sounding citation from 1834: “Our household was not the
mostmatutinalintheworld”(GeorgePayneRainsfordJames,TheLifeandAdventuresofJohnMarston
Hall).
Matutinal comes from the Latin matutinus, early in the morning or pertaining to the morning.
Matutinalisrelatedtothewordmatins(MAT’nz),whichintheChristianchurchdenotesearlymorning
prayer. Vespers—from the Latin vesper, the evening or the evening star—are prayers or worship
performedintheearlyevening.Vespertine(VES-pur-tinor-tyn)meansbelongingtooroccurringinthe
evening.Matutinalmeansbelongingtooroccurringinthemorning.
Matutinalmaybeusedofalmostanythingpertainingtoordoneintheearlymorning.Anovelistor
poetmightwriteofthematutinalcrowingofaroosterorthematutinaldewonthegrass,whileahumorist
mightwriteofthematutinalconsumptionofcoffeeanddoughnuts,orthematutinalritualoforalhygiene,
with its noisy gargling, throat-clearing, and expectoration (ek-SPEK-tuh-RAY-shin, a fancy word for
spitting).Yourmatutinalroutineisyourmorningroutine,thethingsyoudoeachdayafterwakingup.This
would likely begin with a few moments of pandiculation (pan-DIK-yuh-LAY-shin), yawning and
stretchingbeforegettingoutofbed.
Diurnalandquotidian(kwoh-TID-ee-in)bothmeandaily,happeningorrecurringeachday—though
quotidianmayalsomeanordinary,commonplace,ofaneverydaynature.Nocturnalmeansrelatingtoor
happeningatnight,andalsoactiveatnight,asanocturnalanimal.Matutinalmeansrelatingto,occurring,
ordoneintheearlymorning.
Word28:CRAPULENT(KRAP-yuh-lint)
Sufferingtheilleffectsofexcessiveeatingordrinking;sickfromoverindulgence.
The adjective crapulent entered English in the 17th century; its cousin crapulous, with which it is
interchangeable,isaboutacenturyolderbutlesscommoninmodernusage.Bothwords,alongwiththe
noun crapulence, sickness resulting from overindulgence in food or drink, come through the Latin
crāpula,drunkenness,andespeciallyitsuncomfortableaftereffects,ultimatelyfromtheGreekkraipálé,a
hangover.(Incaseyou’rewondering,theslangwordcrapdoesnotsharethissourcebutcomesfromthe
MiddleEnglishcrappe,chaff,rubbish,residue.)
If you eat or drink alcohol excessively you may become crapulent, which can involve not only the
traditionalheadacheofahangoverbutalsoabdominalcramps,nausea,vomiting,anddiarrhea.People,of
course,getcrapulentorsufferfromcrapulence,butcertainthingscanbedescribedascrapulenttoo;for
example,in2013,whenthecelebrityTVchefPaulaDeenwasdisgracedforusingracistlanguage,one
writercalledher“thequeenofcrapulentfood,suretoinducegoutanddiabetes.”
Word29:IPS OFACTO (IP-sohFAK-toh)
Bythefactitself;bytheverynatureofthefactordeed.
Ipso facto is a 16th-century borrowing from Latin that means literally by the fact itself, ipso being the
ablativeofipse,itself,andfactobeingtheablativeoffactum,fact.ThisLatinipseoccursalsoinanother
phraseborrowedfromLatin,ipsedixit(IP-seeDIK-sit),literallyhehimselfsaidit(fromtheLatindīcere,
tosay,speak).InEnglishweuseipsedixitofanassertionmadewithoutproof:“Foralongtimepeople
believedthetobaccoindustry’sipsedixitthatsmokingwasn’tharmfuloraddictive.”
Ipso facto, by the fact itself, is a more formal way of saying necessarily, in itself, or by its very
nature:“H.L.Mencken,whobeganhiscareerasapolicereporterinBaltimore,wrotethathequickly
encounteredwhathecalledthe‘policementality’:Everypersonaccusedorsuspectedofacrimeisipso
factoguiltyofthatoffense”(JackWardlaw,TheTimes-Picayune,NewOrleans).
Word30:DEBOUCH(di-BOOSHordi-BOWCH)
Toemerge,issue,ormarchfromanarroworconfinedplaceintotheopen.
TheverbtodebouchcomesfromtheFrenchdéboucher,toemerge,acombinationofde-,out,andbouche,
a mouth or opening. When debouch entered English in the mid-1700s it was a military word used to
describetroopsthatmarchedfromaconfinedarea,suchasagorgeoradefile,anarrowpassage,into
open ground: “We saw the column of infantry debouching into Minden plain,” reported The London
Magazinein1760.
Thewordwassoonappliedtootherthingsthatemergedorissuedfromamouthoroutletintoanopen
orwiderspace:astreamdebouchingintoalake;carsdebouchingfromnarrowstreetsintowideravenues
orhighways;commuterthrongsdebouchingfromthebowelsofthesubwayontothestreet;angrywasps
debouching from a disturbed nest. Here’s a contemporary citation from The Wall Street Journal that
anyonewhorememberstheterroranddestructionof9/11canrelateto:“Theemergency-exitstairsatOne
WorldTradeCenterwilldebouchtothestreetratherthanintothelobbytoheadoffamayhemcollisionof
firefightersandpanickingtenants.”
ReviewQuizforKeywords21–30
Decideifthepairsofwordsbelowaresynonymsorantonyms.Answersappearhere.
1.Salmagundiandgallimaufryare…synonymsorantonyms?
2.Selectionsandanalectsare…
3.Parturitionandchildbirthare…
4.Atrabiliousandsanguineare…
5.Metamorphoseandtransmogrifyare…
6.Screedanddiatribeare…
7.Vespertineandmatutinalare…
8.Soberandcrapulentare…
9.Ipsofactoandnecessarilyare…
10.Confineanddebouchare…
OnceUponaWord:EnglishIsaSpanishOmelet
TheollapodridaofEnglishisheavilyspicedwithSpanish.(Ollapodrida is discussed in gallimaufry,
word21ofthislevel.)FromCaliforniatoTexastoFlorida—allSpanishnames—EnglishisaSpanish
omelet.PeopleliveincitiesandtownswithSpanishnameslikeSanAntonio,SantaFe,LasVegas,and
LosAngeles.TheydriveonstreetswithSpanishnamesandliveinSpanish-stylehousesindevelopments
with (often mangled) Spanish names. They admire Hispanic flora and enjoy Hispanic food. Spanish
surroundsthemand,whethertheyrealizeitornot,theyspeakiteveryday.
In the 16th century, when Spain was exploring and conquering the New World, Spanish exerted its
earliest influence upon English. By 1600, English had acquired alligator, anchovy, banana, cannibal,
cocoa, hurricane, mosquito, potato, sassafras, sherry, sombrero, and tobacco. By 1700, English had
adopted cargo, barricade, escapade, siesta, matador, toreador, tomato, chocolate, vanilla, and
cockroach. By 1750, English had gained the geological term mesa, and by 1780, the word stevedore
(from estibador, one who packs or loads cargo), which preceded longshoreman, its Anglo-Saxon
equivalent, by more than twenty years. By 1850, English had appropriated the now-familiar canyon,
bonanza,loco,andvigilante.
As 19th-century American pioneers pushed west into territory long dominated by Spain and later
Mexico,theidiomofthecowboygrewoutofthevernacularofhiscounterpart,thevaquero(vuh-KAIRoh).Fromthevaquerosthecowboysadoptedthewordsranch,rodeo,lassoandlariat, chaps, poncho,
serape,stampede,desperado,andbuckaroo,ananglicizationofvaquero.
Thebuckarooslearnednewnamesforcreatures:burroforadonkey,pintoforapiebaldhorse,cinch
for a bedbug, and coyote for a wild dog. They ate frijoles, chiles, tamales, and enchiladas. And if a
buckaroodranktoomuchmescalortequila,hemightwindupinthecalaboose or hoosegow—the jail.
OtherborrowingsfromtheheydayoftheOldWestincludehacienda,patio,arroyo,hombre,amigo,and
pronto.
“TheSpanishcontributionstotheAmericanvocabularyarefarmorenumerousthanthoseofanyother
Continental language,” observes H. L. Mencken in The American Language. Think about that the next
timeyou’resittingonthepatioofyourhaciendasippingsherry,takingasiesta,eatingsomevanillaice
creamwithslicedbananas,orgazingatastampedeofmosquitoesinthecanyon.
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabulary.
Word31:IMMURE(i-MYOOR)
Toenclosewithinwalls,shutin,confine;hence,toimprisonorentomb.
TheverbtoimmurecomesfromthemedievalLatinimmūrāre,towallin,frommūrus,awall,especially
awallaroundacity.Immurewasonceusedtomeantosurroundwithawall,butsincethewordentered
Englishinthelate15thcenturyithaschieflybeenusedfigurativelytomeantoenclosewithinwalls,oras
ifwithinwalls,toimprison.“Thouwertimmured,restrained,captivated,bound,”wroteShakespearein
1598inLove’sLaboursLost.
Immure may also be used to mean to entomb in a wall. The most famous immurement (i-MYUURmint)inEnglishliteratureoccursinEdgarAllanPoe’sstory“TheCaskofAmontillado,”whichendswith
these lines: “I forced the last stone into its position; I plastered it up. Against the new masonry I reerected the old rampart of bones. For the half of a century no mortal has disturbed them. In pace
requiescat!”(Latinforrestinpeace,morecommonlyrenderedasrequiescatinpace.)
Word32:CORRIGENDUM(KOR-i-JEN-dum)
Anerrortobecorrectedinatextorprintedwork.
Corrigendum is a mid-19th century borrowing of the Latin corrigendum, something to be corrected,
whichcomesinturnfromtheverbcorrĭgere,tocorrect,amend,putstraight,thesourcealsooftheEnglish
words correct and correction. Although corrigendum, the singular, is the typical dictionary headword,
meaning an error discovered in print that needs to be corrected, the plural form, corrigenda (KOR-iJEN-duh),meaningalistoferrorsinaprintedworkalongwiththeircorrections,isconsiderablymore
common.Typically,whenanewprintingoreditionofabookisbeingprepared,anauthororeditorwill
submitcorrigenda,alistoferrorstobecorrected,tothecompositor.Nowadays,withcomputersthatcan
makechangesinsecondsandsomuchwrittenmaterialbeingpublishedonline,itismucheasiertorectify
corrigenda,textualerrorstobecorrected.
Word33:LATITUDINARIAN(LAT-i-T[Y]OO-di-NAIR-ee-in)
Tolerant,broad-minded,especiallyinreligiousmatters;notinsistingonstrictconformityoradherencetoanydoctrine,code,orstandard.
The adjective latitutudinarian and the noun latitudinarian, which means a tolerant, broad-minded
person,comefromtheLatinlātitūdo,breadth,extent,thesourcealsooftheEnglishnounlatitude. One
meaning of latitude is freedom of action, choice, or opinion, as some parents allow their children
considerable latitude. To be latitudinarian, or to be a latitudinarian, is to favor latitude in opinion or
conduct, to be tolerant and open-minded, especially when it comes to religion, for in English history a
latitudinarian was “a member of a group of Anglican Christians active from the 17th through the 19th
centurywhowereopposedtodogmaticpositionsoftheChurchofEnglandand[who]allowedreasonto
informtheologicalinterpretationandjudgment”(AmericanHeritage).
Inmodernusagetobelatitudinarianistobetolerantandbroad-mindedandnotinsistonconformityto
arbitraryrulesoradherencetoanyonewayofthinking:“SomejuristsinterprettheConstitutionnarrowly
whileothersaremorelatitudinarian”;“WhenBritainquietlymadesame-sexmarriagethelawoftheland
in 2013, observers around the world both hailed and decried the latitudinarian implications of such a
move.”(Todecry[di-KRY]istocondemn,expressstrongdisapprovalof.)
Synonyms of latitudinarian include liberal, lenient, and catholic, which, when printed with a
lowercase c, means broad or all-embracing in one’s sympathies, interests, or tastes. Antonyms include
narrow-minded,bigoted,biased,intolerant,dogmatic,andparochial(puh-ROH-kee-ul).
Word34:S TENTORIAN(sten-TOR-ee-in)
Veryloud,powerful,andfar-reaching.
Synonyms of stentorian include thunderous, earsplitting, deafening, screeching, strident, clamorous,
andvociferous(word12ofLevel3).Antonymsincludefaint,subdued,harmonious,mellow,melodious,
dulcet(DUHL-sit),andeuphonious(yoo-FOH-nee-us).
Stentorianisaneponymousword,fromthenameStentor(STEN-tor),aGreekheraldintheTrojan
Warwho,asHomerputitinhisepicpoemtheIliad,had“avoiceofbronze…asloudasthatoffiftymen
together.”ByderivationstentorianmeanshavingorresemblingtheloudandpowerfulvoiceofStentor.
Stentorianisusedchieflyofaveryloudorpowerfulvoice,asastentoriannarratororastentorian
drill sergeant yelling orders. It is also sometimes used of singing, as his impassioned, stentorian
baritone. It may also be used of extremely loud sounds, especially voicelike sounds: for example, the
wordfrequentlyappearsinthephrasestentoriantones.Stentorianmayalsobeusedtomeanabletoutter
a very loud sound, as a stentorian foghorn or stentorian lungs. Finally, the word is sometimes used
figuratively of something that suggests a person speaking in a loud and powerful voice, as the
newspaper’sstentorianeditorializing.
The noun stentor is used of a person who has a very loud and powerful voice: “The officer of the
watch…gavetherightorders,inthevoiceofastentor”(CharlesReade,ASimpleton).
Word35:ABECEDARIAN(AY-bee-see-DAIR-ee-in)
Apersonwhoislearningthealphabet,orabeginnerwhoislearningtherudimentsofsomething.
Youcanseeandhearthefirstfourlettersofthealphabetinthewordabecedarian,whichcomesfromthe
Late Latin abecedārius, of the alphabet. As a noun, abecedarian denotes someone who is learning the
alphabet,suchasachildinelementaryschool,orsomeonewhoislearningtherudimentsorfundamentals
in any field of endeavor, as an abecedarian in the insurance business. The word may also apply to
someonewhoteachesthealphabetortherudimentsofasubject:“Jennawasahome-schooledchild,and
hermotherwasherabecedarian.”
Asanadjective,abecedarianhasseveralsenses.Itmaymeanoforpertainingtothealphabet,asan
abecedarian book, one that teaches the alphabet; of or pertaining to someone who is learning the
alphabet, as her abecedarian pupil; or elementary, rudimentary, or immature, as abecedarian
instructionsoranabecedarianinterpretation.
Word36:JUVENILIA(JOO-vuh-NIL-ee-uhor-NIL-yuh,not-NEEL-)
Artisticworksorcompositions,especiallyliteraryones,producedinone’syouth.
The plural noun juvenilia, which must be used with a plural verb, comes from the Latin juvenīlis,
youthful,andjuvenis,ayoungperson,thesourceoftheEnglishjuvenile.
Apoet’sjuveniliaaretheverseswritteninheryouth,whichmayormaynothaveliterarymerit.The
essaysyouwroteinhighschoolandcollege,evenifyou’renotaprofessionalwriter,areyourjuvenilia.
Andparentsoftenproudly,andsentimentally,clingtotheirgrown-upchildren’s5juvenilia,thedrawings
andscribblingsandcrudeobjetsd’arttheyproducedintheiryouth.(Bytheway,thetermobjets d’art,
pronounced AWB-zhay DAHR, comes from French and means art objects, usually small creations or
curios of some artistic worth. The singular is objet d’art, without the pluralizing s but pronounced the
sameway.)
Juveniliamayalsodenoteacollectionofliteraryorartisticworksproducedinsomeone’syouth.And
inthesecondhalfofthe20thcenturyjuveniliaalsocametobeusedofliteraryorartisticworkssuitable
ordesignedforyoungpeople:“Theypublishpicturebooksandchapterbooksandotherjuvenilia.”
Word37:HIDALGO (hi-DAL-goh)
Agentlemanbybirth;specifically,amemberofthelowerorminornobilityinSpain.
ThenounhidalgowasborrowedfromSpanishinthelate16thcenturyandisacontractionofthephrase
hijo de algo, literally a son of something—namely, a son of a man of worth and esteem. In Spain and
SpanishAmericathehidalgoswereroughlytheequivalentofthegentlemenandsquiresofEngland,who
weremembersofthelandedgentry,meaningthattheyhadsomelandandmoneyandprivilegesbutwere
at the bottom tier of the aristocracy. According to The Century Dictionary, “The special privileges
formerly possessed by the hidalgos … made them as a class self-important, haughty, and domineering,
thoughmanyofthemwerenototherwisedistinguishedfromtheclassbelowthem.”
Word38:ELEEMOS YNARY(EL-uh-MAHS-i-ner-ee)
Charitable;pertainingtoorsupportedbyalmsorcharity.
TheoddlyspelledeleemosynarycomesfromtheGreekeleēmosynē,pity,compassion,thesourcealsoof
theEnglishwordalms(AHMZ),whichgoesbacktoOldEnglishandmeansanythinggivenascharity.An
eleemosynary act is an act of charity. An eleemosynary institution—such as a school, church, or
humanitarian organization—is one devoted to charity, to distributing alms, although not infrequently an
eleemosynaryinstitutionmayitselfbedependentoncharity.DoctorsWithoutBorders,theNobelPrize–
winninginternationalmedicalrelieforganization,isaneleemosynaryinstitutionsupportedbythousands
ofdonorsaroundtheworld,includingme.
Someauthoritiessanctionaseven-syllablepronunciation,EL-ee-uh-MAHS-i-ner-ee,butthisisrarely
heard today. And the recent editions of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary record the eccentric
variantEL-uh-MOH-si-ner-ee,whichisnotattestedelsewhereandisbestavoided.
Word39:PLANGENT(PLAN-jint)
Resounding,reverberating;havingaloud,resonantsound,especiallyaplaintiveone.(Plaintiveisword9ofLevel2.)
The adjective plangent comes from the Latin verb plangere, which meant either to strike noisily or to
beatthebreastasasignofgrief,tobewail,lament.Becauseofthisderivation,plangent,whichentered
Englishinthe17thcentury,hasbeenappliedbothtoloud,resonantsoundsandtoloud,mournfulsounds
thatpullatyourheartstrings.
Thus,plangentcandescribethepiercingsoundofthebellcallingthecowhandsintodinneraswell
asthesoundofchurchbellstollingforafuneral.Aplangentcrycanbesimplyloudandresonantoritcan
reverberate with deep emotion. The strident fanfare of a trumpet is plangent, as are the wistful, tender,
plangentreverberationsofaclassicalguitar.InthissentencefromA Woman of Thirty, the 19th-century
FrenchnovelistHonorédeBalzac(ahn-uh-RAYduBAWL-zak)capturesboththesesensesofplangent—
loud and resonant and also resounding with plaintive feeling: “Ah! that full, deep voice, charged with
plangentvibration,wasthevoiceofonewhohadsufferedindeed.”
Word40:LAGNIAPPE(lan-YAPorLAN-yap)
Abonus,gratuity,ortip;specifically,asmallgiftorbonusitemgiventoacustomerwithapurchaseasawayofsaying,“Thankyouforyour
business.”
The noun lagniappe was born in the southern United States, coming through Louisiana French from the
Spanishlañapa,acorruptionoftheQuechua(KECH-wuh)wordyapa,meaningthatwhichisadded.By
derivation,lagniappemeansalittlesomethingextra.ThewordisrecordedinEnglishfromthemid-19th
century;in1883MarkTwainnoteditsLouisianaoriginsinLifeontheMississippi.
You may use lagniappe in its original sense: a small gift or petty gratuity given by a retailer to a
customeralongwithapurchase:“AstackofcoastersreceivedaslagniappewithapurchaseofIronCity
Beerlongago,gracedanendtable”(RichardW.Browne,Brannon’sChoice).Thissensecouldeasilybe
extended to include the insignificant gifts—such as buttons, coffee mugs, and tote bags—that nonprofit
organizationstypicallygiveasathank-youfordonations.Oryoumayuselagniappefigurativelytomean
a bonus or unexpected benefit, as the American humorist S. J. Perelman (PER-ul-man, beginning with
peril,notpearl)didin1947inhiscollectionWestwardHa!:“Sincetheshipwascallingthereanyway,
thetripwouldbepurelagniappe,anextradashofstardustunforeseeninourprogram.”
ReviewQuizforKeywords31–40
In each statement below, a keyword (in italics) is followed by three definitions. Two of the three are
correct;oneisunrelatedinmeaning.Decidewhichonedoesn’tfitthekeyword.Answersappearhere.
1.Toimmureistoenclosewithinwalls,tieup,imprison.
2.Acorrigendumisacorrectionmade,amistaketobefixed,anerrortobecorrected.
3.Latitudinarianmeanstolerant,bigoted,broad-minded.
4.Astentoriantoneisdeafening,thunderous,melodious.
5.Anabecedarianisabeginner,anamateur,apersonlearningthealphabet.
6.Juveniliaareyouthfulcreations,unfinishedcreations,earlyartisticworks.
7.Ahidalgoisaminoraristocrat,agentlemanbybirth,ahigh-rankingnobleman.
8.Aneleemosynaryinstitutionischaritable,religious,supportedbyalms.
9.Somethingplangentisresponsive,resonant,resounding.
10.Alagniappeisagift,anote,abonus.
APunctuationPrimer
TheBritishputtheircommasandperiodsoutsidetheirquotationmarks,butinAmericanstyletheybelong
inside—with no exceptions. Thus: “I always put my commas inside my quotation marks,” the careful
writersaid.“AndIputallmyperiodstheretoo.”
Peoplealsooftenwonderwhetherperiodsshouldgoinsideoroutsideparentheses.Whenthewords
inparenthesesarepartofalargersentence,eveniftheyconstituteasentencethemselves,theperiodgoes
outsidetheclosingparenthesis:Youcan’tgohomeagain(wroteThomasWolfe).Whenaword,aphrase,
orafullsentenceisenclosedinparenthesesandisnotpartofalargersentence,theperiodgoesinsidethe
closingparenthesis:(Youbet.)(I’mnotkidding.)
Colonsandsemicolonsalwaysgooutsideparenthesesandquotationmarks,butquestionmarkscango
insideoroutsidequotationmarks,soyouhavetobeonyourguard.Ifthequotationisitselfaquestion,the
questionmarkgoesinsidethequotationmark:“WhatcanIgetforyoutonight?”thewaiterasked.Ifthe
sentenceitselfisaquestion,andthequotedmatterismerelypartofit,thequestionmarkgoesoutsidethe
quotationmark:Whosaid“Icame,Isaw,Iconquered”?
Whenyouneedtoquotesomethingwithinaquotation,usesinglequotationmarks:Any person with
evenavestigeoftastehastoask,“Whatareshowslike‘FamilyGuy’and‘SouthPark’doingonTV?
Don’tweknowwhat‘humor’meansanymore?”
Word41:ACOLYTE(AK-uh-lyt)
Anassistant,attendant,ordevotedfollower.
ThenounacolytecomesfromtheGreekakólouthos,anattendant,follower.Originally,anacolytewasan
altarattendant,apersonwhoassistedamemberoftheChristianclergybyperformingminorduties,such
as lighting candles, during the service. Acolyte has been used in this ecclesiastical sense since Old
English, but since the 17th century it has also been used more generally of any assistant or devoted
follower. You can be an acolyte of a person, as Robin is Batman’s acolyte or the esteemed poet was
surroundedbyheracolytes.Oryoucanbeanacolyteofsomedoctrine,asanacolyteofthelibertarian
philosophyofAynRand.
Word42:CHATOYANT(shuh-TOY-int)
Changinginlusterorcolor,likeacat’seyeinthedark.
ChatoyantcomesfromtheFrenchverbchatoyer,toshimmer,glisten,changelusterlikeacat’seye.(The
Frenchwordforacatischat.)
Injewelrywork,chatoyantreferstoagemthathasbeencutsoastoshowasinglestreakornarrow
bandofwavy,reflectedlight.Thisstreakoflightinchatoyantjewelscanseemtofloatorundulateand
vary in color, much like a cat’s eye in the dark. Silk and satin are often described as being chatoyant
because of their rich, flowing, and variable sheen or luster. In his 1861 novel Elsie Venner, Oliver
WendellHolmesdescribedthedancefloorataformalballasa“frothy,chatoyant,sparkling,undulating
sea of laces and silks and satins.” Human eyes have often been likened to those of a cat, as in this
quotationfrom1916:“Eitherbecausetheypossessedachatoyantqualityoftheirown…orbyreasonof
thelightreflectedthroughtheopenwindow,thegreeneyesgleameduponmevividlylikethoseofagiant
cat”(SaxRohmer,TheDevilDoctor).Youmayusechatoyantofanythingthatshimmersandchangesin
colorlikesilkorlikeacat’seyeinthedark.
Word43:DOPPELGÄNGER(DAHP-ul-GANG-ur)
Acounterpartorghostlydoubleofalivingperson;asecondself;alterego.
Theunusualnounswraith(rhymeswithfaith)andfetcharesynonymsofdoppelgänger.
DoppelgängerenteredEnglishinthemid-19thcenturyasaloanwordfromGerman,whereitmeant
literallyadouble-goerordouble-walker.“InGermanfolklore,”saysMerriam-Webster’s Encyclopedia
of Literature, a doppelgänger is “a wraith, or apparition, of a living person, as distinguished from a
ghost. The concept of the existence of a spirit double … is an ancient and widespread belief. To meet
one’sdoubleisasignthatone’sdeathisimminent.Thedoppelgängerbecameapopularsymbolin18thand19th-centuryhorrorliterature,andthethemetookonconsiderablecomplexity.”
TheAmericanHeritageDictionarynotesthataprominentcharacteristicofadoppelgängeristhatit
“haunts its fleshly counterpart.” One of the best-known explorations of the theme of a doppelgänger
hauntingitsfleshlycounterpartisEdgarAllanPoe’sstory“WilliamWilson,”publishedin1839.
Word44:S UPERNUMERARY(SOO-pur-N[Y]OO-muh-rair-ee)
Exceedingwhatisusualorrequired;beyondwhatisneededoruseful.
TheadjectivesupernumerarycomesfromtheLatinsupernumerārius,whichtheOEDtellsuswasused
of soldiers who were appointed to a legion after its numbers had been filled, and in military usage
supernumerarytraditionallyappliestoadditionalofficersattachedtoaregimentorbattaliontoreplace
thosewhoaresick,injured,orkilledinaction.Itmayalsobeusedofapersonwhoisassociatedwithbut
doesnotformallybelongtoanorganizationorstaff,whomerelyassistsintimesofneed.Asupernumerary
firefighterhelpsinanemergency,andasupernumeraryteacheriscalleduponwhenthere’sashortageof
regularteachers.
In Late Latin supernumerārius came to mean extra, additional, and since the 17th century we have
used supernumerary to mean exceeding what is usual, needed, or prescribed. Supernumerary
ornamentation is excessive, superfluous. Your wisdom teeth are supernumerary and must usually be
extracted. And to a king hoping to produce a male heir, a daughter might seem supernumerary, beyond
whatisneededorrequired.
Supernumeraryisalsosometimesusedasanountomeananadditionalperson,especiallyanactor
whoappearsinanonspeakingrole,alsocalledawalk-onoranextra.
Word45:REBARBATIVE(ri-BAHR-buh-tiv)
Repellent,disagreeable,objectionable;causingannoyanceorirritation.
TheadjectiverebarbativecomesfromthemodernFrenchrébarbatif,repellent,disagreeable,theultimate
sourcebeingtheLatinbarba,abeard—aderivationthat,becausebeardscanbescratchy,reinforcesthe
notionofannoyanceandirritationinrebarbative,whichenteredEnglishinthe1890s.
In current usage rebarbative is used chiefly of people and things that are unpleasant, offensive, or
repulsive. You wouldn’t say that someone has a rebarbative nose, but you could say that he has a
rebarbativevoice,orthathemaderebarbativecomments,orthathispersonalityorattitudeisrebarbative.
Ablogcanberebarbative,annoying,becauseitsbloggerisrebarbative,disagreeable.Rebarbativeviews
areobjectionableviews,andrebarbativebehaviorisrepellent,evensickeningbehavior.
Word46:LOUCHE(LOOSH)
Disreputableorindecent;ofquestionablecharacter,taste,morality,orpropriety.
Synonymsofloucheincludeshifty,sleazy,dubious,shady,andseedy.
English borrowed louche in the early 19th century directly from the French louche, which means
literallycross-eyed,squinting,andfigurativelysuspicious,fishy,andwhichcomesinturnfromtheLatin
luscus,one-eyed,blindinoneeye.
In English louche is frequently used of shady people with dubious reputations or questionable
motives, such as the louche British journalist Peter Fallow in Tom Wolfe’s 1987 novel Bonfire of the
Vanities,orMataHari,theDutchexoticdancerandspyfortheGermansecretserviceduringWorldWarI
who“betrayedimportantmilitarysecretsconfidedtoherbythemanyhighAlliedofficerswhowereon
intimatetermswithher”(ColumbiaEncyclopedia).ShewasexecutedbytheFrenchin1917.
Loucheisalsooftenusedofseedyordisreputableplaces,suchasared-lightdistrictoralow-life
bar.Louchemayalsorefertoactions,qualities,orthingsthatareofquestionableorindecentcharacter,
such as louche conduct, louche conversation, or a louche dress. “In pre-Las Vegas America, when
gamblingwasillicitandhadalouchecharm,thenaturaldomainofthedisreputablewasthepokertable,
theracetrackandthepoolhall”(TheWallStreetJournal).
Word47:INTERREGNUM(IN-tur-REG-num)
Apauseorinterruptionincontinuity;alapseorinterval.
Interregnum,whichenteredEnglishinthelate16thcentury,comesfromtheLatininterregnum,literallya
periodbetweenreigns,asofarulerormonarch,acombinationofinter,between,andregnum,rule,royal
power or authority. The word is still used today in the specific sense of the interval between when a
sovereign’sreignendsandasuccessorassumesthethrone,ortheperiodbetweenwhenaleader’sterm
endsandasuccessortakesoffice.TheintervalbetweenwhenaRomanCatholicpopediesorresignsand
anewpopeischoseniscalledtheinterregnum,andtheso-calledlame-duckperiodbetweentheendofan
incumbentpresident’stermandtheinaugurationofanewpresidentisaninterregnum,as“theinterregnum
betweentheoutgoingBushadministrationandtheincomingObamaWhiteHouse”(TheHuffingtonPost).
Interregnummayalsoapplytoaperiodinwhichastatehasnorulerorleaderandonlyaprovisional
government,ortoaperiodoffreedomfromcontrolorauthority.Butincurrentusagethewordisperhaps
most often used in the broad sense of a lapse, pause, interruption, or interval in something normally
continuous:“Mostparents,Isuspect,lookforwardtothatshortinterregnumbetweenchild-rearinghours
andtheirownbedtime”(TheGuardian);“Whynottakeadvantageofthisinterregnumtoborrowmoneyat
cheapratesandstimulatetheeconomyandmakenecessaryinvestments?”(TheWashingtonPost).
TherecommendedpluralistheEnglishinterregnums,nottheLatininterregna.
Word48:ALEMBIC(uh-LEM-bik)
Anythingthatworksachangeortransformation,orthatpurifiesorrefines.
Alembic comes ultimately from the Arabic al-anbīq, a combination of al-, the, and anbīq, a vessel for
distilling. An alembic was originally an apparatus used in chemistry for distillation, consisting of two
vesselsconnectedbyatubeandusuallymadeofglassorcopper.Thismeaningisstillingoodstanding,
but alembic is perhaps more often used figuratively of anything that causes a change or transformation,
suchasthealembicoffate,thealembicofsorrow,orthehotalembicofthedesertsun.Thewordoften
suggestssomethingthatpurifiesorrefines:“Forseveralmonthsbeforebeginningtowritethenovelthe
ideapercolatedinthealembicofherimagination.”
The verb to alembicate (uh-LEM-bi-kayt) means to change, refine, purify, or transform as if in an
alembic:“Agoodautobiographyisthestoryofalifealembicatedintoaworkofliteraryart.”
Word49:OLEAGINOUS (OH-lee-AJ-i-nus)
Affectedlypoliteorflatteringinaslimyway;overlyanddistatefullycomplimentary.
OleaginouscomesfromtheLatinoleāginus,oftheolivetree,fromolea,anolive.Whenthewordentered
Englishmorethanfourhundredyearsagoithadtheliteralmeaningofitsderivation:oily,greasy,fatty,
containingoilorhavingthenatureofoil,asin“theoleaginousscumthatpollutesthesurfaceofariver,”
or “Margarine is an oleaginous substitute for butter.” The word was also used to mean yielding or
producingoil,aspeanutsareoleaginous.Boththeseliteralsensesarestillingoodstanding.
Inthe19thcenturyoleaginouscametobeusedtomeanoily,slippery,orslimyinafigurativesense,
as an oleaginous politician or an oleaginous funeral director. Both people and things can be
figurativelyoleaginous.Whenflatteryorpietyisaffectedandoverdone,it’soleaginous.Popularmusic,
createdtopleasetheleastsophisticatedear,isoftenoleaginous.Andthewordmaybeappliedtoanyone
whose manner is too polite or complimentary, as an oleaginous used-car salesman or an oleaginous
waiter. A critic once described the British actor Hugh Grant, a pretty boy with a history of sexual
indiscretions,as“anoleaginous,womanizingloungelizard.”Nowthat’sslimy—andlouche(word46of
thislevel).
Synonymsofoleaginous in its figurative sense include fawning, smarmy, ingratiating, obsequious,
andunctuous(UHNGK-chu-wus).Theclosestoftheseisprobablyunctuous,whichcomesfromtheLatin
ungere, to anoint, the source of the English word unguent (UHNG-gwent), a medicinal ointment. Like
oleaginous,unctuousbyderivationmeansoily,fatty,havingagreasyorsoapyfeel,andthewordisused
today to mean having a slimy or slippery manner. Both the oleaginous and the unctuous person appear
agreeableorearnest,butinanaffected,self-serving,insincere,andoverlyflatteringway.
Word50:WAS TREL(WAY-strul)
Anidle,good-for-nothingperson,ane’er-do-well,orapersonwhoiswastefulandself-indulgent,aspendthrift.
Wastrel combines the word waste with -rel, “a noun suffix having a diminutive or pejorative force”
(RandomHouse).Becauseofthisbelittling,derogatoryderivation,wastrelismostcommonlyusedofa
wasteful,indolent(word48ofLevel4),andself-indulgentyoungperson:“Hismothercallshim‘alazy
pig’andswearsabluestreakasshedescribestheshameofhavingsuchawastrelforason”(TheGlobe
andMail);“Themainmalecharacter,Ji-woong,isahandsomewastrel.Unabletogetajob,hespendshis
daysgoofingaroundinSeoul”(fandompost.com).Occasionallywastrelisusedfigurativelyofsomething
wasteful,lazy,andself-indulgent,asinthis1889quotationfromTheQuarterlyReview:“Londonisthe
mostconspicuouswastrelofbothmenandmeans.”Wastrelisalsooftenusedattributively,meaningasan
adjective,asthewastrelnationsoftheeurozoneorthosewastreldaysofcarelessyouth.
Wastrel has one other common meaning: an abandoned or homeless child living a vagabond life, a
waif,orwhatusedtobecalledastreeturchin.
ReviewQuizforKeywords41–50
Inthisquizthereviewwordisfollowedbythreewordsorphrases,andyoumustdecidewhichcomes
nearestthemeaningofthereviewword.Answersappearhere.
1.Isanacolyteanobserver,anofficer,oranattendant?
2.Doessomethingchatoyantchangeshape,changeposition,orshimmer?
3.Isyourdoppelgängeryourlostlove,yourghostlydouble,oryourworstenemy?
4.Aresupernumerarythingsexcessive,important,orbeyondunderstanding?
5.Wouldarebarbativeremarkbestimulating,objectionable,orthreatening?
6.Doeslouchemeansophisticated,unpredictable,ordisreputable?
7.Isaninterregnumaninterval,anintervention,oraninterpretation?
8.Doesanalembiccausedisease,causeatransformation,orcausetrouble?
9.Wouldanoleaginouspersonbenosy,ingratiating,orsedate?
10.Isawastreladrugaddict,atravelingmusician,orane’er-do-well?
TheStyleFile:FirstThingsFirst
A headline in The New York Times Book Review refers to “the novelist who first conceived of
cyberspace.”AstoryintheBostonGlobe says that “when Southwest first announced it would fly from
Boston to Baltimore for $49 each way, JetBlue added a route there too.” And a reporter on NPR’s All
ThingsConsideredsays,“WhenHolderwasfirstappointedoverayearago…”
Didyoucatchtherecurringerrorinthesethreecitations?
The problem is a misuse of the word first. When it’s understood from the context that something is
beingdoneforthefirsttime,orwhentheverbinthecontextmeansdoingsomethingforthefirsttime,first
isredundant.
Toconceivemeanstoimagineforthefirsttime,toformanideabeforeanyoneelsehasdoneso.Thus,
theBookReview’sheadlineshouldhaveread,“thenovelistwhoconceivedofcyberspace.”Likewise,to
announce means to make known or make public, which happens only once, so the Boston Globe’s
copyeditor should have changed “when Southwest first announced it would fly” to “when Southwest
announceditwouldfly.”Andunlessyou’reappointedtoaposition,thenresignandarereappointedtoit,
youareappointedonlyonce.SotheNPRreportershouldhavesaid“WhenHolderwasappointedovera
yearago,”notfirstappointed.
First is always superfluous when it’s paired with a verb—such as start, begin, create, invent,
introduce,learn,discover,andarrive—thatmeansdoingsomethingforthefirsttime,asinthissentence
fromTheSanDiegoUnion-Tribune:“It’sbeen100yearssinceEdgarRiceBurroughsfirstintroducedhis
accidentalspacetraveler,JohnCarter,toreaders.”Mostofthetimedeletingfirstwillfixtheproblem,
but sometimes the sentence has to be revised. For example, in The Know-It-All A. J. Jacobs writes,
“Machine guns, when they first were invented, got so hot they had to be cooled by water.” Make that
“Whenmachinegunswereinventedtheygotsohottheyhadtobecooledbywater,”or“Thefirstmachine
gunsgotsohottheyhadtobecooledbywater.”
AnswerstoReviewQuizzesforLevel8
KEYWORDS1–10
1.Yes.Apanoplyisanimpressivearrayorsplendiddisplay.
2.Yes.Somethingrecherchéisveryrare,obscure,exotic,exquisite,orrefined.
3.No.Somethingvertiginousmakesyoudizzyorgiddy.
4.No.Yourkismetisyourfate,destiny,orlotinlife,andcannotbealtered.
5.Yes.Totemporizeistoactevasivelyorbeindecisivesoastogaintime;tostall.
6.Yes.Surroundedmeansenclosedonallsides,soaddingcompletelytoitispleonastic.Pleonasmistheuseofmorewordsthanare
necessarytoexpressanidea.
7.No.Abstractexpressionismwasanartisticmovementofthemid-20thcenturywhoseworkswerenonrepresentational,meaningtheydid
notportrayorresemblephysicalobjectsinnature.Verisimilitudeistheappearanceoftruthorresemblancetoreality.
8.No.Aplutocrat(word5ofLevel4)issomeonewhosepowercomesfromwealth.Acabalisagroupofsecretplotters,aconspiracy.
9.Yes.Postprandialmeanshappeningordoneafterameal,especiallyafterdinner.
10.No.Eponymouswordsareformedfromnames.Onomatopoeiaistheformationoruseofawordinimitationofasound.
KEYWORDS11–20
1.False.Whenyou’reinadudgeon,you’reexperiencingasuddenfitofanger,resentment,orindignation.
2.True.Hegemonymeansleadership,dominance.
3.False.Apremonitoryphonecallwarnsyouofsomethingthat’sabouttohappen.
4.True.Aretronymisanadjective-nounpairinggeneratedbyachangeinthemeaningofthenoun,usuallybecauseoftechnology:e.g.,
electricguitar,rotaryphone,snailmail.
5.False.Whenyourecuseyourself,youremoveordisqualifyyourselfasajudgeorparticipanttoavoidanysuspicionofbiasorconflictof
interest.
6.False.Someonelivinginpenurylivesinextremepoverty.
7.False.Arouéisdevotedtoimmoralbehaviorandsensualpleasure.
8.True.ALudditeissomeonefanaticallyopposedtoinnovation.
9.False.Schadenfreudeispleasureorjoyderivedfromotherpeople’smisfortune.
10.False.Acostivepersonissloworreluctanttospeakoract.
KEYWORDS21–30
1.Synonyms.Asalmagundiandagallimaufryarebothdiverseorjumbledmixtures.
2.Synonyms.Analectsareselectedwrittenpassages,extracts,orfragmentsfromanauthororvariousauthors.
3.Synonyms.Parturitionisthemedicaltermforchildbirth.
4.Antonyms.Sanguinemeanscheerful.Atrabiliousmeansgloomyandirritable.
5.Synonyms.Bothmetamorphoseandtransmogrifymeantochangeortransformcompletely.Transmogrifyimpliesastrange,grotesque,
orpreposteroustransformation.
6.Synonyms.Adiatribeisbitter,abusivespeechorwriting.Ascreedisalongandtediousspeechorpieceofwriting,andoftenonethatis
angryorimpassioned.
7.Antonyms.Vespertinemeansoftheevening.Matutinalmeansofthemorning.
8.Antonyms.Crapulentmeanssickfromoverindulgenceinfoodordrink,hungover.
9.Synonyms.Ipsofactomeansbytheveryfactitself,necessarily,byitsverynature.
10.Antonyms.Todebouchistoemergefromanarroworconfinedplaceintotheopen.
KEYWORDS31–40
1.Tieupdoesn’tfit.Toimmureisnottobindbuttoenclosewithinwalls,imprison.
2.Acorrectionmadedoesn’tfitbecauseacorrigendumisanerrorinatextthathasbeennotedbutnotyetcorrected.
3.Bigoted,intolerant,doesn’tfitbecauselatitudinarianmeanstolerant,liberal,broad-minded.
4.Melodious,tuneful,sweet-sounding,doesn’tfit.Somethingstentorianisextremelyloudandresounding,oftenunpleasantlyso.
5.Anamateurdoesn’tfit.Amateursarepeoplewhobyderivation(Latinamor,love)dothingsfortheloveofit,andalthoughtheyarenot
expertsorprofessionalstheymayhaveconsiderableexperienceandskill.Bycontrast,anabecedarianhasnoskills.Anabecedarianisa
personlearningthealphabet,or,byextension,abeginneratsomething.
6.Unfinishedcreationsdoesn’tfit.Juveniliaareartisticworksproducedinone’syouth,oracollectionofsuchworks.
7.Ahigh-rankingnoblemandoesn’tfit.Ahidalgoisagentlemanbybirthandaminoraristocrat.
8.Religiousdoesn’tfit.Althoughaneleemosynaryinstitutiondispensescharityandmayalsodependoncharity,itneednotbereligious.
9.Responsive,whichreferstoactions,doesn’tfit.Plangentreferstosoundsthatareloudandresounding,andalsomelancholy.
10.Anotedoesn’tfit;it’svague.Alagniappeisasmallgiftorbonusgivenbythesellertothebuyerasathank-you.
KEYWORDS41–50
1.Anacolyteisanassistant,attendant,ordevotedfollower.
2.Itshimmers.Chatoyantmeanschanginginlusterorcolor,likeacat’seyeinthedark;hence,shimmering,glistening.
3.Yourdoppelgängerisyourghostlydouble,acounterpartofalivingperson.
4.They’reexcessive.Supernumerarymeansexceedingwhatisusualorrequired;beyondwhatisneededoruseful.
5.Itwouldbeobjectionable.Rebarbativemeansrepellent,disagreeable,objectionable;causingannoyanceorirritation.
6.Louchemeansdisreputable,indecent;ofquestionablecharacterorpropriety.
7.Aninterregnumisapauseorinterruptionincontinuity;alapseorinterval.
8.Analembiccausesachangeortransformation,orpurifiesorrefines.
9.Anoleaginouspersonisingratiating,politeorflatteringinaslimy,affectedway.
10.Awastrelisanidle,good-for-nothingperson,ane’er-do-well,orapersonwhoiswastefulandself-indulgent,aspendthrift.
LEVEL9
Word1:S ANGFROID(sah[n]-FRWAH)
Composure;coolnessorcalmnessofmind,especiallyintryingcircumstances.
Synonyms of sangfroid include self-possession, aplomb (uh-PLAHM), equanimity (EE-kwuh-NIM-itee), and imperturbability. Antonyms of sangfroid include agitation, uneasiness, discomposure,
disquiet,andperturbation(discussedinperturb,word25ofLevel6).
Thenounsangfroid comes directly from French and means literally cold blood (sang is French for
bloodandfroidisFrenchforcold),theideabeing,apparently,thathot-bloodednessimpliespassionand
overreactionwhilecold-bloodednessimpliescomposureunderpressure.
The unusual word froideur (frwah-DUR) also incorporates this French froid, cold, and denotes an
attitudeofcoldsuperiority,coolaloofnessorhaughtyindifference.WhenIthinkoffroideur(whichisso
rareinEnglishthatitisstillprintedinitalics),IthinkofMarieAntoinette(1755–1793),queenofFrance
duringthereignofLouisXVI,who,inresponsetolearningthatherpeoplewerestarvingfromabread
famine,wasreputedtohavesaid,withinfamousfroideur,“Letthemeatcake.”
Sangfroidmaybeusedofanyimpressivedisplayofcomposureindifficultcircumstances,whetherthe
actionsinvolvedareadmirableorreprehensible.Thus,asoldiermayexhibitsangfroidunderfire,anda
criminal may exhibit sangfroid while conducting a robbery. A teacher can demonstrate sangfroid in a
classroom full of rowdy and insubordinate high schoolers, and an acrobat can show great sangfroid
performingonthehighwire,butamafiosocanalsoshowsangfroid,coolnessofmindortemperament,
whilebrutallymurderingarival.
Word2:DES UETUDE(DES-wi-T[Y]OOD,rhymeswithguessthefeud)
Astateofdisuseorinactivity;discontinuanceofuseorpractice.
ThenoundesuetudecomesthroughFrenchfromtheLatindēsuētūdo,disuse,whichcomesinturnfromthe
verb dēsuēscĕre, to disuse, become unaccustomed to. It is a lovely literary word that is often used in
phrases such as passing into desuetude or falling into desuetude to mean obsolescent, becoming
obsolete,enteringastateofdisuse.Butsomethingcanalsobeindesuetude,alreadyinastateofdisuseor
inactivity.Forexample,aword,alaw,oracustomcanpassintodesuetudeoralreadybeindesuetude,
discontinuanceofuseorpractice.Thewordoftenimpliesneglectanddecay,asan ancient castle that
hadlongsincefallenintodesuetude.
Word3:S HIBBOLETH(SHIB-uh-lethor-lith)
“Awordorpronunciationthatdistinguishespeopleofonegrouporclassfromthoseofanother”;hence,apassword.Also,“awordorphrase
identifiedwithaparticulargrouporcause”;hence,acatchphrase,watchword,orslogan.(BothdefinitionsquotedarefromTheAmerican
HeritageDictionary.)
Shibboleth comes from an ancient Hebrew word meaning an ear of corn or a stream in flood. “In our
language today,” says the Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins, “shibboleth has the very
differentmeaningof‘testword’or‘watchword,’andbehindthatchangeofmeaningliesanintriguingbit
ofBiblicalhistory.
DuringabattlebetweentheGileaditesandtheEphraimitesattheJordanfords,themenofGilead
tookcommandofthefordsandwhenanyofthefugitivesofthearmyofEphraimaskedtopass,
theywouldbeasked“AreyouanEphraimite?”Iftheanswerwasno,theninthewordsofJudges
12:6—“Theysaidtohim,‘SaynowShibboleth,’andhesaid‘Sibboleth,’forhecouldnotframeto
pronounce it right. Then they took him and slew him at the passages of the Jordan.” Thus the
inabilitytopronouncecorrectlytheHebrewword…wasthedistinguishingcharacteristicofthe
Ephraimites and one which the sons of Gilead were shrewd enough to use as their watchword,
givingthewordshibboleththemeaningithastoday.
TheGileadites,itshouldbenoted,slew42,000Ephraimiteswhocouldn’tsayshibbolethandsealed
their fate by saying sibboleth instead. “Perhaps only racial, religious, and national slurs have killed as
many men as this word,” notes Robert Hendrickson in The Facts on File Encyclopedia of Word and
PhraseOrigins.
Inmodernusageashibbolethisakindofpassword,specifically“apeculiarityofpronunciation,ora
habit,oramodeofdress…whichdistinguishesaparticularclassorsetofpersons”1Forexample,the
consonantcombinationthisashibboleththatdistinguishesnativeEnglishspeakersfrommanynonnative
ones; the so-called half-broad a in words like park, dance, and half is a shibboleth that distinguishes
New Englanders; and certain expressions, gestures, and articles of clothing are shibboleths that
distinguishmembersofastreetgang.
Shibbolethmayalsobeusedtomeanacatchphraseorslogan,especiallyoneusedrepeatedlysoasto
differentiatethosewhoareadherentstoacertainpartyorcausefromthosewhoarenot.SenatorJoseph
McCarthy,inhisfanaticalcrusadeagainstcommunistsintheearly1950s,repeatedlyusedtherhetorical
questionandshibboleth“Areyounow,orhaveyoueverbeen,amemberoftheCommunistParty?”
Word4:CRIDECOEUR(KREE-duh-KUR)
Animpassionedoranguishedoutcry,asofdistress,protest,orentreaty.
Thepluraliscrisdecoeur,pronouncedthesameasthesingular.
EnglishborrowedcridecoeurfromFrenchinthelate1800s.InFrenchitmeansliterallyacry(cri)
of(de)theheart(coeur),andthat’spreciselyhowit’susedinEnglish.Acridecoeurmayexpressmany
things—frustration, distress, sorrow, yearning—and it may take many forms—an appeal, a protest, a
complaint,oranexpressionofdesire—butitisalwaysanimpassionedoutcry.Toborrowaphrasefrom
thefilmmakerPaulSchrader(1946–),acridecoeurindulges“thatneedtojustleanoutthewindowand
yell.”
IntheLosAngelesTimeswereadof“adesperatecridecoeuraimedattheconscienceofsociety.”In
The Daily Beast we read that “the speech was also a cri de coeur against a system that … imposes
massivemoralandhumancostsontheUnitedStates.”IntheIrishExaminerwelearnthat“itwasreallya
cridecoeurfordecisiveactionfromtoday’spoliticalleaders.”AndintheFinancialTimes(ofLondon),
awriterasks,“IsBillyBuddaChristianparable,anexposéofEnlightenmentideals,oracridecoeurfor
sexualfreedom?”
Word5:INCUNABULA(IN-kyuu-NAB-yuh-luh)
Earlyprintedbooks,especiallythoseproducedbefore1501.
IncunabulaisapluralnounthatcomesdirectlyfromtheLatinpluralnounincunabula,thestrapsorbands
holding a baby in a cradle, from incūnāre, to place in a cradle, and cūnae, a cradle. By derivation
incunabulapertainstosomethinginitsinfancy,specificallythebooksproducedintheearlieststagesof
printingfrommovabletype.Asyoucanimagine,incunabulaareextremelyrareandvaluableandfragile
becausetheyaresoold:“Hehadrepairedalltypesofbooks,fromBiblestoincunabula,withpageson
thepointofturningtodust”(TheHuffingtonPost).
Anincunable(in-KYOO-nuh-bul)isabookprintedbefore1501,apartoftheincunabula.Perhapsthe
best-known incunable is the Gutenberg Bible, considered to be the earliest book printed from movable
type,inabout1456.
Word6:CHEF-D’OEUVRE(shay-DUU[R]-vruh)
Amasterpiece,especiallyoneinliterature,art,ormusic.
Thenounchef-d’oeuvrecomesdirectlyfromFrenchandmeansliterallyachiefpieceofwork,fromchef,
chief,andoeuvre(UU[R]-vruh),work,production,awordthatEnglishhasalsoborrowedtomeanallthe
worksofawriter,artist,composer,orthelike,takenasawhole:“Nigel’sknowledgeofJaneAusten’s
oeuvrewasdecidedlylacking.”
Chef-d’oeuvrehasbeenEnglishsincetheearly1600s,longenoughtolosetheitalicsthatindicatea
foreign borrowing but not its French pronunciation, perhaps because it is such an unusual synonym of
masterpiece, the commonly used word. But, to borrow a turn of phrase from the American journalist
Ambrose Bierce, who disappeared in Mexico in 1914, to call a word unusual means only that it’s no
longer used by the timid. Most of us may not have the sangfroid (word 1 of this level) to nonchalantly
flingchef-d’oeuvreintoaconversation,butifusedinadignifiedwayinwritingaboutaworkofartthe
word can be a tour de force (TOOR-duh-FORS, an exceptional achievement or a stunning display of
strengthorskill).
Thepluralischefs-d’oeuvre,withansaddedafterthefinthefirstsyllablebutpronouncedthesame
asthesingular.
Word7:IAMB(EYE-am,likeIamwithstressonI)
Inpoetry,ametricalfootoftwosyllables,consistingofashortorunstressedsyllablefollowedbyalongorstressedsyllable.
The noun iamb comes through Latin from Greek, where, according to The Oxford Companion to the
English Language, it meant “lame: that is, a weak step before a strong step.” The adjective is iambic
(eye-AM-bik),consistingofiambs.
In penultimate, word 15 of Level 7, I introduced the word prosody (PRAH-suh-dee), the study of
poetic meter and versification. In prosody, a foot is a group of two or more syllables that constitute a
fixed unit of rhythm. The iamb, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one, is the most common
footinEnglishpoetryandtherhythmicunitclosesttoordinaryspeech.
YoucanheariambicmeterinEnglishpoetryfromthesonnetsofShakespeare(“Whentothesessions
ofsweetsilentthought/Isummonupremembranceofthingspast”)to“Ihavebeenoneacquaintedwith
thenight”bytheAmericanpoetRobertFrost(1874–1963).AndrewMarvell’s“ToHisCoyMistress,”
published in 1681, is iambic (“Had we but world enough, and time, / This coyness, lady, were no
crime”), as is Gelett Burgess’s nonsense poem “The Purple Cow,” published in 1895: “I never saw a
purplecow,/Ineverhopetoseeone;/ButIcantellyouanyhow,/I’dratherseethanbeone.”
Poetic lines consisting of five iambic feet are written in iambic pentameter; the combining form
penta-, from Greek, means five, as in pentagon, a five-sided figure. Sonnets are written in iambic
pentameter. Lines consisting of four iambs, as in “To His Coy Mistress” and “The Purple Cow,” are
written in iambic tetrameter (te-TRAM-i-tur), the combining form tetra-, again from Greek, meaning
four.
OthercommonmetricalfeetinEnglishpoetryincludethetrochee(TROH-kee),thedactyl(DAK-til),
andtheanapest(AN-uh-pest).
A trochee is the metrical opposite of an iamb: a long or stressed syllable followed by a short or
unstressedone,asinChristinaRossetti’s“Hurtnolivingthing”(1872),DylanThomas’s“Inmycraftor
sullen art” (1946), and the nursery rhyme “Twinkle, twinkle, little star.” A dactyl is a long syllable
followedbytwoshortones,asinthelyricfromthemusicalOklahoma:“Owhatawonderfulmorning,/
Owhatawonderfulday.”Lotsofcommonnames,suchasJennifer,Evelyn,andChristopher,aredactylic
(dak-TIL-ik).Ananapestistwoshortsyllablesfollowedbyalongone,asintheseliltinglinesfromthe
children’spoem“Spring”byKarlaKuskin(1932–2009):“I’magambolinglamb/I’malightleapinggoat
/I’mabud/I’mabloom/I’madoveonthewing.”(Theverbtogambolispronouncedlikegambleand
meanstoskipabout,frolic.)
Word8:FRIS S ON(free-SOH[N])
Ashudderofexcitementorquiveringthrillthatcoursesthroughthebody.
Inthelate18thcenturyEnglishborrowedthenounfrissonfromFrench,whereitmeansashudder,shiver,
thrill;itmaycomeultimatelyfromtheLatinfrīgēre,tobecold.FrissonhasbeenEnglishlongenoughto
sheditsitalics,butbecauseitisnotincommonuseitretainsitsFrenchpronunciation,withfreeforthe
first syllable and a nasalized n at the end. The plural is frissons, pronounced free-SOH(N)Z, with a z
soundattheend.
Whenthehairstandsuponthebackofyourneckorachillrunsdownyourspine,it’safrisson.You
can get a frisson from reading an action-packed thriller, listening to exciting or transcendent music,
jumpingintocoldwater,orwatchingahorrormovie.Youcanhaveafrissonoffear,ofdoubt,ofjoy,of
sexualarousal,andevenofdespair.Frissonscanalsobecollective,aswhenacontagiousthrillpasses
throughacrowd.
Allright,nowforaquiz.Here’sasentencefromTheWallStreetJournal:“Itbegan,astheseaffairs
oftendo,withafrissonofillicitexcitement.”Canyoutellwhat’swrongwiththat?Becausetheideaof
excitementisimplicitinthemeaningoffrisson,it’sredundanttopairfrissonwithexcitement;aneditor
shouldhavechangedthephraseto“withanillicitfrisson.”Thisisaregrettablycommonmistakemadeby
writers who don’t know the word well enough to use it properly and who apparently don’t trust their
readerstoknowiteither—ortolookitup.
Word9:PRELAPS ARIAN(PREE-lap-SAIR-ee-in)
OforpertainingtothetimebeforetheFallofhumankind;hence,innocent,carefree,childlike,naive,unspoiled,uncorrupted.
ThenounprelapsariancomesfromtheLatinprae,before,andlapsus,afall.IntheBible,chapter6of
GenesisrecountsthestoryofAdamandEve,who,temptedbytheserpent,violatedGod’scommandment
andatethefruitofthetreeofknowledgeofgoodandevil.Forthistransgression,Godbanishedthemfrom
theGardenofEden,alsocalledParadise.
At heart, this story is a tale of the loss of innocence, writ large for all humankind. And since
prelapsarianenteredEnglishinthe1870swehaveusedthewordtodescribeanychildlike,carefreestate
of unspoiled innocence reminiscent of Adam and Eve before the Fall. A prelapsarian landscape is a
beautiful,pristinelandscape.Prelapsarianromanceisinnocent,childlikelove,withoutthecomplications
ofaphysicalrelationship.Andsomepeopleimaginethattherewasaprelapsarianstateofthelanguage,a
timewhenEnglishwaspureanduncorrupted,butthatisamyth.Finally,prelapsarianmayalsobeusedof
otherkindsofmetaphoricalfallsfrominnocence,grace,orperfection,asthe prelapsarian days before
thestockmarketcollapse.
Postlapsarian,aftertheBiblicalFall,istheantonymofprelapsarian.Ittoomaybeusedfiguratively
tomeannolongerinnocent,hencespoiled,corrupted,ordepraved:“Thenovelconjures[KAHN-jurs]a
postlapsarianworldinwhichpeopledoevilsupposedlyintheserviceofsomegreatergood.”
Word10:MÉTIER(may-TYAYorMAY-tyay)
Aspecialty;afieldofworkorareaofactivityinwhichonehasspecialabilityorforwhichoneisparticularlysuited.
The noun forte, meaning a strong point or area of expertise—which is properly pronounced in one
syllable, like the word fort, or in two syllables with the stress on the first syllable, FOR-tay, not the
second—isaclosesynonymofmétier.Othersynonymsincludepursuit,calling,andvocation(thefancier
wordforcalling,fromtheLatinvocare,tocall).Casualsynonymsofmétierincludelineanddodge:“If
youweretoaskmewhat’smylineI’dsayI’mintheworddodge.”
When it entered English from French in the late 1700s, métier meant an occupation, trade, or
profession,asinthisquotationfromCharlotteTurnerSmith’s1792novelDesmond:“Theywanted…to
make me a monk; but I had a mortal aversion to that métier.” But the word soon became used more
specificallytomeanafieldofworkorareaofactivityatwhichoneexcels,andthisisitsprimarysense
inmodernusage.
Métier,saysMerriam-Webster’sCollegiateDictionary,“impliesacallingorpursuitforwhichone
believesoneselftobeespeciallyfitted.”BoxingwasMuhammadAli’smétier;“theartofthedeal”isthe
businessman Donald Trump’s métier; and political maneuvering was the métier of the Italian statesman
NicolòMachiavelli(1469–1527),whowroteThePrince.InChopin:TheManandHisMusic (1900),
JamesHunekerwrites,“Whenaskedwhyhedidnotcomposesymphoniesoroperas,[Chopin]answered
thathismétierwasthepiano,andtoithewouldstick.”
ReviewQuizforKeywords1–10
Considerthefollowingquestionsanddecidewhetherthecorrectanswerisyesorno.Answers appear
here.
1.Canasoldierexhibitsangfroidunderfire?
2.Ifsomethingfallsintodesuetude,isitneglectedornolongerused?
3.Isatongue-twisterashibboleth?
4.Canacridecoeurexpressfrustration,distress,sorrow,oryearning?
5.Areincunabulabooksprintedafter1750?
6.IsMichelangelo’sstatueofDavidachef-d’oeuvre?
7.Isaniambametricalfootconsistingofalongsyllablefollowedbyashortone?
8.Couldwatchingascarymoviegiveyouafrisson?
9.Isaprelapsarianlandscapebeautifulandpristine?
10.Isyourmétieryourweaknessorareaofgreatestvulnerability?
OnceUponaWord:LeMotJuste
InthelastsetofkeywordsyouencounteredseveralborrowingsfromFrench—sangfroid,froideur,cride
coeur, chef-d’oeuvre, tour de force, frisson, and métier. Let’s take a moment to look at a few more
Frenchlocutions(word22ofLevel6),soyouwillalwayshaveatyourfingertipslemotjuste(le-MOHZHOOST),theappropriatewordfortheoccasion.
We’ll begin with RSVP, which often appears in the phrase “Please RSVP.” Because RSVP is an
initialismthatstandsforrépondezs’ilvousplaît,whichmeanspleasereply,usingpleasewithRSVP is
redundant. I offer this advice en passant (ah[n] pa-SAH[N]), in passing, because it’s my raison d’etre
(RAY-zoh[n]-DE-truh), my reason for being, to rid the world of redundancy. For me, rooting out
redundancyisderigueur(du-ri-GUR),strictlyrequiredbyetiquette,usage,orcustom.
Ifyouwanttostayaucourant (oh-kuu-RAH[N]), up-to-date, and never be passé (pa-SAY), behind
thetimes,outoffashion,youmustcultivatesavoirfaire(SAV-wahr-FAIR),tact,diplomacy,anabilityto
speakandbehaveappropriatelyinsocialsituations.Savoirfairewillcomeeasilytoyouifyouareabon
vivant (BAHN-vee-VAHNT), a cultivated person with refined tastes who likes to indulge in fine food
anddrink.Andwherebettertoindulgethoserefinedtastesbutatasoiree(swah-RAY),apartyorsocial
gathering in the evening, at a pied-à-terre (pee-AY-duh-TAIR), a secondary residence, such as an
apartmentinacity,forsomeonewholiveselsewhere.
Atthissoigné(swahn-YAY,elegantlyappointedorfashionablywell-groomed)pied-à-terreyouwill
mingle with members of the beau monde (boh-MAHND), high society. Some of them will speak with
éclat (ay-KLAH), brilliance or conspicuous success, about their idée fixe (ee-day-FEEKS), their
obsession(literallyafixedidea),orsomecausecélèbre(KAWZ-suh-LEBor-LEB-ruh),whichdoesnot
mean a celebrated cause or ideal, as some mistakenly believe, but a sensational controversy, such as a
legaltrial.Nodoubtthere’llbesomesoi-disant (SWAH-dee-ZAH[N]), self-styled or self-proclaimed,
know-it-allsamongthem.Andofcoursethere’llbeafewdullfolkswhowillwanttohaveatêteàtête
(TAYT-uh-TAYTorTET-uh-TET),aprivateconversation,withyou,andboreyouwithstoriesandjokes
thatareréchauffé(RAY-shoh-FAY),literallywarmed-over,andthusrehashed,unoriginal.
Takenenmasse(en-MAS),alltogether,asagrouporwhole,theseFrenchloanwordsmayseemde
trop (du-TROH), excessive, too much or too many. But don’t be daunted. They’re all part of the great
patchworkquiltofEnglish.AndIthinkyoumayfind,onceyou’veabsorbedandbeguntousethem,thata
littleassimilatedFrenchcansometimesprovidenotonlylemotjustebutalsobethepiècederésistance
(pyesduRAY-zee-STAH[N]S),thechieforprizedfeature,theshowpiece,ofyourprose.
***
Now,herearethenexttenkeywordsinLevel9:
Word11:ABLUTION(uh-BLOO-shin)
Theactofwashingorbathing,especiallyasareligiousrite.
The noun ablution, which dates back to the early 1400s, comes through the Latin ablutio, spiritual
purificationbybaptismorthebaptismitself,fromtheverbabluere,tobewashedclean,towashoffor
away.Invariousreligions,ablutionisaritualperformedbeforeprayer.Butablutionmaybeusedeither
of the ceremonial and spiritual cleansing of the body or of the act of washing something clean. The
EnglishpoetJohnKeatscapturedbothsensesintheselinesfromhissonnet“BrightStar,”writtenin1819:
“Themovingwatersattheirpriestliketask/Ofpureablutionroundearth’shumanshores.”
Here are two contemporary examples of ablution used to mean washing or bathing, without any
religious connotation: “Designers have spent years trying to perfect an aerated shower head that won’t
detractfromthepleasuresofthemorningablutionroutine”(TheTelegraph,UnitedKingdom);“Morethan
10,000 schools will be provided with new ablution facilities at the beginning of 2014”
(www.AllAfrica.com).
Word12:APOS TAS Y(uh-PAHS-tuh-see)
Renunciationorabandonmentofone’sfaithorallegiance.
ThenounapostasycomesfromtheGreekapostasía,astandingaway,withdrawal,henceadesertionor
defection, the sense in which the word is used today. From the 14th century, when apostasy entered
English,tothe16th,thewordmeantarenunciationofreligiousfaithortheactofrenouncingone’svows
andquittingareligiousorder.
Then, by extension, apostasy also came to be used of any abandonment of one’s principles or
allegiancetoapartyordoctrine.Incurrentusagewespeakofpoliticalapostasy,suchasabandoningone
partyandjoininganother,andofphilosophicalormoralapostasy,suchaswhenapersonrenouncesone
positioninfavorofanother.
Theadjectiveandnounapostate(uh-PAHS-tayt)meanseithercharacterizedbyapostasyoraperson
whocommitsapostasy,andtheverbapostatize(uh-PAHS-tuh-tyz)meanstocommitapostasy,torenounce
ordesertone’sfaith,allegiance,orprinciples.
Word13:S UMPTUARY(SUHMP-choo-er-ee)
Pertainingtoexpensesorexpendituresor,especially,totheregulatingofthem.
Theadjectivesumptuary,whichenteredEnglishabout1600,comesfromtheLatinsumptuārius,relating
to expenses or expenditures, from sumptus, a cost or expense, and ultimately from the verb sūmĕre, to
take, buy, spend, the source also of the English words consume and consumption, as well as
presumptuous(word2ofLevel1).
Thefamiliaradjectivesumptuous(SUHMP-choo-us),fromthesamesourceassumptuary,means,by
derivation, involving great expense, extremely costly, and therefore lavish, luxurious, magnificent, as a
sumptuousfeastoranopulentmansionwithsumptuousfurnishings.
Sumptuarymaymeansimplypertainingtoexpensesorexpenditures,especiallypersonalones,asa
sumptuary allowance, meaning an expense account, or a household’s sumptuary budget. But the word
hasmostoftenbeenusedofregulationsorlawsthatgovernexpendituresonmoralorreligiousgrounds,
especially personal expenditures that may be considered extravagant or indulgent. Sumptuary laws are
oftenpassedtoregulatetheconsumptionofluxuryitems,andsumptuarytaxesareimposedtypicallyon
things that society considers undesirable or objectionable, such as tobacco. The infamous blue laws of
New England, which ban the sale of alcohol on Sundays, are sumptuary laws, as is New York City’s
controversialproposedordinancebanningthesaleofextra-largesoftdrinks.
Word14:TATTERDEMALION(TAT-ur-duh-MAY-lee-un)
Apersonwhowearstatteredorraggedclothing;aragamuffin(RAG-uh-MUHF-in).
The origin of the noun tatterdemalion is obscure. When it entered English in the early 1600s it was
spelledtatterdemallionandpronouncedtorhymewithItalianandstallion.Theinitialtatter- was also
often spelled totter-, perhaps suggestive of the tottering or staggering of a shabbily dressed vagrant or
beggar. But we have settled on tatter- as the preferred spelling probably because it suggests either the
nountatter,atornscrap,ashred,ashisclothingwasintatters,ortheadjectivetattered,torntotattersor
shreds,ragged.
Tatterdemalionhasalsolongbeenusedasanadjectivetomeanragged,unkempt,shabby,dilapidated,
andmaybeusedofpeopleorthings,asanold,tatterdemalionwomaninanold,tatterdemaliongown.
Word15:ABJURE(ab-JUUR)
Torenounceorrejectsolemnlyorunderoath.Also,toabstainfromoravoid.
Synonymsoftheverbtoabjureincludetorepudiate,recant,retract,forsake,andforswear.
AbjurecomesfromtheLatinabjurāre,todenyonoath,fromjurāre,toswear.Thewordmaybeused
either to mean to renounce something solemnly or under oath, as to abjure violence, or to give up or
abstainfromsomething,astoabjuretobacco.Thewordimplies“afirmandfinalrejectingorabandoning
often made under oath,” says Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. For example, monks and nuns
take vows of celibacy, abjuring marriage and the pleasures of the flesh. You can abjure your religious
faith in favor of another religious faith or in favor of no religious faith. You can abjure authority or
responsibilityforsomething.Andyoucanabjureyourrighttodosomething,suchasmakeaclaimorfile
alawsuit.
Thenounisabjuration(AB-juu-RAY-shin),theactofabjuring,renouncingorrejectingsolemnlyor
underoath.
Word16:NOBLES S EOBLIGE(noh-BLESoh-BLEEZH)
Themoralobligationofthoseofnoblebirthorhighsocialpositiontobehaveinanhonorable,kindly,andgenerousway.
The phrase noblesse oblige, which English borrowed from French about 1830, means literally nobility
obliges;inotherwords,privilegeentailsresponsibility.Historicallythelocution(word22ofLevel6)
referstotheself-imposedresponsibilityofthenobilitytobehavebenevolentlytowardthoseinaninferior
socialposition.Butthetermisoftenusedinamoregeneralwayofthemoralobligationthatanyoneof
high social standing has to act honorably and charitably, to help the less fortunate—or, to put that in
modernparlance(PAHR-lunts),“togivebacktothecommunity.”(Parlanceisacertainwayormannerof
speaking,anidiomorvernacular.)
In his 1910 novel Burning Daylight, Jack London writes, “He found, with rare and mythical
exceptions,thattherewasnonoblesseobligeamongthebusinessandfinancialsupermen.”Andhereare
somecontemporaryexamplesofhowwritersusenoblesseoblige:“Scranton’spragmatism,groundedin
the spirit of noblesse oblige, was dependent upon his wealth, his family heritage, and, politically, the
Republican Party” (www.penlive.com). “At first, the attention Sutter lavishes on Aimee is a kind of
chivalry,ahighschoolversionofnoblesseoblige”(BaltimoreMagazine).
Word17:PRIMOGENITURE(PRY-muh-JEN-i-chur)
Thestateofbeingthefirstbornchildofthesameparents;or,moreoften,therightofafirstborn,especiallytheeldestson,toinheritpropertyor
title.
The noun primogeniture comes from the Middle Latin prīmōgenitūra, the right of the firstborn child,
whichcomesinturnfromprīmō,atfirst,andgenitūra,abegetting.
Primogeniture may mean seniority by birth, being the firstborn child in a family, whether male or
female.Butmoreoftenitisahistoricaltermfromcommonlawfortheruleofinheritanceinwhichland
andpropertydescendtotheoldestsontotheexclusionofallothersiblings.Primogenituredevelopedin
thefeudalsystemofmedievalEurope,whichrequiredmilitaryservicefromalllandholdersandvassals
(VAS-ulz), or feudal tenants. The purpose of primogeniture was to keep a father’s land to support his
eldest son, who was obligated to the overlord to serve as a knight or vassal for forty days a year.
Primogeniture was finally abolished in Britain in 1925. The custom never caught on in the democratic
UnitedStates,probablybecauseofitsfeudalandaristocraticorigins.
Other words for historical customs of inheritance include gavelkind (GAV-ul-kynd), which divided
landequallyamongthedecedent’ssonsorotherheirs(adecedent,pronounceddi-SEE-dint,isadeador
deceased person); and borough-English, where the youngest son, or sometimes the youngest daughter,
inheritedeverything.Twofancysynonymsforborough-Englishareultimogeniture (UHL-ti-moh-JEN-ichur), from the Latin ultĭmus, most distant, last, and postremogeniture (puh-STREE-muh-JEN-i-chur),
fromtheLatinpostrēmus,hindmost,last.
Word18:XERIC(ZEER-ik)
Pertainingoradaptedtoadryenvironment;havingorneedingonlyalittlemoisture.
TheadjectivexericcomesfromtheGreekxērós,dry,thesourceoftheEnglishcombiningformxero-,dry,
whichappearsinanumberofscientificandtechnicaltermssuchasxerophthalmia (ZEER-ahf-THALmee-uh), abnormal dryness of the eyes. A xerophyte (ZEER-uh-fyt) is a plant that can live in dry
conditions,andtheadjectivexerophilous(zeer-AHF-i-lus),whichmeansliterallylovingdryness,means
abletothriveinahot,dryclimate.Toxeriscape(ZEER-i-skayp)istolandscapeanareawithdroughttolerantplantsandusetechniques,suchasmulching,thatwilllimittheneedforirrigation.Axericclimate
is dry, like Southern California, where I live; a xeric region is dry, like a desert or chaparral; xeric
conditionsarehotanddryconditions;andxericlandscapingneedsonlyaminimalamountofmoistureto
survive.
Word19:UXORIOUS (uhk-SOR-ee-us)
Excessivelyfondoforsubmissivetoawife.
“Richard was a fond, almost an uxorious husband,” wrote Sir Walter Scott in his 1825 novel The
Talisman.ThemoviestarPaulNewmanwasfamouslyandcharminglyuxoriousabouthiswife,themovie
star Joanne Woodward. And President Obama once took some ribbing from Jacob Heilbrun in The
Huffington Post, who wrote that “the uxorious Obama had more important things to do—attend a
ChristmaspartyorMichellemightgetmadathim.”
TheadjectiveuxoriouscomesfromtheLatinuxōrius,toodevotedtoone’swife,whichcomesinturn
fromuxor,awife,thesourcealsooffourotherunusualbutusefulEnglishwords:uxorial (uhk-SOR-eeul),oforpertainingtoawife,wifely;uxoricide(uhk-SOR-i-syd),thekillingofone’swifeoramanwho
murdershiswife;uxorilocal(uhk-SOR-i-LOH-kul),atermusedinanthropologytomeanoforpertaining
tolivingwithawife’sfamilyortribe;anduxorodespotism(uhk-SOR-oh-DES-puh-tiz’m),wifelytyranny.
Ifuxoriousisusedofamanwhoisexcessivelydevotedorattentivetohiswife,whatdowecalla
woman who does the same with her husband? The unusual word maritorious, from the Latin marītus,
husband,isthecompanionofuxoriousandmeansexcessivelydevotedtoahusband.
Word20:OPPUGN(uh-PYOON)
Toattackoropposebyargumentoraction;tocallintoquestion,contradict,dispute.
TheverbtooppugncomesthroughtheLatinoppugnāre,toattack,assault,oppose,whichcomesinturn
frompugnāre,tofight,andpugnus,afist,thesourcealsooftheEnglishwordspugilist (PYOO-ji-list),
the fancy word for a boxer; pugilism (PYOO-ji-liz’m), the fancy word for boxing; and the adjective
pugnacious,giventofighting,combative,literallyreadytofightwiththefists.
To controvert, the verb corresponding to the noun controversy, is to argue against, oppose by
reasoning: “The defense tried to controvert the prosecution’s allegations.” To oppugn is to controvert
vigorously, to vehemently call into question, to attack or oppose forcefully. You can oppugn someone’s
judgment, call it into question, or oppugn someone’s argument, dispute its merits or its truth. You can
oppugnanidea,ascreationists who oppugn the theory of evolution; you can oppugn an institution, as
politicalbloggerswhooppugnCongress;oryoucanoppugnaperson,as,“Sheoppugnedhimforbeing
analoofintellectualinanivorytower.”
ReviewQuizforKeywords11–20
Considerthefollowingstatementsanddecidewhethereachoneistrueorfalse.Answersappearhere.
1.Ablutionsareexercisesperformedinthemorning.
2.Someonewhorenouncesonepositioninfavorofanothercommitsapostasy.
3.Asumptuarytaxisimposedonthesaleofitemseveryoneusesandneeds.
4.Atatterdemalionandaragamuffinarebothpoorlyclothed.
5.Whenyouabjureyouobjectordisagreepolitely.
6.Peopleofhighsocialstandingenjoycertainprivilegesknownasnoblesseoblige.
7.Therightofthefirstbornsontoinheritpropertyortitleiscalledprimogeniture.
8.Axericclimateisdry,likeadesertorchaparral.
9.Anuxorioushusbandisunkindandunfaithfultohiswife.
10.Whenyouoppugnsomeone’sjudgment,youvigorouslycallitintoquestion.
OnceUponaWord:CompanionWords
Ifamisogynist(mi-SAHJ-uh-nist)isahaterofwomen,whatdoyoucallahaterofmen?That’soneofthe
most frequently asked questions I’ve encountered in my louche (word 46 of Level 8) career as a word
detective.Inthediscussionofmisanthropy(word14ofLevel5)youmetthewordmisandrist(MIS-andristormis-AN-drist),fromtheGreekmis(o)-,hate,andandro-,man.Amisandristisahaterofmen,and
thenounmisandrymeanshatredofmen.
That’s just one example of what I call “companion words,” unusual counterparts of more familiar
words. You recently learned the companion words uxorious and maritorious, and there are scores of
othersuchgemslurkinginthecobwebbedcornersofourunabridgeddictionaries,waitingtoenlightenand
delightus.
EarlierinWordWorkout you met the companion words fratricide, the killing of a brother, from the
Latin frater, brother, and sororicide, the killing of a sister, from the Latin soror, a sister. So, if to
fraternize means to mingle or associate as brothers, what’s the word for mingling or associating as
sisters?It’ssororize(SOR-uh-ryz).
Ifafemaleballetdancerisaballerina,what’sthecomparablewordforamaleballetdancer?Entre
nous (AHN-truh-NOO, just between us), it’s danseur (dahn-SUR). If a man who keeps a woman is a
keeper,isthereawordforawomanwhokeepsaman?Yes,she’sakeeperess.SamuelRichardsonusedit
inhis1748novelClarissa.Ifyou’reexperiencingtheoppositeofeuphoria,afeelingofgreathappiness
or well-being, what exactly are you experiencing? It’s called dysphoria (dis-FOR-ee-uh), an unwell
feelingoragenerallyunwholesomecondition.
Ifyou’readeptwithbothhands,you’reambidextrous.Butwhatifyou’reineptwithbothhands?The
wordforthatisambisinister,fromambi-,both,andtheLatinsinister,leftorleft-handed.Ambisinisteris
theperfectsubstitutefortheshopwornexpressionallthumbs.
Haveyoueverwonderedwhythewordfeminist,whichcamealonginthe1890s,nevergenerateda
companion?Well,actuallyitdid,butitnevergotanylegs.Thoughit’sclearlyausefulword,hominist
(fromtheLatinhomo,hominis,man)issorarethatitappearsonlyintheOED,whichcitestheprefaceto
the1903playManandSupermanbyGeorgeBernardShaw,whoapparentlycoinedit.
Ihopethisbriefdisquisition(DIS-kwi-ZISH-un,aformaldiscussionoforinquiryintoasubject)on
companionwordshasbeenneitheraneyesorenoranearsore,anannoyancetotheear,acompanionword
thatTheCenturyDictionaryandtheOEDlabelobsoletebutthatclamors,inacharminglydisagreeable
way,toberesurrectedfromobscurity.Willyoubemycompanioninthatworthyeffort?
***
Let’sreturnnowtotheWordWorkoutvocabularyforLevel9.
Word21:AGNOS IA(ag-NOH-zhuh)
Theinability,orpartialinability,torecognizefamiliarobjectsthroughthesenses,usuallyastheresultofbraindamage.
ThenounagnosiacomesfromtheGreekagnōsía,ignorance,acombinationoftheGreekprivativeprefix
a-,andgnosis,knowledge.YoucanseethissameGreekprivativeprefixa-andgnosis,knowledge,inthe
relatedEnglishwordagnostic,whichissaidtohavebeencoinedin1869bytheBritishscientistThomas
H.Huxley.Anagnosticisapersonwhoholdsthattheessentialnatureofthingsisunknownandcannotbe
known;hence,anagnosticdoubtstheexistenceofGodordivinepower.Tobeagnosticistoassertthe
uncertainty of all claims to knowledge, and agnosticism is the doctrine—or belief in unbelief—of the
agnostic.
Agnosia is used chiefly in medicine and psychology to denote the lack or a diminution (DIM-iNYOO-shin,adecreaseordiminishing)ofthesensoryabilitytorecognizeobjects.Auditoryagnosiais
misperception of or the inability to interpret sound. Localization agnosia is the inability to recognize
where one’s skin is touched. Optic agnosia is the inability to interpret visual images. Tactile (TAK-til)
agnosiaistheinabilitytorecognizeobjectsbytouchingthem.Andvisual-spatialagnosiaisadisturbance
ofspatialorientationandamisperceptionofthespatialrelationsofobjects.
Word22:CAS UIS TRY(KAZH-oo-i-stree)
Oversubtleanddeceptivereasoning;falseordishonestapplicationofmoralprinciples.
ThenouncasuistrycomesfromtheLatincāsus,acase,event,andsincethewordenteredEnglishinthe
early1600sithasbeenusedinaneutralwayoftheresolvingofcasesofconscience,orofquestionsof
right and wrong in conduct, by the application of general ethical principles, the laws of society, and
religious doctrine. But as The Century Dictionary observes, “In the history of Christian and Jewish
theology,casuistryhasoftendegeneratedintohair-splitting…arguments,inwhichquestionsofrightand
wrongwereconstruedtomeetselfishaims.”
Thatiswhycasuistryhasmoreoftenbeenusedpejorativelyofoversubtle,deceptive,andspecious
reasoning,orofanyquibbling,evasivewayofdealingwithdifficultquestionsofdutyorconscience:“It
was legal casuistry to redefine the torture of prisoners with waterboarding … as ‘enhanced
interrogation’”(TheEconomist);“Thecauseofgayrights…isnothelpedbythiskindofslippery,selfinterestedscholarship,wherepropagandaandcasuistryimpedetheobjectivesearchfortruth”(Camille
Paglia).
Thewordsophistry(SAHF-is-tree)isaclosesynonymofcasuistry.TheSophistsofancientGreece
wereteachersofrhetoric,politics,andphilosophynotoriousfortheirdeceptiveandoversubtlemethodof
argumentation. Today sophistry refers to speech or writing that is clever and plausible but marred by
falseordeceptivereasoning.
Othersynonymsofcasuistryincluderationalizationandequivocation(discussedunderequivocate,
word3ofLevel5).
Word23:PARAPRAXIS (PAR-uh-PRAK-sis)
Inpsychology,aminorerrororoversight—suchasaslipofthetongueorpen,orthemislayingofobjects—thoughttorevealunconscious
motivesorwishes.
The noun parapraxis combines the Greek praxis, an act or action, with the prefix para-, abnormal,
defective—asinparanoia,frompara-,abnormal,andtheGreeknous, mind. By derivation parapraxis
meansabnormalordefectiveaction.
Parapraxis is the technical word for what is more commonly known as a Freudian slip, an
eponymoustermfromthenameofthepioneerofpsychoanalysis,SigmundFreud(FROYD,1856–1939).
AFreudianslipistheseeminglyinnocentslipofthetonguethatseemstorevealanunconsciouswishor
motive,especiallyasexualone.
English has some other interesting terms for slips, or what some observers call “disfluencies.” The
Latinwordlapsus,thesourceoftheEnglishlapse,meantaslippingorfalling,andEnglishhasadopted
thisword,pronouncedLAP-sus,tomeanasliporanerror.Alapsuslinguae(LING-gwee)isaslipofthe
tongue;alapsuscalami(KAL-uh-my)isaslipofthepen;andalapsusmemoriae(me-MOR-ee-ee)isa
slipofthememory.
Word24:POLYMATH(PAH-li-MATH)
Averylearnedperson;anexpertinvarioussubjects.
ThenounpolymathenteredEnglishintheearly1600sfromtheGreekpolymathés,verylearned,which
comesinturnfrompoly-,much,many,andmanthánein,tolearn,thesourceofmathematics.
Wordscloseinmeaningtopolymath,thoughnotsynonymous,includepundit(word10ofLevel4),
sage (rhymes with page), savant (suh-VAHNT), and the rare word pantologist (pan-TAHL-uh-jist), a
person with universal or very broad knowledge, from pan-, all, and -logy, a body of knowledge. The
unusualwordpolyhistor(PAH-lee-HIS-tur),fromtheGreekpolyístōr,verylearned,isanexactsynonym
ofpolymath.
Thenounpolymathy(puh-LIM-uh-thee)meansencyclopedicknowledge,learninginmanyfields.The
adjective is polymathic (PAH-li-MATH-ik), pertaining to polymathy or to a polymath, a very learned
person,anexpertinmanysubjects.
Word25:ENCOMIUM(en-KOH-mee-um)
Aformalexpressionofhighpraise,arousingtribute.
Thepreferredpluralisencomiums.
ThenounencomiumcomesfromtheGreekenkōmion,praisingavictor,fromenkōmios,ofthevictory
procession.Byderivationanencomiumisaformalexpressionofhighpraiseforthevictorinavictory
celebration.
Synonyms of encomium include tribute, eulogy, and panegyric (PAN-uh-JIR-ik). All three words
refer to the bestowing of high praise. Tribute implies the expression of praise either through words or
actions;aspeech,anessay,apoem,apieceofmusic,oracharitableeffort,suchasafund-raiser,canbea
tributetosomeoneortoacause.Bothaeulogyandapanegyricareloftypublicexpressionsofpraise,
usually on some formal occasion; according to Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, eulogy
“appliestoapreparedspeechorwritingextollingthevirtuesandservicesofaperson,”asatafuneral,
whilepanegyric“suggestsanelaborateoftenpoeticcompliment.”
Although it connotes a formal and often lofty expression of praise, encomium also “implies
enthusiasm and warmth in praising a person or a thing,” says M-W 11. Thus, an enthusiastic letter of
recommendationortheaffectionatetributetothebrideandgroomtraditionallydeliveredbythebestman
ataweddingcanbeencomiums.
Thenounisencomiast(en-KOH-mee-ast),apersonwhopraisesordeliversencomiums.
Word26:CHARRETTE(shuh-RET)
Anintensiveefforttocompleteanarchitecturaldesignprojectbeforeadeadline.
Charrette,whichenteredEnglishinthe1960sandisstillnotlistedinmanydictionaries,isaborrowing
of the modern French charrette, a cart, little wagon, from char, a truck or wagon—the connection
apparentlybeingthespeedofthecart’swheelsrepresentingthespeedoftheworkonthecharrette.
In English, the French-derived suffix -ette forms diminutives, or littler versions, of the nouns it’s
attached to: a kitchenette is a little kitchen; a statuette is a little statue. The suffix -ette also forms
femininenounssuchascoquette(koh-KET),aflirtatiouswoman,andgrisette(gri-ZET),ayoungFrench
womanoftheworkingclass.
“Architectshaveknownforcenturiesthatthemostcreativewaytoworkistoimmersethemselvesina
problem for an uninterrupted period—often several days,” writes Bill Lennertz in the Lansing State
Journal. “They call this way of working a charrette.” Although charrette has been used chiefly in
architectureofashort,intensiveperiodofplanningordesignworkthatmayinvolveotherspecialistsand
sometimes the public, the word is ripe for the plucking in a useful wider sense that Wiktionary, the
collaborativeonlinedictionary,definesas“aperiodofintensework,especiallygroupwork,undertaken
to meet a deadline.” This broader sense would cover all kinds of charrettes—from manufacturing and
building,tothecraftingoflegislation,totheperformingarts.OnnotafewoccasionsIhavetoldpeople
that the intensive effort I made in the summer of 2013 to finish writing Word Workout was a literary
charrette.
Word27:DEBRIDE(di-BREED)
Inmedicine,tocleanawoundbyremovingforeignmaterialandcuttingawaydeadorcontaminatedtissue.
DebrideenteredEnglishbyalinguisticprocesscalledback-formation,inwhichanewwordisformedby
removing an inflectional part of a longer word, such as a prefix or suffix. There are many respectable
back-formations in modern English, among them the verb to collide, from the noun collision; the noun
greed,fromtheadjectivegreedy;theverbtodiagnose,fromthenoundiagnosis;andtheverbtosculpt,
fromthenounsculptor. But many back-formations are rejected or have trouble gaining acceptance. For
example, to burgle, a back-formation from burglar, has never been a serious contender to supplant
burglarize; to liase, a back-formation from liaison, still smacks of business and political jargon even
though it’s almost a century old; and to enthuse, a back-formation from enthusiasm that dates from the
early19thcentury,isstillatbestacasualism,illateaseinformalwriting.
Theverbtodebrideisaback-formationfromthenoundebridement(di-BREED-mint),2thecleaning
of a wound by cutting away dead tissue and removing foreign material. Athletes who suffer knee or
rotator cuff injuries are often candidates for surgery that involves debridement, and any wound that is
slow-healingorthatfesterswillhealfasterifitisregularlydebrided(di-BREE-did),cleanedofdeador
contaminatedtissue.
Word28:LAPIDARY(LAP-i-DER-ee)
Havingorexhibitingelegance,precision,andrefinementofexpression.
LapidarycomesfromtheLatinlapis,lapidus,astone.Thewordmaybeanounmeaningastone-cutter,
someonewhoengravesandpolishestombstones,orapersonwhocuts,engraves,andpolishesprecious
stones.Asanadjectivelapidarymayalsomeanpertainingtothecuttingandengravingofstones,asthe
lapidaryart,orengravedorsculptedinstone,especiallyastonemonument,asalapidarymaxim.
Buttheadjectivalsenseoflapidarythatwearemostinterestedinhereisitsfigurativeusetomean
having an elegant, precise, refined, and often concise manner of expression suggestive of the skill
involved in cutting and polishing gemstones or engraving stone monuments. A lapidary style is elegant,
refined, and often succinct. Lapidary lines or verses are graceful and polished. A lapidary mind is
culturedandbrilliant.Andlapidarydetailisfinelyobservedandpreciselyrecorded.
Word29:OVIPAROUS (oh-VIP-uh-rus)
Producingeggsthatdevelopandhatchoutsidethemother’sbody.
Theadjectiveoviparous, which is chiefly used in zoology (zoh-AHL-uh-jee, not zoo-), comes from the
Latinōviparus,egg-laying.Itisablendofthecombiningformsovi-,egg,fromtheLatinōvum,anegg—
the source of the English oviform (OH-vi-form), egg-shaped—and -parous, which means bearing,
producing,andcomesfromtheLatinparere,tobringforth,bear,produce.
Viviparous(vy-VIP-uh-rus), which comes from the Latin vīvus, living, alive, and the same -parous,
bearing,producing,meansgivingbirthtolivingoffspringthatcansurviveoutsidethemother’sbody,as
dohumanbeingsandmostmammals.Oviparousmeanslayingeggsthathatchoutsidethemother’sbody.
Chickens and other birds are the most familiar oviparous animals, but most reptiles and fish are also
oviparous.
Word30:MARMOREAL(mahr-MOR-ee-ul)
Madeoforresemblingmarbleoramarblestatue;havingthequalitiesofmarble.
TheadjectivemarmorealcomesfromtheLatinmarmoreus,madeofmarble,whichcomesinturnfrom
marmor, marble. It is a literary word favored by poets and prose stylists who use it to suggest the
whiteness,smoothness,hardness,orcoldnessofmarble.Becausemarbleisbothwhiteandsmoothand
hardandcold,theconnotationofmarmorealcanbeeitherameliorativeorpejorative.(Forareviewof
thoseterms,seepejorative,word17ofLevel6.)Forexample,amarmorealcomplexionorfacecanbe
eitherattractivelywhiteandsmoothorunappealinglypallid(word47ofLevel4),suggestingillnessor
thepalenessofdeath.The19th-centuryEnglishpoetRobertBrowningusedthewordinapositiveway
when he wrote of a “marmoreal neck and bosom.” But a movie critic for the Washington Post used it
negatively when describing a character as “a bloodless, marmoreal being who has no human
connections.”
ReviewQuizforKeywords21–30
Decideifthepairsofwordsbelowaresynonymsorantonyms.Answersappearhere.
1.Agnosiaandmisperceptionare…synonymsorantonyms?
2.Sophistryandcasuistryare…
3.Freudianslipandparapraxisare…
4.Polymathandignoramusare…
5.Encomiumandpanegyricare…
6.Charretteandvacationare…
7.Befoulanddebrideare…
8.Lapidaryandunpolishedare…
9.Mammalianandoviparousare…
10.Marmorealandpallidare…
DifficultDistinctions:DieresisandUmlaut
“Couldyoupleasesettleadebate?”writesTimothyHernandezofEnglewood,Colorado.OfcourseIcan.
That’swhatwelanguagemavenslivetodo.
“Respondingtoaquestioninanonlineforum,”Hernandezexplains,“Iwrotethatthediacriticalmark
(twodots)placedovertheeinthenameChloëisanumlaut.Twootherpeoplesaidit’smoreproperly
calledadieresis.Whoiscorrect?”
Both umlaut (OOM-lowt) and dieresis (dy-ER-uh-sis) denote the same diacritical mark—two dots
placedoveravowel—butthedifferencebetweenthesewordsliesinhowthatmarkisused.Anumlautis
placed over a vowel to show that it has a sound slightly different from how the vowel would be
pronouncedwithoutthemark.Umlauts,whicharecommoninGerman,areneverusedoveravowelnext
to another vowel. The dieresis, on the other hand, always appears over the second of two adjoining
vowelstoshowthatthesecond,markedvowelshouldbepronouncedseparatelyfromthefirstone.
For example, cooperate and preeminent were formerly printed with a dieresis (coöperate,
preëminent) so people wouldn’t inadvertently say koop-erate and preem-inent. Because the diacritical
markovertheeinChloëappearsabovethesecondoftwoadjoiningvowelsandindicatesthatthevowels
arepronouncedseparately(KLOH-ee),itisproperlycalledadieresis.
Incidentally,adiacriticalmark,ordiacritic,isamarkappliedtoalettertodistinguishitashavinga
specificsoundorwayofbeingpronounced.Commondiacriticsincludethecedilla(suh-DIL-uh)underthe
c in façade, which indicates that it should sound like s in sod, and the acute accents in résumé, which
show that the word has three syllables and is not pronounced like the verb resume. Dictionaries use
diacriticalmarkstoshowpronunciation,suchasthemacron(MAY-krahn)foralongvowelsound,asin/
sē/forsee,andthebreve(BREEV)forashortvowelsound,asin/pŏt/forpot.
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabularyfortenmorekeyworddiscussions.
Word31:NUGATORY(N[Y]OO-guh-tor-ee)
Ofnoworth,value,orimportance;worthless,insignificant.Also,havingnoforceoreffect;useless,futile,vain.
Synonymsofnugatoryinthesenseofhavingnovalueorworthincludetrifling,inconsequential,trivial,
piddling,andnegligible(NEG-li-gi-bul).Synonymsofnugatoryinthesenseofhavingnoforceoreffect
includeinvalid,inoperative,ineffectual,bootless(word15ofLevel6),feckless,andinefficacious(inEF-i-KAY-shus).
TheadjectivenugatorycomesfromtheLatinnūgātōrius,frivolous,insignificant,futile,fromtheverb
nūgāri, to trifle, be frivolous, talk nonsense. That which is nugatory either has no intrinsic value or
importanceorhasnoforceoreffect.
Nugatory actions are unimportant or ineffectual; a nugatory argument is worthless or futile; and
nugatoryexcusesaretrivialandvain.“AsTVandtheInternetconvergeintosomethinggenericallyknown
as broadband, the distinctions between the two will soon become nugatory from a consumer point of
view”(MichaelHirschorn,TheAtlantic).“Tacticalexcellenceandtheconsiderablecourageoffrontline
troops are forever being rendered nugatory by failed leadership” (The Washington Post). In law
nugatorymeansinvalid,aswhenacourtrendersastatutenugatorybydeclaringitunconstitutional.
Thenounnugacity(n[y]oo-GAS-i-tee)meanseithertriviality,insignificance,asthetediousnugacity
ofeverydaylife,oratrivialorinsignificantthingoridea,asthepompousnugacitiesofthepreacher’s
sermons.
Word32:PRES BYCUS IS (PREZ-bi-KYOO-sis)
Lossorimpairmentofhearingduetooldage.
The noun presbycusis comes from the Greek presbys, which meant old or an old man, and ákousis,
hearing, which comes in turn from akouein, to hear. From the same Greek akouein, to hear, come the
English words acoustic (uh-KOO-stik), relating to hearing or to the science of sound, and the unusual
acouasm(uh-KOO-az’m),abuzzingorringingintheears,alsocalledtinnitus(properlypronouncedtiNY-tustorhymewitharthritis),fromtheLatintinnīre,toring,tinkle.
YoucanseetheEnglishcombiningformpresby-,fromtheGreekpresbys,old,inpresbyter(PREZ-bitur), which by derivation means an elder; presbytery (PREZ-bi-ter-ee), a body of presbyters or elders;
andPresbyterian(PREZ-bi-TEER-ee-in),pertainingtovariouschurchesthataregovernedbypresbyters
or elders. In ophthalmology (in which the first syllable is properly pronounced AHF-, not AHP-), the
branch of medicine dealing with the eyes, the word presbyopia (PREZ-bee-OH-pee-uh) denotes the
gradual development, beginning in middle age, of farsightedness and a difficulty focusing sharply on
thingsupclose.
Our keyword, presbycusis, is the medical term for any deterioration of the sense of hearing due to
advancedage,otherwiseknownasage-relateddeafness.Presbycusisoftenbeginswithareducedability
tohearhigh-pitchedsounds.Later,soundsmaybecomedistortedandfuzzyandareoftenquieteroverall.
Word33:CICERONE(SIS-uh-ROH-nee)
Aguide,especiallyonewholeadsandinstructssightseers;hence,atutorormentor.
ThenounciceronecomesthroughItalianfromthenameofthefamousRomanoratorandstatesmanCicero
(SIS-uh-roh, 106–43 B.C.). Thus, by derivation, the cicerone, or guide, is “thought of as having the
knowledge and eloquence of Cicero” (Random House). The OED says the term was “apparently
originally given to learned Italian antiquarians, whose services were sought by visitors seeking
informationabouttheantiquitiesofaplace.”
Guide is the general term for someone who leads or directs others. The words usher, escort, and
marshaldenotepeoplewhoseprofessionalorofficialdutyistoguideoraccompanyothers.Thewords
tutor,mentor(MEN-tur,not-tor),andpreceptor(pree-SEP-tur)denotepeoplewhoguidebyteachingor
informing,especiallyone-on-one.Thewordguru(GUUR-oo),whichenteredEnglishinabout1820from
the Indian language Hindi (HIN-dee), is a spiritual or religious guide, especially a personal one; by
extension,aguruissomeonewithspecialknowledgethatothersrelyonoradmire,asacomputerguru.A
docent (DOH-sint)—from the Latin docēre, to lead, the source also of docile (DAH-sil), easily led or
managed,cooperative—isatourguidewholeadspeoplethroughgalleriesandmuseums,instructingthem
aboutwhattheyareviewing.
Ourkeyword,cicerone,isakindofglorifiedorscholarlytourguidewhohasintimateknowledgeof
placesofhistoricalinterestandthefactsandstoriespertainingtothem.Thewordmaybeusedliterallyof
a guide for sightseers, or figuratively of a guide who leads you toward a better knowledge of some
subject.
Thepreferredpluralformistheanglicizedcicerones(SIS-uh-ROH-neez),althoughdictionariesalso
sanctiontheItalianciceroni(SIS-uh-ROH-nee).
Word34:PANS OPHIC(pan-SAHF-ik)
Pertainingto,orpossessing,universalwisdomorencyclopedicknowledge.
Pansophic is the adjective corresponding to the noun pansophy (PAN-suh-fee), universal wisdom or
encyclopedicknowledge.BothwordscomefromtheGreekpan-,all,andsophós,wisdom.Youcansee
this Greek sophós, wisdom, in numerous English words including philosophy, which means literally
lovingwisdom;sophomore,literallywise-foolish,fromtheGreekmōros,foolish,dull;andsophrosyne
(suh-FRAHS-uh-nee),whichmeanswisemoderation,prudence,discreetgoodsense.
PansophyrefersinparticulartoasystemofuniversalknowledgeproposedbyComenius(koh-MEEnee-us), a 17th-century Moravian clergyman and educator whose precepts about teaching and learning
seemdecidedlymodern.“Comeniusadvocatedrelatingeducationtoeverydaylifebyemphasizingcontact
with objects in the environment and systematizing all knowledge,” says the Columbia Encyclopedia.
“Teaching was to be in the vernacular rather than in Latin, and languages were to be learned by the
conversationalmethod.He[also]workedforauniversalsystemofeducationofferingequalopportunities
towomen.”
Word35:RUBICUND(ROO-bi-kund)
Redorreddishincolor;flushed.
Synonymsofrubicundincluderuddy,florid,sanguine,roseate(ROH-zee-it)likearoseincolor;rufous
(ROO-fus),reddish,fromtheLatinrūfus,red;anderubescent(er-uh-BES-int), becoming red, blushing.
Antonymsofrubicundincludepale,ashen,blanched,bloodless,pallid(word47ofLevel4),wan, and
cadaverous(kuh-DAV-ur-us),havingtheappearanceofacadaver(kuh-DAV-ur),adeadbody.
RubicundcomesfromtheLatinrubicundus,red,flushed,whichcomesinturnfromrubēre,tobered,
andruber,red,ruddy.FromthissamesourcecometheEnglishwordsruby,thefamiliarredgemstone;the
adjectiverubious,ruby-colored;thenounrubric,atitle,heading,orpartofatextthatisprintedinred;
rubricate, to mark or color in red; rubify, to redden or make red, as the sunset rubified the sky; and
rubeola(ROO-bee-OH-luh),themedicaltermformeasles.
Rubicund may be used generally of anything that’s red or reddish, such as a rubicund apple or
rubicund wine, but it is perhaps more often used of the face or complexion to mean red or flushed, as
cheeks rubicund from the cold or a rubicund nose, or of a person who is red-faced, especially from
overindulgenceinfoodanddrink:“Thechefwasacorpulent(word39ofLevel4),rubicund,loquacious
littleman.”
Word36:PICARES QUE(PIK-uh-RESK)
Oforrelatingtorogues,rascals,orknaves;specifically,oforpertainingtoanepisodicformofnarrativefictionthatchroniclestheadventures
ofaroguishbutlikablehero.“Thepicaresquestyle,”saystheOED,“ischaracterizedbysocialsatireandrealisticdescriptionsofscenesfrom
lowlife.”
Picaresque comes from the Spanish picaresco, roguish, mischievous, literally of or pertaining to a
picaro, a rogue, rascal. From the Spanish picaro English has also inherited the noun picaroon (pik-uhROON),arogue,vagabond,orthief,especiallyapirateorbrigand(BRIG-und),amemberofabandof
robbers.
Synonymsofpicaresqueincluderoguish,rascally,prankish,swashbuckling,adventuresome,rakish
(RAY-kish), and raffish (RAF-ish). Synonyms of picaroon include bandit, outlaw, highwayman,
desperado,andcutthroat.
In1829,theScottishhistoricalnovelistSirWalterScottastutelycalledthepicaresquenovel,which
originatedinSpaininthe16thcentury,“aromanceofroguery.”Itwas“usuallyafirst-personnarrative,
relatingtheadventuresofarogueorlowbornadventurer…whodriftsfromplacetoplaceandfromone
socialmilieutoanotherinanefforttosurvive,”saysMerriam-Webster’sEncyclopediaofLiterature.“In
itsepisodicstructurethepicaresquenovelresemblesthelong,ramblingromancesofmedievalchivalry,
towhichitprovidedthefirstrealisticcounterpart.Unliketheidealisticknight-erranthero,however,the
picaroisacynicalandamoralrascalwhowouldratherlivebyhiswitsthanbyhonorablework.”
Picaresquemaybeusednotonlyoffictionbutofanythingthatsuggeststhefreewheelinglifestyleofa
rogue,rascal,orvagabond.Forexample,“apicaresqueseriesofexploitsthatillustrateherabilitytolive
byherwits”(TheNewYorker);or,“Itwasapicaresquelife,livedinhotelsonthefringesof‘normal’
society”(SundayIndependent,Ireland).Whenpicaresqueisprecededbythe,itdenotesthemischievous
andoftenamoralqualitiesofarogueorrascal:“Helovesatrickster;thepicaresqueamuseshim.”
Word37:ENDOGENOUS (en-DAHJ-uh-nus)
Originatingorproducedfromwithin.
The adjective endogenous combines endo-, within—as in endocardial, situated within the heart, and
endogamy(en-DAH-guh-mee),marriagewithinatribeorfamily—with-genous,whichmeansoriginating
orproducinginaspecificmanner,asinindigenous(in-DIJ-i-nus),originatinginaparticularplace,hence
native.
In biology, endogenous means growing or produced within the organism. In pathology, the study of
diseases, endogenous is used of a disease that originates from within the organism. And in psychiatry,
endogenousreferstodisordersthatoriginatewithintheindividualratherthanbeingcausedbyexternal
factors,asendogenousdepression.
The antonym of endogenous is exogenous (eks-AHJ-uh-nus), originating or produced from without,
fromexo-,outside,external.
Word38:PERORATE(PER-uh-rayt)
Tospeakatgreatlength,especiallyinahigh-flownorpompousmanner;also,toconcludeaspeech,especiallyinaforcefulorrousingmanner.
Synonyms of the verb to perorate include to lecture, declaim, discourse (dis-KORS), descant (desKANT),andexpatiate(ek-SPAY-shee-ayt).
PeroratecomesfromtheLatinperōrātus,thepastparticipleofperōrāre,whichmeanteithertospeak
atlength,explainorstatethoroughly,ortowindupaspeech,concludeanoration,fromper-,thoroughly,
and ōrāre, to speak, argue, plead. This Latin ōrāre is also the source of the familiar words oration,
orator(OR-uh-tur),andorate.
What’sthedifferencebetweentoorateandtoperorate?It’sadifferenceofdegreeorintensitycaused
by the prefix per-, which is an intensifier in many words. For example, to ambulate, from the Latin
ambulāre, to walk, means simply to walk or stroll, while to perambulate is to walk all about. The
adjectivefervid,fromtheLatinfervēre,toboil,seethe,meanspassionateorvehement,asaferviddebate,
while the adjective perfervid (pur-FUR-vid) means overheated, boiling over with passionate intensity.
Andtheadjectivetenacious,fromtheLatintenēre,tohold,meansholdingfirmlytoabelieforcourseof
action, while the adjective pertinacious (PUR-ti-NAY-shus) means to be stubbornly and annoyingly
tenacious.Thus,toorateismerelytolectureordeliveraformalpublicspeech,whiletoperorate is to
speakatgreatlength,especiallyinapompousorgrandiose(word3ofLevel1)manner.
Thenounisperoration(PER-uh-RAY-shin),whichmaymeanalongandoftenpompousoration,but
whichisprobablymoreoftenusedtomeantheconcludingpartofaspeech,especiallyarousingspeech,
inwhichpointsmadeearlierarerecapitulated.
Word39:ONYCHOPHAGY(AHN-i-KAHF-uh-jee)
Theactorhabitofbitingone’snails;nail-biting.
Thenounonychophagylinkstwocombiningforms:onycho-,oforpertainingtothenails,fromtheGreek
onyx,anail,claw;and-phagy,eating,devouring,fromtheGreekphagein,toeat.Otherwordsfromthe
Greekonyx,anail,includeonycholysis(AHN-i-KAH-luh-sis),alooseningorpartialseparationofanail
from a finger or toe (from the Greek lysis, a loosening), and paronychia (PAR-uh-NIK-ee-uh), an
inflammationofthefleshsurroundinganail:colloquially,aninfectedhangnail.
Onychophagyisusedchieflyinmedicineandinpsychology,whereitreferstohabitualnail-bitingas
asymptomofanxietyoremotionaldisturbance.Intheinterestoffulldisclosure,ImustconfessthatIhave
a personal stake in this word, since for most of my life I was an inveterate (word 25 of Level 2)
onychophagist(AHN-i-KAHF-uh-jist),anail-biter,atonepointsufferingfromanexcruciatinglypainful
paronychiacausedbymyownruthlessonychophagy.Andthen—andhere’stheRipley’s-Believe-It-orNot story—three weeks after 9/11 I realized that I hadn’t bitten my nails since that tragic day, and I
haven’t bitten them since. You’d think that such a horrific and traumatic event would cause a nervous
habit,butsomehow,inexplicably,itbrokemeofone.
Word40:DÉJÀLU(DAY-zhah-LOO)
Thefeelingthatyouhavereadsomethingbefore.
Youareprobablyfamiliarwiththetermdéjàvu(DAY-zhah-VOO),whichenteredEnglishfromFrench
about 1900. Literally it means already seen and denotes the illusory feeling of having experienced or
donesomethingbefore.FromthesameFrenchdéjà,already,andlu,read,comesdéjàlu,whichentered
English about 1960 and means the sense that you have read something before or in a similar form
somewhere else. The OED records one more related loan phrase from French: déjà entendu (ah[n]taw[n]-DOO),whichmeansliterallyalreadyheardanddenotesthefeelingthatonehasalreadyhearda
passageofmusicbefore.
ReviewQuizforKeywords31–40
In each statement below, a keyword (in italics) is followed by three definitions. Two of the three are
correct;oneisunrelatedinmeaning.Decidewhichonedoesn’tfitthekeyword.Answersappearhere.
1.Nugatorymeansofnoworth,uninteresting,useless.
2.Presbycusisislossofhearingduetooldage,ringingintheears,age-relateddeafness.
3.Aciceroneisataxidriver,aguide,atutor.
4.Pansophicmeanshavingexceptionalinsight,universalwisdom,encyclopedicknowledge.
5.Rubicundmeansreddish,bloodless,flushed.
6.Picaresquemeanspertainingtofools,pertainingtorogues,pertainingtorascals.
7.Endogenousmeansproducedfromwithin,comingintoexistence,originatinginside.
8.Peroratemeanstospeakincoherently,tospeakatgreatlength,toconcludeaspeech.
9.Onychophagyischewingone’snails,bitingone’snails,trimmingone’snails.
10.Déjàluisthefeelingyouhavereadsomethingbefore,seensomethingbefore,perusedsomethingbefore.
OnceUponaWord:VeneryInteresting
“It’s a gaggle of geese, a school of fish, and a pride of lions. But what about tigers?” I’m telling you,
peopleemailmesomeamazingquestions!
Thesetermsforgroupsofanimalshavebeencalled“nounsofmultitude,”“companyterms,”“nounsof
assemblage,”and,mostcommonly,“groupnouns.”Butconnoisseursofthesewordsalsoknowthembyan
olderphrase,“termsofvenery,”veneryheredenotingnotsexualintercoursebuthuntingoranimalsthat
arehunted(fromtheLatinvenari,tohunt).
“Thevenerealgame,”astheconnoisseurscallit,istheartofinventingtheseplayfulandoftenpoetic
groupnouns,andithasbeengoingonforcenturies.Oneoftheearliestandmostexhaustiverecordsof
groupnounsisTheBookofSt.AlbansbyDameJulianaBerners(orBarnes),publishedin1486.Dame
Juliana’sbookcontainedalistof164groupnouns,includingarafterofturkeys,amurderofcrows,a
murmurationofstarlings,ashrewdnessofapes,aleapofleopards,askulkoffoxes,aknotoftoads,
andacowardiceofcurs.Italsocontainedsometerms—suchasapontificalityofpriests,asuperfluity
ofnuns,andanabominablesightofmonks—thatventurebeyondtheanimalkingdomandintothehuman
realm.
An Exaltation of Larks by James Lipton is one of the best-known modern books on the subject of
groupnouns.Itdiscussestheevolutionofthevenerealgamefromancienttermsforanimalslikeaclowder
ofcats,aslothofbears,asiegeofherons,andanostentationofpeacockstomoderntermsforalltypes
of people like a sneer of butlers, a rash of dermatologists, an indifference of waiters, a wheeze of
joggers,aningratitudeofchildren,andalotofusedcardealers.
Now,whataboutthosetigers?AstreakoftigersisthetermLiptongives,butanambushoftigershas
alsobeenproposed.Takeyourpick.
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabulary.
Word41:VERBIGERATE(vur-BIJ-ur-ayt)
Torepeatmeaninglesswordsorphrasescontinuallyandobsessively.
A close synonym of verbigerate is the verb to battologize (buh-TAH-luh-jyz), which comes from the
Greek battos, a stammerer, and logos, speech, and means to repeat words or phrases needlessly and
tiresomely.
Theverbtoverbigerateandthenounverbigeration,theobsessiverepetitionofmeaninglesswordsor
phrases,comefromtheLatinverbigerare,tochat,talk,converse,acombinationofverbum,aword,and
gĕrĕre, to carry on, conduct. A verbigerator (rhymes with refrigerator) is a person who verbigerates,
continuallyrepeatscertainmeaninglesswordsorphrases.
Inpathology,thescienceofdiseasesanddisorders,verbigerationistheabnormal,unconscious,and
oftenobsessiverepetitionofnonsequiturs(nahn-SEK-wi-turz),wordsorphrasesthatdonotfollowfrom
whathaspreviouslybeensaidorareunrelatedtothecontextandthereforemeaningless.(Non sequitur
comes directly from Latin and means “it does not follow.”) To a medical doctor or psychiatrist,
verbigerationisusuallytheresultofabraininjuryormentaldisorder,buttotherestofuslaypeopleitis
simplypartoftheverbalfabricofeverydaylife.
Toddlerswilloftenlatchontoawordorphrasethey’vepickedupfromtheirparentsorfromTVand
repeat it indiscriminately and mercilessly. Elderly people succumbing to senile dementia (SEE-nyl diMEN-shuh)oftenverbigerate,evenwhennooneislistening.Andthentherearethosepeskyverbigerating
teenagerswhoinsertlikeandy’knowintoeverysentence,andwhogrowuptobetedious,verbigerating
adultswhoinsertmeaninglesswordsandphraseslikeanywaysandirregardlessintoeverysentence.
Forme,themostverbigeratedwordsintheEnglishlanguageareimpactandunique,whichhavebeen
repeatedsooftenandsounthinkinglybysomanypeoplethattheyhavelostalltheirforceandsingularity.
Word42:TENEBROUS (TEN-uh-brus)
Dark,gloomy,obscure.
The adjective tenebrous, which dates back to the early 1400s, comes from the Latin tenebrōsus, dark,
gloomy. The word may be used to mean dark, shut off from the light, either literally or figuratively. A
tenebrouscastleoratenebrousclimateisadarkandgloomyone.Atenebrousmindisabenighted(word
48 of Level 6) mind, one laboring in a state of intellectual darkness. And a tenebrous argument or a
tenebrousphilosophyisonethatissoobscureastobeimpenetrable.
Therelatedadjectivetenebrific(TEN-uh-BRIF-ik),fromtheLatintenebrae,darkness,andfacere,to
make,meanscausingorproducingdarkness.Asolareclipseistenebrific,asaremosteconomists.
Word43:AGNATE(AG-nayt)
Relatedthroughthemalelineofdescent;relatedonthefather’sside.
Agnate comes from the Latin agnātus, a male relation on the father’s side. The Old Testament of the
ChristianBibleexpendsagooddealofinktracingtheagnateoffspring,ormalelineofdescent,ofvarious
figures:forexample,thesonsofNoah,thesonsofShem,thesonsofEsau.Youragnaterelativeiseither
someonewhosekinshipistraceableonlythroughmales,oramalerelativeonthefather’sside,apaternal
kinsman.Agnatemayalsobeusedasanounmeaningarelationthroughthemaleline.
Perhaps you’re wondering if there’s a companion word for agnate pertaining to women? The
adjective distaff (DIS-taf) means female, pertaining to women, and the distaff side of a family is the
femaleormaternalbranch,alsocalledthespindleside,asopposedtothespearside,themaleorpaternal
branch.Butmorecloselyrelatedtoagnateisthewordcognate(KAHG-nayt),fromtheLatincognātus,
born together. In Roman law cognate referred to those who were descended from the same ancestor,
regardless of sex, but “in Scots and later civil law,” says Black’s Law Dictionary, cognate “implies
kinshipfromthemother’sside.”
Word44:ULULATE(UHL-yuh-laytorYOOL-yuh-layt)
Tohowl,wail,screech,orshriek.
The verb to ululate comes from the Latin ululātus, a howling, wailing, shrieking, or yelling, the past
participleoftheverbululāre,tohowloryell.Byderivation,toululatesuggeststhehowlingofadogor
wolf,orthescreechingofanowl.Infact,intheearliestEnglishdictionaryinwhichululateappears,from
1623,thewordisdefinedas“tohowlelikeadogorwolf.”
Ululateisoftenusedofanimal-likehowling,wailing,orscreeching,asapackofhungry,ululating
jackals.Butitisalsooftenusedofhumancryingandshrieking,asinthiscitationfrom2009:“Insome
cultures,
the
grieving
ululate,
whip
themselves,
and
rend
their
clothing”
(www.wordnik.com/words/ululate). When used in this way ululate is an exact synonym of the verb to
keen, to wail or lament loudly, especially for the dead. Ululate is also sometimes used of any excited
howlingoryelling,asillustratedbythissentencefromNewsweek:“Westandinacircleandclap—some
ofthewomenevenululateinasortofjoyousyodel.”
Thenounisululation(UHL-yuh-LAY-shinorYOOL-),ahowlingorwailing.Inhis1867translation
of Dante’s Divine Comedy, the American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote, “There sighs,
complaints,andululationsloud/Resoundedthroughtheair.”Theadjectiveisululant (UHL-yuh-lint or
YOOL-), howling, wailing, screeching: “The preacher’s exhortations whipped the congregation into an
ululantfrenzy.”
Word45:ZUCCHETTO (zoo-KET-oh)
AskullcapwornbyRomanCatholicclerics.
ThenounzucchettowasborrowedfromItalianinthemid-19thcenturyandisrelatedtotheItalianzucca,
whichmeanseitheragourdortheheadandisthesourceofthefamiliarItaliansquashcalledzucchini
(zoo-KEE-nee). The unusual word calotte (kuh-LAHT), which was borrowed from French in the 17th
century, is an exact synonym of zucchetto. The plural is preferably the anglicized zucchettos, not the
Italianzucchetti.
Thezucchettoissmallandroundandmadeofflexiblecloth.Youcouldsaythatitistheecclesiastical
cousin of the Jewish skullcap called a yarmulke (YAHR-mul-kuh, pronounce the r). The color of the
zucchettoindicatestherankofaclericintheRomanCatholichierarchy.Priestswearablackzucchetto;
bishopswearavioletorpurpleone;cardinalsweararedone;andthepopewearsawhiteone.
Word46:PS EUDANDRY(SOO-dan-dreeorsoo-DAN-dree)
Theuseofamalenamebyawomanasapseudonymorpenname.
The noun pseudandry combines pseudo-, false, pretended, with -andry, male, which comes from the
Greek andrós, a man, male. A pseudonym (SOO-duh-nim), from pseudo-, false, and -onym, name, is a
fictitious name, such as the pen name of an author. A pseudonym or pen name is also called a nom de
plume(NAHM-duh-PLOOM),whichisFrenchforpenname.
In the 18th and 19th centuries the few women who wrote for publication usually resorted to
pseudandry,theuseofamalepenname,becauseoftheirinferiorsocialstatus:womenwerethoughttobe
less competent than men and it was considered scandalous for a woman to write a book. Pseudandry
thereforeofferedawaytobetakenseriously,oratleastnottobedismissedoutright.
Famous pseudandrists of that period include Mary Ann Evans, who used the nom de plume George
EliottopublishMiddlemarchandothernovels;theBrontësisters,Charlotte,Emily,andAnne,whoused,
respectively, the pseudonyms Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell; the French novelist Lucile Aurore Dupin
Dudevant,whoachievedfamewritingunderthepseudonymGeorgeSand;andLouisaMayAlcott,author
ofLittleWomen,whobeganhercareerwritingundertheandrogynous(an-DRAH-juh-nus)pennameA.
M. Barnard. (Androgynous, from the Greek andrós, man, and gyné, woman, means having qualities or
characteristicsofbothamanandawoman.)
Contemporary female writers who have used androgynous initials in their pen names include Nora
Roberts,whohaspublishedasJ.D.Robb,andAnneRice,whohaspublishedasA.N.Roquelaure.And
J. K. Rowling, the androgynously named author of the Harry Potter series, has written under the
pseudonymRobertGalbraith.
The counterpart of pseudandry is pseudogyny (soo-DAH-juh-nee), from pseudo-, false, pretended,
andtheGreekgyné,woman,theuseofafemalenamebyamanasapseudonymorpenname.
Word47:CAES URA(si-ZHUUR-uh)
Abreak,pause,interruption,hiatus(hy-AY-tus).
CaesuracomesdirectlyfromtheLatincaesūra,acutting,whichcomesinturnfromtheverbcaedĕre,to
cut. A Caesarean section is so called because the baby must be cut from its mother’s womb. The
procedure is traditionally associated with Julius Caesar, who was supposed to have been delivered by
Caesareansection,buttheevidencesupportingthatstoryisflimsy.
Caesura has a specific, technical meaning in English prosody, the study of the metrical structure of
poetry.Inprosody,acaesuraisanaturalpauseorbreakorbreathsomewhereinthemiddleofapoetic
line.Thus,thecaesuraintheopeninglineofChaucer’sCanterburyTalescomesrightafterApril:“Whan
thatApril||withhisshowressoote.”AndthecaesurainthefirstlineofShakespeare’ssonnet18isthe
fleetingpausebetweentheeandto:“ShallIcomparethee||toasummer’sday?”
Sinceaboutthemid-19thcenturycaesurahasalsobeenusedinamoregeneralsenseofanybreak,
pause,orinterruption:“TheFlavian[FLAY-vee-in]dynastymarksacaesurainthehistoryofRomanfirst
ladies”(AnneliseFreisenbruch,Caesars’Wives).“Heremembersonespaceofferingawelcomecaesura
from the ormolu and swag” (The Wall Street Journal). (Ormolu, pronounced OR-muh-loo, is gilded
metal.)
Word48:PHILODOX(FIL-uh-dahks)
Someoneinlovewithhisorherownopinions;apersonwhomakescategoricalassertions;adogmatist.
You’verunacrossthemyourwholelife—inschool,atwork,atparties—thoseself-referentialboreswho
lovetohearthemselvestalk.Philodoxesthinkthateverythingtheysayisbrilliantandthateverythingthey
knowisright.Theyareoftenloversofargumentforitsownsakeandtheyarealwayseagertobuttonhole
anyonetheythinkwilllisten.Thisqualitymakesthephilodoxtheclosecousinofthemacrologist (maKRAHL-uh-jist),theinfernallydullconversationalistyougetstuckwithatasocialeventanddeftlytryto
passontosomeoneelse.
Thenounphilodox,whichwasborrowedfromFrenchin1603,isformedfromtwoGreekelements:
philo-, loving, and doxa, opinion, the source also of orthodox, which means literally the right opinion
becausethecombiningformortho- means right, correct. Here’s a clever citation for philodox from the
Berkshire(Massachusetts)Eaglein1958:“Onegrowswearyofthesickeningsophomorictwaddleofour
local pansophic philodox.” (Sophomoric is discussed in fatuous, word 6 of Level 3; twaddle
[TWAHD’l]issillytalk,drivel,nonsense;andpansophicisword34ofthislevel.)
Word49:VALETUDINARIAN(VAL-e-T[Y]OO-di-NAIR-ee-in)
Aweakorsicklyperson,aninvalidorhypochondriac.
ValetudinariancomesthroughtheLatinvalētūdinārius,sickly,infirm,fromvalēre,tobestrong,well,or
vigorous, the source also of the English words valor and valiant. Cousins with the Latin valēre, to be
strong,istheadjectivevalidus,strong,powerful,thesourceoftheEnglishnouninvalid(IN-vuh-lid),an
exactsynonymofvaletudinarian,aweakorsicklyperson.
Valetudinarian is often used not only of a sickly person but of a hypochondriac, someone who
continually imagines he or she has physical ailments. In Victor Hugo’s 1862 novel Les Misérables, a
character named Joly is a doctor who was “more of an invalid than a doctor. At three and twenty he
thoughthimselfavaletudinarian,andpassedhislifeininspectinghistongueinthemirror.”
Valetudinarian may also be used attributively, as an adjective modifying a noun, as a dissolute,
valetudinarian debauchee. (Dissolute is word 7 of Level 6, and debauchee, a debauched person, is
discussedindebauch,word30ofLevel5.)
Word50:APOTHEOS IS (uh-PAH-thee-OH-sis)
Theelevationofahumanbeingtothelevelofagod;hence,elevationtoatranscendentorglorifiedposition,oraglorifiedorexaltedexample
orideal.
Synonyms of the noun apotheosis include deification, glorification, exaltation, canonization, and
consecration.(Consecrateisword42ofLevel2.)
Apotheosis is a late-16th-century borrowing from Latin and Greek that comes from the Greek
apotheoun, to make into a god, deify, from apo-, formed from, related to, and theos, a god. At first
apotheosiswasusedoftheelevationofahumanbeingtotherankofagod,aswhentheancientRomans,
byasolemndecreeofthesenate,wouldconferdivinestatusuponadeceasedemperor.Thewordwas
thenextendedtomeantheelevationofanypersonorthingtoaglorifiedortranscendentposition:“Some
musiccriticslamenttheapotheosisofimmaturepopstarslikeJustinBieberandMileyCyrus.”Inthe20th
century the word’s application was extended even further to mean an exalted or glorified example or
ideal,astheapotheosisofbeauty,theapotheosisofcourage,ortheapotheosisofItaliancomicopera.
Sometimesapotheosisisusedofthatwhichisdecidedlynotglorifiedorexalted,asifitmeantsimply
theperfectorbestexample:“BlagojevichisregularlydescribedastheapotheosisoftheshadyIllinois
politician.”Thiserroneoususageshouldbeavoided,andapotheosis should be reserved for exalted or
glorifiedexamples.Apotheosisisalsooftenusedtomeanthehighestpoint,climax,astheapotheosisof
her career, but this is another loose usage. When you mean the highest point in the development of
something,usepeak,summit,pinnacle,apex,zenith,orapogee(word9ofLevel7)instead.
Theverbtoapotheosize(uh-PAH-thee-uh-syz)meanseithertomakeintoagodortoglorifyasifto
divine honor: “When Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected president in 1952, it was as if the American
peoplehadapotheosizedhimforhisroleinwinningWorldWarII.”
ReviewQuizforKeywords41–50
Inthisquizthereviewwordisfollowedbythreewordsorphrases,andyoumustdecidewhichcomes
nearestthemeaningofthereviewword.Answersappearhere.
1.Ifyouverbigerate,doyourunoffatthemouth,repeatmeaninglesswordsandphrasescontinually,orchooseyourwordscarefully?
2.Issomethingtenebroussad,dangerous,ordark?
3.Areyouragnaterelativesonyourmother’sside,yourfather’sside,orbothsides?
4.Doesululatemeantoeattoomuch,togarbleone’swords,ortohowl?
5.Isazucchettoagreensquash,askullcap,orashortsword?
6.Ispseudandrytheuseofafemalepseudonymbyaman,theuseofamalepseudonymbyawoman,ortheuseofinitialsinapseudonym?
7.Isacaesuraabreak,anoperation,oravictorysong?
8.Isaphilodoxavirtuousperson,agenerousperson,orapersoninlovewithhisorherownopinions?
9.Isavaletudinarianasicklyperson,afaithfulperson,oranunreliableperson?
10.Doesapotheosismeantherevelationofdivinewisdom,theelevationofapersontothelevelofagod,ortheappearanceofagod?
TheWrongPro-NOUN-ciation
At Merriam-Webster, the storied house of lexicography in Springfield, Massachusetts, that traces its
pedigreetoNoahWebster,theeditorshavebeensedulously(sedulousisword28ofLevel7)collecting
citationssincethe1930sof“allpronunciationvariantsofawordthatareusedbyeducatedspeakersof
the English language.” And when they say all, they mean all—including the warts.3 If a lapsus linguae
happenstocomeoutofaneducatedspeaker’smouth,itgoesinthefile.Thisworriesmebecause“itis
primarilyonthebasisofthislargeandgrowingfile,”saystheirlatestdictionary,“thatquestionsofusage
andacceptabilityinpronunciationareanswered.”
Like other dictionary publishers, Merriam-Webster promises to give us guidance in standard
Americanpronunciation,buttheirconceptofstandardAmericanpronunciationseemstobethatifyou’re
anAmerican,yourpronunciationisstandard,nomatterhoweccentricitmaybe.PeruseM-W’spopular
Collegiate dictionaries and you will find many controversial, stigmatized, and downright strange
pronunciations—allofthem,M-Wclaims,“fallingwithintherangeofgenerallyacceptablevariation.”
Let’sseehowthatclaimholdsup.
We’llbeginwithaccurate,whichM-Wgetsallwrong.RecentCollegiatesbestowtheirblessingon
AK-ur-itandAK-rit,variantsthatarenotstandardandneverhavebeen.Thevastmajorityofeducated
speakersconsiderthemslovenly(SLUHV-un-lee,sloppy,careless),whichiswhytheothermajorcurrent
AmericandictionariesignorethemandgiveonlytheaccurateAK-yur-it,withay-glidebeforetheu.
Since 1961, M-W has endorsed putting an arch in archipelago, a variant no other dictionary
recognizes. Educated speakers simply don’t say it that way. They say ark—because, as Alfred Ayres
explainsinTheOrthoëpist,“Whenarch,signifyingchief,beginsawordfromtheGreekandisfollowed
byavowel,itispronouncedark—asinarchangel,architect,archive,archipelago…butwhenarchis
prefixed to an English word, it is pronounced so as to rhyme with march—as, archbishop, archduke,
archfiend.”
According to M-W, you may count yourself among the ranks of educated speakers if you pronounce
particular and particularly as puh-tickler and puh-tickly and pronunciation as pro-NOUN-ciation.
Otherdictionariesdonotrecordtheseaberrations.M-WisalsotheonlydictionarytorecognizeSEN-teeint for sentient (SEN-shint, word 48 of Level 2). And for eschew, which is properly pronounced esCHOO,M-Wisaloneinsanctioningtheweirde-SKYOOandthevoguee-SHOO,whichitbrazenlylists
first.
Forfoliage,whichisproperlypronouncedinthreesyllables,FOH-lee-ij,M-WlistsFOY-lij,amajor
blunderthatotherdictionarieseschew.ItalsocallsthevariantFOH-lij“verycommon”—asifthatalone
justifiesit.Ifitwereascommon,andcertainlyifitweremorecommon,atenable(TEN-uh-bul,ableto
be defended or upheld) argument could be made for its acceptability. But lots of usages that are “very
common” are also very objectionable to lots of people: the mispronunciation nucular for nuclear
(N[Y]OO-klee-ur)comesquicklytomind.
M-W’susagenotesapologizeforvariantsthatmanyeducatedspeakersconsidersubstandardandthat
authoritiesonpronunciationproscribe.Forexample,thenoteforlibrarysaysthevariantliberryisheard
“fromeducatedspeakers,includingcollegepresidentsandprofessors,aswellaswithsomewhatgreater
frequencyfromlesseducatedspeakers.”Ifafewcollegepresidentsandprofessorssayliberry,doesthat
make it less beastly? If your professor, or your child’s professor, said liberry—or perfessor, for that
matter—wouldn’tyouraiseaconcernedeyebrow?Here,andelsewhere,M-Wignorestheplaintruththat
when educated people use slipshod or stigmatized pronunciations, they lose credibility. They are
perceivedas“lesseducatedspeakers.”
Languagemavensandlexicographerscanagreetodisagree.Butbysanctioningsomanyquestionable
pronunciations,includingsomethatarebeyondthepale—liketheludicrousDUHB-yeefortheletterW—
Merriam-WebstermisrepresentswhatNoahWebsterfamouslycalled“thegeneralpracticeofthenation”
andobliteratesthedistinctionconscientiousspeakersstrivetomakebetweenwhatisandisn’tstandard.
AnswerstoReviewQuizzesforLevel9
KEYWORDS1–10
1.Yes.Sangfroidmeanscomposure,coolnessofmindintryingcircumstances.
2.Yes.Desuetudeisastateofdisuseorinactivity;discontinuanceofuseorpractice.
3.No.Atongue-twisterissimplyhardtosay.Ashibbolethisapassword,catchphrase,watchword,orslogan.
4.Yes.Acridecoeurisanimpassionedoranguishedoutcrythatcantakemanyforms.
5.No.Incunabulaareearlyprintedbooks,especiallythoseproducedbefore1501.
6.Yes.Achef-d’oeuvreisamasterpiece,especiallyoneinliterature,art,ormusic.
7.No.Atrocheeisalongsyllablefollowedbyashortone.Aniambistheopposite:ashortsyllablefollowedbyalongone.
8.Yes.Afrissonisashudderofexcitementoraquiveringthrill.
9.Yes.PrelapsarianreferstothetimebeforetheBiblicalFallofhumankind;hence,innocent,carefree,orunspoiled,uncorrupted.
10.No.Yourmétierisyourspecialty,workoractivityforwhichyouarewellsuited.
KEYWORDS11–20
1.False.Ablutionmeanstheactofwashingorbathing,especiallyasareligiousrite.
2.True.Apostasyistheabandonmentofone’sfaith,allegiance,orprinciples.
3.False.Sumptuarytaxesareimposedonthingssocietyconsidersindulgentorobjectionable,suchastobaccoandalcohol.Sumptuarymeans
pertainingtoexpendituresortotheregulatingofthem.
4.True.Atatterdemalionisapersonwhowearstornorraggedclothing,aragamuffin.
5.False.Whenyouabjureyourenounceorrejectsolemenlyunderoath.
6.False.Noblesseobligeisthemoralobligationofthoseofnoblebirthorhighsocialpositiontobehaveinanhonorable,kindly,andgenerous
way.
7.True.Primogenitureisthestateofbeingfirstborn,ortherightofafirstborn,especiallyason,toinheritpropertyortitle.
8.True.Xericmeanspertainingoradaptedtoadryenvironment,needinglittlemoisture.
9.False.Anuxorioushusbandisexcessivelyfondoforsubmissivetohiswife.
10.True.Tooppugnistoattackoropposebyargument,callintoquestion,contradict.
KEYWORDS21–30
1.Synonyms.Agnosiaistheinabilitytorecognizeobjectsorinterpretphysicalsensations.
2.Synonyms.Bothsophistryandcasuistrydenoteoversubtleanddeceptivereasoning.
3.Synonyms.BothFreudianslipandparapraxisdenoteaminorerrororoversight,suchasaslipofthetongue,thatseemstorevealan
unconsciousmotiveorwish.
4.Antonyms.Apolymathisaverylearnedpersonoranexpertinvarioussubjects.
5.Synonyms.Bothanencomiumandapanegyricareformalexpressionsofhighpraise.
6.Antonyms.Acharretteisanintensiveefforttofinishaprojectbeforeadeadline.
7.Antonyms.Todebrideistocleanawound.Tobefoulistomakefoulordirty.
8.Antonyms.Lapidarymeanshavingorexhibitingelegance,precision,andrefinementofexpression.
9.Antonyms.Mammalianmeanspertainingtomammals,whichgivebirthtoliveyoung.Oviparousmeansproducingeggsthatdevelopand
hatchoutsidethemother’sbody.
10.Synonyms.Pallid(word47ofLevel4)meanspale,lackingcolor.Marmorealmeansresemblingmarble,eitherbybeingattractivelywhite
andsmoothorunappealinglypale.
KEYWORDS31–40
1.Uninterestingdoesn’tfit.Nugatorymeansworthless,insignificant,oruseless,futile.
2.Ringingintheearsdoesn’tfit.Acouasmandtinnitusdenoteringingintheears.Presbycusisislossorimpairmentofhearingduetoold
age.
3.Taxidriverdoesn’tfit.Aciceroneisaguideforsightseersoratutor,mentor.
4.Exceptionalinsightdoesn’tfit.Pansophicmeanspertainingtoorpossessinguniversalwisdomorencyclopedicknowledge.
5.Bloodlessdoesn’tfit.Rubicundmeansredorreddish,flushed.
6.Pertainingtofoolsdoesn’tfit.Picaresquemeansoforrelatingtorogues,rascals,orknaves;specifically,pertainingtofictionthat
chroniclestheadventuresofaroguishhero.
7.Comingintoexistencedoesn’tfit.Endogenousmeansoriginatingorproducedfromwithin.
8.Tospeakincoherentlydoesn’tfit.Toperorateiseithertospeakatgreatlength,especiallyinahigh-flownorpompousway,orto
concludeaspeechinarousingmanner.
9.Trimmingone’snailsdoesn’tfit.Onychophagyistheactorhabitofbitingone’snails.
10.Seensomethingbeforedoesn’tfit.Déjàvuisthefeelingthatyou’veseenordonesomethingbefore.Déjàluisthefeelingthatyou’ve
readsomethingbefore.
KEYWORDS41–50
1.Toverbigerateistorepeatmeaninglesswordsandphrasescontinuallyorobsessively.
2.Somethingtenebrousisdark,gloomy,orobscure.
3.Youragnaterelativesareonyourfather’sside,throughthemalelineofdescent.
4.Toululatemeanstohowl,wail,screech,orshriek.
5.AzucchettoisaskullcapwornbyRomanCatholicclerics.
6.Pseudandryistheuseofamalepseudonymbyawoman.Pseudogynyistheuseofafemalepseudonymbyaman.
7.Acaesuraisabreak,pause,interruption,orhiatus.
8.Aphilodoxisapersoninlovewithhisorherownopinions.
9.Avaletudinarianisaweakorsicklyperson,aninvalidorhypochondriac.
10.Apotheosismeanstheelevationofahumanbeingtothelevelofagod;hence,elevationtoatranscendentpositionoraglorifiedexample
orideal.
LEVEL10
Word1:CHIAROS CURO (kee-AHR-uh-SKYUR-oh)
Thedistributionandgradationsoflightandshadeinapictorialworkofart.
Byderivationthenounchiaroscuromeansclear-dark,forthewordisacombinationoftheItalianchiaro,
clear,bright(fromtheLatinclārus,clear,distinct),andoscuro,dark,obscure(fromtheLatinobscūrus,
thesourceofobscure).
Inthepictorialarts,chiaroscurorefersto“thegeneraldistributionoflightandshadeinapicture…
thatis,thecombinedeffectofallitslights,shadows,andreflections,”saysTheCenturyDictionary.Any
painting,drawing,photograph,orengravingthathasstrongcontrastsbetweenlightandshadowisastudy
inchiaroscuro.
Notsurprisingly,thisusefulwordpertainingtothevisualartshasbeenco-optedbyotherartforms.
(To co-opt means to take over, appropriate, or to absorb, assimilate.) Movie reviews often refer to
chiaroscuro lighting or the chiaroscuro of the cinematography. Music critics may refer to “chiaroscuro
harmonies”ornotehow“thedisparitybetweenthedarkandlighttimbres”ofasinger’svoiceisakindof
chiaroscuro.I’veevenseenatheaterreviewthatreferstotheplayers’“chiaroscuropersonas,”meaning
the contrast between the bright and dark sides of their characters. Chiaroscuro can also be used of
literatureinthisfigurativewaytosuggestthesymbolicstrugglebetweenlightanddarknessorgoodand
evil.
Word2:CONTEMN(kun-TEM)
Totreatorregardwithcontempt;toscornordespise.
Synonyms of the verb to contemn include to disdain, spurn, slight, shun, deride (word 2 of Level 3),
disparage, and disrespect—which, as a verb meaning to have or show no respect for, is not slang, as
manymistakenlysuppose,butisinfactquitereputableandquiteold,datingbacktothe17thcentury.
Antonymsofcontemnincludetoadmire,praise,commend,extol(word26ofLevel2),laud,esteem,
eulogize,andpanegyrize(PAN-i-juh-ryz).
ContemncomesfromtheLatincontemnĕre,todespise,scorn,slight,thinkmeanlyof,alsothesource
oftheEnglishnouncontempt.Takecarenottoconfusecontemnwiththeverbtocondemn,whichmeans
todeclaretobewrongorevilortopronounceguiltyofacrime.Contemn,whichtheOEDcallschieflya
literary word, appears several times in the Christian Bible; for example, Psalm 10, verse 13, asks,
“WhereforedoththewickedcontemnGod?”meaning“WhydothewickedregardGodwithcontempt?”
(Inthisarchaiccontextwhereforemeanswhy,asinShakespeare’s“Wherefore[why]artthouRomeo?”)
Todespiseusuallyimpliesloathingordisgust,althoughitmayimplymerelystrongdislike.Toscorn
andtodisdainimplyarrogantandcondescendingcontempt.Toshunandtospurnimplystrongrejection
and avoidance of that which is disliked. To disparage implies belittling or discrediting that which is
disliked, treating it as inferior. To contemn implies strong disapproval, a rejecting as unworthy of
respect, and may be used either of people or of their actions: “The court struck down the state’s law
disallowingsame-sexmarriage,contemningitasunconstitutionalandaviolationofthedefendants’civil
rights.”
Thenouniscontemner(kun-TEM-nur),onewhocontemns.
Word3:APOLOGIA(AP-uh-LOH-jee-uh)
Anapology;specifically,adefenseorjustificationofone’sbeliefs,ideas,oractions.
ApologiacomesfromtheGreekapologia,aspeakingindefense,fromapo,from,andlogos,speech,the
samesourceasthecommonEnglishwordapology.
What’s the difference between an apology and an apologia? Both words may denote a defense or
justification of one’s beliefs or actions, but an apology is usually spoken while an apologia is usually
written,andonlythewordapologymaybeusedofanexpressionofregretorremorseforhavinginsulted
orinjuredsomeoneelse.
In his old age the ancient Greek philospher Socrates was brought before an Athenian court on the
chargesofcorruptingthemindsoftheyoungandbelievinginhisowngodsratherthanthoseapprovedby
the state. His defense before that court, known as the Apology, is perhaps the most famous of The
DialoguesofPlato;init,Socratesgiveswhathewouldhavecalledanapologia,adetailedexplanation
ofhiswayoflifeandajustificationofhisconvictions.
ThemostfamousapologiainEnglishliteratureistheApologiaProVitaSua1—literallyadefenseof
his life—by the Anglican theologian Cardinal John Henry Newman, who converted to Catholicism in
1845andpublishedhisapologia,hisreligiousautobiographyanddefenseofhisadoptedfaith,in1864.
Word4:GORGONIZE(GOR-guh-nyz)
“Tohaveaparalyzingorstupefyingeffecton”(AmericanHeritage).
Synonymsoftheverbtogorgonizeincludetohypnotize,mesmerize,paralyze,petrify,andstupefy(word
30ofLevel3).
In ancient Greek mythology, the Gorgons were three ugly and horrible sisters who had wings and
claws and who were “so gruesome that all living creatures turned to stone at the sight of them,” says
D’Aulaires’ Book of Greek Myths. “Long yellow fangs hung from their grinning mouths, on their heads
grewwrithingsnakesinsteadofhair,andtheirneckswerecoveredwithscalesofbronze.”
FromthesefearsomesisterscomestheEnglishverbtogorgonize,tohaveaparalyzingorstupefying
effect,ortogazeatwiththelookofaGorgon,andsotopetrify,turntostone.InMaudandOtherPoems,
publishedin1855,Alfred,LordTennysonwrote,“Andcurvingacontumeliouslip,/[He]Gorgonizedme
fromheadtofoot/WithastonyBritishstare.”(Contumelious,pronouncedKAHN-t[y]oo-MEEL-ee-us,
meanscontemptuous,insulting,andhumiliating.)
Word5:S CHOLIA(SKOH-lee-uh)
Explanatorynotesorcomments;annotations.
Scholia,andthesingularscholium(SKOH-lee-um),anexplanatorynoteinatext,comefromtheGreek
schólion,acomment.
Annotationsandscholiaarebothexplanatorynotesorcomments;scholiaisthemorelearnedword
and may refer specifically to scholarly notes or comments on passages in works written in Latin or
ancientGreek.
Footnotes are placed at the bottom of a page. Endnotes are placed at the end of a book or text.
Marginalnotes,ormarginalia(MAHR-ji-NAYL-yuh),areplacedinthemarginsofatext.Agloss is a
noteplacedeitherinthemarginorinthetextthatexplainsortranslatesanunusualorobscurewordor
phrase. Annotations and scholia, explanatory notes or comments, may appear as footnotes, endnotes, or
marginalia.
Word6:CATHECT(kuh-THEKT)
Toinvestmentaloremotionalenergyinanidea,object,orperson.2
Theverbtocathectisaback-formation—which,asyoulearnedindebride,word27ofLevel9,isa
wordformedfromalongerwordbyremovingapartofit,usuallyasuffix.Inthiscasetheback-formation
isfromcathexis(kuh-THEK-sis),theinvestingorconcentrationofmentaloremotionalenergyinanidea,
object,orperson.
Inabout1920pychoanalystsborrowedcathexisfromtheGreekkáthexis,akeeping,holding;itwas
intendedasatranslationoftheGermanBesetzung,atakingpossessionof,atermusedbySigmundFreud
ofthelibido(li-BEE-doh),thepsychicenergyderivedfromprimitiveinstinctssuchasself-preservation
and sexual desire. According to Freud, if you are too deeply cathected—mentally and emotionally
investedinsomething—youhaveapsychologicalcomplex.
You can cathect, concentrate your emotional or mental energy on something, in good ways or bad.
Creative people of all kinds cathect with their creations. A singer must cathect with the song, and a
biographermustcathectwiththesubjectofthebiography.Andloverswhohavejustfalleninloveand
are,aswesay,madabouteachother,arecathected.Butsuchanintenseinvestmentofpsychicenergycan
sometimes lead to depression or deviant behavior, as when a cathected person stalks the object of his
cathexisorisdrivenbyittocommitacrime.
Take care not to confuse cathexis with catharsis (kuh-THAHR-sis). Both words come from
psychiatry,butcatharsis,fromtheGreekkátharsis,acleansing,denotesthereleaseofemotionaltension
orthepurgingoftheemotions:“JeremyhadaprofoundcatharsisthefirsttimeheheardBach’sGoldberg
Variations.”Theadjectiveiscathartic.
Word7:S ORTILEGE(SOR-ti-lij)
Sorcery,magic;specifically,divinationconductedbydrawingorcastinglots.
Divination is the ancient practice of using magic or supernatural means to foretell future events or
discoverthingsthatarehiddenorobscure.Perhapsthemostcommonformofdivinationispalm-reading,
for which there are three words: palmistry (PAH-mis-tree), chiromancy (KY-ruh-MAN-see), and
chirognomy(ky-RAHG-nuh-mee),inwhichthecombiningformchiro-meanshand.Almostascommonis
cartomancy(KAHR-tuh-MAN-see),divinationwithplayingcards;tarot(TAR-oh)isonepopularformof
cartomancy.Divinationbylookingintoacrystalballiscalledscrying,divinationbyinterpretingdreams
is called oneiromancy (oh-NY-ruh-man-see), and divination by drawing or casting lots is called
sortilege. If you’re wondering what a lot is, it’s “one of a set of objects, [such] as straws or pebbles,
drawnorthrownfromacontainertodecideaquestionorchoicebychance”(RandomHouse).
SortilegecomesfromtheLatinsortilegus,whichasanadjectivemeantprophetic,oracular,andasa
nounmeantafortune-tellerorsoothsayer.TheLatinsortileguscomesinturnfromsors,sortis,alot,and
theverblegere,togather,collect,ortoread,survey.Sortilege,whichdatesbacktothe14thcentury,has
beenusedinterchangeablywithsorceryandmagic,butinpreciseusageitreferstodivinationbydrawing
orcastinglots.
Word8:TERPS ICHOREAN(TURP-si-kuh-REE-in)
Oforpertainingtodancing.Also,adancer.
Doyouremembersaltation,word30ofLevel7?Itmeanstheactofleaping,jumping,ordancing.The
adjective saltatory (SAL-tuh-tor-ee) means pertaining to or adapted for saltation, and is an unusual
synonymofterpsichorean.
In ancient Greek mythology there were nine Muses who presided over literature, the arts, and the
sciences.AllwerethedaughtersofZeus,thechiefgodoftheOlympians,andMnemosyne(nuh-MAH-sinee), the goddess of memory, from whom we get the adjective mnemonic (ni-MAH-nik), assisting or
pertainingtothememory.
Calliope (kuh-LY-uh-pee) was the leader of the nine Muses, and her specialty was heroic or epic
poetry.Erato(ER-uh-toh)wastheMuseoflyricandlovepoetry;Euterpe(yoo-TUR-pee)wastheMuse
ofmusic;Thalia(thuh-LY-uh)wastheMuseofcomedyandbucolic(byoo-KAH-lik,rural,rustic)poetry;
Melpomene (mel-PAH-muh-nee) was the Muse of tragedy; Urania (yuu-RAY-nee-uh) was the Muse of
astronomy;Clio(KLY-oh)wastheMuseofhistory;Polyhymnia(PAH-li-HIM-nee-uh)wastheMuseof
hymnsandsacredlyrics;andTerpsichore(turp-SIK-uh-ree)wastheMuseofdance.
Terpsichoreistheeponymoussourceofthewordterpsichorean,whichasanadjectivemeansofor
pertainingtodancing,andasanounmeansadancer.TheTVprogramSoYouThinkYouCanDanceisa
terpsichorean talent show. The choreographer Twyla Tharp’s Come Fly Away is a terpsichorean
celebration of the music of Frank Sinatra. And the immensely talented terpsichoreans Fred Astaire and
GingerRogerswereperhapsthegreatestterpsichoreanteamofalltime.
Word9:ES PRITDEL’ES CALIER(e-SPREEduhles-kal-YAY)
Theperfectresponseorremarkthatcomestomindlater,afterthechancetomakeithaspassed.
Haven’tweallhadtheexperienceofthinkingofasnappycomebackorstingingriposte(word38ofLevel
6)whenit’swaytoolatetouseit?Andhaven’tyousometimeswonderediftherewasawordforthat?
Well, now you know it: esprit de l’escalier, which English borrowed from French in the early 1900s,
meansliterallythespiritofthestaircase—inotherwords,inspirationgaineduponascendingthestairsto
retiretobed,longaftertheopportunityforaretorthaspassed.Whenyou’recominghomefromworkand
youthinkofwhatyoucouldhavesaidtoyourcontemptibleboss,orwhenyou’recleaningupafterdinner
and you suddenly know what you should have told your insufferable father-in-law, that’s esprit de
l’escalier.
Inrecentyears,twoEnglishequivalentsofthisFrench-derivedphrasehavebeenproposed:stairwit,
almostaliteraltranslationoftheoriginal,andretrotort,ablendoftheprefixretro-,backwardorbehind,
and retort. There is also the German Treppenwitz (TREP-en-vitz), a word on the fringe of becoming
Englishwhoseconnotationsextendbeyondthespiritofthestaircase.InTheyHaveaWordforIt,Howard
Rheingoldwritesthat“inadditiontoreferringtothekindofremarkthatoccurstoapersonwhenitistoo
late,[Treppenwitz]alsoappliestoeventsthatappeartobetheresultofajokeplayedbyfateorhistory.”
The French word esprit (e-SPREE) is also an English word meaning liveliness or vivacious wit:
“The Howells always invited Marjorie to their Christmas party because everyone loved her infectious
esprit.”Espritalsoappearsinbel-esprit(BEL-e-SPREE), a person of intelligence and wit, and in the
phrase esprit de corps (e-SPREE duh KOR), the sense of unity and enthusiasm for a common cause
amongthemembersofagroup.
Word10:POPINJAY(PAHP-in-jay)
Apersonwhoisvain,conceited,haughty,andfondofidle,pretentiouschatter.
The noun popinjay, which almost always applies to men, comes from the Middle English papejay or
papejai,whichmeantaparrot,andisrelatedtotheItalianandSpanishwordsforaparrot,pappagallo
andpapagayo.WhenpopinjayenteredEnglishinthe14thcenturyitwasusedtomeanaparrotandalso
anornamentalrepresentationofaparrot,asonatapestryorinheraldry.Themodernmeaningofpopinjay
appearedintheearly16thcentury,probablyinfluenced,saystheOED,by“thebird’sgaudyplumageor
itsmechanicalrepetitionofwordsandphrases.”
Because of this psittacine derivation—psittacine (SIT-uh-syn, like sit a sign) means resembling or
pertaining to parrots—the word popinjay, when properly used, always suggests two things about a
person: exaggerated vanity and a fondness for empty, pretentious talk. Popinjays are overly concerned
withtheirappearanceandhaveanexaggeratedsenseofself-importance.Theyoftenstrutandmince,walk
or speak in an affected manner. In his 1819 novel Ivanhoe, Sir Walter Scott described a character as
being“aspertandasproudasanypopinjay.”Lestyouthinkthisisthesortofwordthatonly19th-century
novelistsuse,here’sacontemporarycitation:“CharlieChaplinenragedHitlerbyopenlysatirisinghimas
aludicrouspopinjayinhis1940comedyTheGreatDictator”(IrishIndependent).Andhere’sonefrom
J.K.Rowling’s2003novelHarryPotterandtheOrderofthePhoenix:“Hasitnotoccurredtoyou,my
poorpuffed-uppopinjay,thattheremightbeanexcellentreasonwhytheHeadmasterofHogwartsisnot
confidingeverytinydetailofhisplanstoyou?”
Colorfulsynonymsofpopinjayincludefop,dandy,andcoxcomb(discussedunderepithet, word 37
of Level 1). Unusual synonyms of popinjay include the eponymous Beau Brummel (boh-BRUHM-ul),
cockalorum(KAH-kuh-LOR-um),princox(PRIN-kahks),andprickmedainty(PRIK-mi-dayn-tee).
ReviewQuizforKeywords1–10
Considerthefollowingquestionsanddecidewhetherthecorrectanswerisyesorno.Answers appear
here.
1.Doeschiaroscurorefertothecontrastbetweencolorandshade?
2.Canyoucontemnsomeoneyoudislikeordisapproveof?
3.Isadefenseofone’sbeliefsoractionsanapologia?
4.Whenyougorgonize,doyouterrorizeordefeat?
5.Canscholiaappearasfootnotes,endnotes,ormarginalia?
6.Ifyouarecathected,areyouemotionallyalienated?
7.Issortilegeaformofdivination?
8.Issingingaterpsichoreanartform?
9.Isacrushingretortmadeonthespotanexampleofespritdel’escalier?
10.Areapopinjayandaparrotconnectedetymologically?
DifficultDistinctions:CacheandCachet
Thewordscacheandcachet,bothborrowingsfromFrench,shouldbecarefullydistinguishedinmeaning
andpronunciation.Cache,pronouncedinonesyllablelikecash,denotesasecretstorageplaceor,more
often, valuable items that are secretly stored, as a cache of weapons or the pirates’ buried cache.
Cachet,pronouncedintwosyllables,ka-SHAY(rhymeswithparfait),originallymeantanofficialletter
or seal but in modern usage has come to mean a mark of distinction or prestige: “No honor has more
cachetthantheNobelPrize”;“Whenthestorestoppedcateringtothewealthy,itlostitscachet.”
DifficultDistinctions:PurposelyandPurposefully
Whenyoudosomethingpurposely,youdoitonpurpose,intentionally:“Heflirtedwithherpurposely”;
“Shepurposelyneglectedtotellhimabouttheincident.”Whenyoudosomethingpurposefully,youdoit
withdeterminationtoaccomplishanobjective:“Hestrodepurposefullyacrosstheroomtoconfrontthe
loudmouthedbully.”
The common mistake is to use purposefully, meaning with a specific purpose in mind, with
determination,whenwhatismeantispurposely,intentionally:“Amemorialbearshisnameandthenames
ofthe39othersonslabsofpurposefully[purposely]unfinishedstone”(SanFranciscoChronicle).
Word11:CATACHRES IS (KAT-uh-KREE-sis)
Misuseofonewordforanother,orusingthewrongwordforthecontext.
ThenouncatachresiscomesfromancientGreek,whereitmeantthemisuseormisapplicationofaword.
In general, catachresis denotes any misuse or abuse of words, such as using reticent (which means
reluctanttospeak)tomeanreluctant,orconfusingsupine(whichmeanslyingfaceup)withprone(which
meanslyingfacedown).Inrhetoric,thestudyofeffectivewritingandspeaking,catachresisdenotesany
strained or farfetched usage, such as the wresting of a word from its common meaning or a mixed
metaphor. Shakespeare’s Hamlet has two well-known rhetorical catachreses (KAT-uh-KREE-seez): “I
willspeakdaggerstoher”and“Totakearmsagainstaseaoftroubles.”
Englishhasseveralwordsforvariousslipsandblundersofusage,includinggaffe(word27ofLevel
2),parapraxis(word23ofLevel9),solecism,malapropism,mondegreen,andspoonerism.
Solecism (SAH-luh-siz’m) comes from the inhabitants of Soloi, an ancient Greek colony in Cilicia
(si-LISH-uh), Asia Minor, whose citizens were infamous for their horrible habits of speech. In modern
usageasolecismiseitheragrossgrammaticalerrororasocialimpropriety(word10ofLevel3),suchas
spittingorbelchinginpublic.
Thewordmalapropism(MAL-uh-prahp-iz’m)comesfromMrs.Malaprop,thenameofacharacterin
RichardBrinsleySheridan’splayTheRivals,publishedin1775.Intheplay,Mrs.Malaprop,whosename
wascreatedfromtheFrenchloanwordmalapropos(MAL-ap-ruh-POH),inappropriateoroutofplace,
hasaludicroushabitofconfusingwordsthataresimilarinsound,usuallysubstitutingadifficultwordfor
amorecommononeinanattempttosoundeducated.
The word mondegreen (MAHN-duh-green) was coined in 1954 by journalist Sylvia Wright for the
phenomenon of inadvertently transposing what you hear into different words, as when we mishear a
patchyfogasApachefogorforallintentsandpurposesasforallintensivepurposes.Wrightcameup
with mondegreen for this because she remembered as a child mishearing the lyric of an old Scottish
ballad,“TheyhaeslaintheEarlo’Morey/Andlaidhimonthegreen”as“TheyhaeslaintheEarlo’
Morey/AndLadyMondegreen.”
Finally,aspoonerismisaspecialtypeofspokenblunderthattakesitsnamefromWilliamArchibald
Spooner (1844–1930), an Anglican clergyman and warden of New College, Oxford. Also called a
transpositionpun,aspoonerismisareversaloftheinitiallettersorsyllablesoftwoormorewordsthat
createsanonsensicalphrasethatseemstomakesense:forexample,ablushingcrowforacrushingblow,
awell-boiledicicleforawell-oiledbicycle,andahalf-warmedfishforahalf-formedwish.
Word12:ETIOLOGY(EE-tee-AHL-uh-jee)
Thestudyofcausesororigins,orthecauseofsomething;specificallyinmedicine,thestudyofthecausesororiginsofdiseases,orthecause
ororiginofadisease.
Etiology, which entered English in the mid-1500s, comes from the Greek aitiología, determining the
cause of something, from aitía, cause, and -logia, science or study. Etiology is most often used in
medicinetomeaneitherthestudyofthecausesororiginsofdiseases,or,moreoften,thecauseororigin
of a disease or disorder, as the etiology of cancer, or the etiology of schizophrenia: “The underlying
etiology for autism remains unknown, although genetic and environmental factors … are thought to be
involved” (www.medscape.com). Etiology may also be used to mean the study of causes or origins in
general, or it may mean the specific cause of something: “The etiology of the persistent gender gap in
physicianearningsisunknownandmeritsfurtherconsideration”(www.scienceblog.com).
Word13:DEMIMONDE(DEM-ee-MAHND)
Aclassofwomenwholiveonthefringesofrespectablesocietybecauseoftheirindiscreetbehaviorandsexualpromiscuity,andwhoare
oftensupportedbywealthylovers.Hence,byextension,anygroupwhosesocialrespectabilityormoralityisquestionableandwhosesuccess
orstatusismarginal.
Thenoundemimondemeansliterallyhalf-world,forthecombiningformdemi-meanshalf,asindemigod
anddemilune(DEM-i-loon),acrescentorhalf-moonshape,andtheFrenchmondemeansworld,coming
fromtheLatinmundus,theworld,thesourceoftheEnglishadjectivemundane,oftheworld,temporal,
materialasopposedtospiritual,asmundaneaffairs.
WhendemimondeenteredEnglishfromFrenchinthemid-1800sitwasusedofwomen“ofdoubtful
reputation and social standing” (OED) who lived on the fringes of respectable society, often as the
mistresses and kept women of wealthy lovers. Over time the scope of the word’s meaning widened as
demimondecametobeusedofanygroupthatoperatesonthefringesofsocietyorthatseemstoinhabitits
ownworld,oftenamorallyquestionableone.
Contemporarywritersrefertothedrug-addleddemimondeofNewYorkCity’snightclubsceneinthe
1980s,tothedemimondeofstripshowsandtattooparlorsinacity’sred-lightdistrict,ortothelawless,
violent demimonde of organized crime. And the so-called noir (NWAHR) fiction of writers such as
RaymondChandler(1888–1959)depictsademimondeofcynical,hard-boileddetectiveswhoscourthe
underbellyofsocietytouncoverthesleazydealingsofvariouslouche(word46ofLevel8)characters.
Word14:NUMINOUS (N[Y]OO-mi-nus)
Magical,supernatural,mysterious;inspiringaweandreverence,especiallyinaspiritualordivineway.
TheEnglishnounnumen(N[Y]OO-men)comesdirectlyfromtheLatinnūmen,whichinoneofitssenses
meantdivinewillorcommand;inEnglishnumenmeansadivinepowerorspiritualforce,especiallyone
connectedwithaparticularobjectorplace.Theadjectivenuminous,fromthesameLatinsource,means
oforpertainingtoanumen,hencesupernaturalormysteriousinaspiritualortranscendentway:“Forthe
restofherlife,Nancyfondlyrememberedherbelovedgrandfather’sfarmasthenuminousplacewhere
shespentsomanyblissfulsummersasachild.”
The phrase the numinous suggests the awe-inspiring feelings or characteristics associated with
religiousfaithandisroughlyequivalenttothedivineortheholy.Butthewordnuminousbyitselfdoes
notalwaysimplydivineinspiration;oftenitsuggestsamysterious,magicalqualityorexperiencethatis
spiritually uplifting or sublime, as a numinous performance, numinous inspiration, or the lambent,
numinousmoon.(Lambentisword35ofLevel7.)
Word15:LEXIPHANIC(LEK-si-FAN-ik)
Using,orfullof,pompous,pretentiouswords.
Perhaps you’re thinking, at this point in Level 10, that Word Workout is becoming lexiphanic, full of
inflated,overblownwords.Indeeditis,andthatisthejoyofcomingtotheendofthisverballyintensive
program,forinthisandthepreviouslevelIhavebeensharingwithyousomeofthebrightestgemsinthe
bejeweledcrownofthelanguage.
The adjective lexiphanic comes from the Greek lexis, a word or phrase, and the verb phainein, to
show.ThisGreeklexisisalsothesourceoflexicology,thestudyofthemeaninganduseofwords,and
lexicography, the compiling of dictionaries or the principles of writing them. Lexiphanic writing or
speech is typically hard to understand because it is grandiloquent (gran-DIL-uh-kwint), full of grand,
lofty,high-flownwords.
The noun lexiphanicism (LEK-si-FAN-i-siz’m) means showing off with words. And a lexiphanes
(lek-SIF-uh-neez)isapersonwhousesbigorobscurewordsasawayofshowingoff.
Word16:BRACHIATE(BRAY-kee-ayt)
Tomovebyswingingbythearmsfrombranchtobranch,likeanapeormonkey.
The verb to brachiate and the noun brachiation (BRAY-kee-AY-shin), the act of swinging through the
treeswiththegreatestofease,comefromtheLatinbrāc(c)hium,whichmeantanarmorthebranchofa
tree.Brachiationisthegracefulmodeoflocomotionemployedbyapes,monkeys,andchildrenplayingon
ajunglegym.
Word17:QUIDNUNC(KWID-nuhngk)
Anosy,inquisitivepersonwholikestogossipaboutthelatestnews;abusybody.
Thenounquidnunc,whichenteredEnglishabout1700,isformedfromtheLatinwordsquid,what,and
nunc,now.Thequidnuncasks“Whatnow?”becauseheorsheisabusybodywhoalwayswantstoknow
thelatestgossip.Inhis1978novelChinaman’sChance,RossThomaswroteof“theborngossipmonger,
thequidnuncwhowouldalmostratherdiethanbethelasttoknow.”
The curious English language contains several interesting words for busybodies and other officious
(uh-FISH-us)folks.(Officiousmeansmeddlesome,nosy,prying,especiallyinanoverbearingway.)
A polypragmon (PAH-lee-PRAG-mun) is a compulsive meddler, someone who is compelled to
interfereinothers’affairs.Ayenta(YEN-tuh),whichEnglishborrowedfromYiddish,isspecificallya
female gossip, often a shrewish one. A badaud (ba-DOH), which comes from French, is “a credulous,
gossiping simpleton,” says Webster 2, or, colloquially, a rubbernecker. And then there is the freshly
minted scuttlebutthead, coined by the American journalist Paul Tough, which denotes a person whose
chiefpleasureinlifeisbeingthefirsttotelleveryonethelatestnews,whetherit’sabreakingstoryinthe
mediaorabrokenheartintheoffice.That’sanexactsynonymofourkeyword,quidnunc.
Word18:CATECHUMEN(KAT-uh-KYOO-min)
Apersonbeingtaughtthebasicsofasubject;specifically,someonewhoisbeingtaughtthebasicdoctrineoftheChristianchurch.
Thenouncatechumendatesbacktothe14thcentury.ItcomesfromtheGreekkatēchoúmenos, literally
one being taught orally, from katēcheîn, to teach orally. From the same source comes the verb to
catechize(KAT-uh-kyz),toinstructorallybymeansofquestionsandanswers,andspecificallytoteach
Christian doctrine in this way. Historically, a catechumen is either a convert to Christianity who is
learning the basic doctrine of the church in preparation for baptism, or someone who is being taught
Christian doctrine in preparation for the rite of confirmation. But in its extended, nonreligious sense, a
catechumenisabeginner,someonelearningtheelementaryprinciplesorrudimentsofanysubject:“Any
aspiringcookwouldjumpatthechancetobeacatechumeninagreatrestaurantwithacelebratedchef.”
English has various words for different kinds of beginners. You’ve already met the abecedarian
(word 35 of Level 8), a person who is learning the alphabet or the rudiments of something. A novice
(NAHV-is)isaprobationarymemberofareligiouscommunityorsomeonenewtosomethingwhohasto
learnthebasics.Aneophyte(NEE-uh-fyt)isapersonnewlyconvertedtoareligionordoctrine,hencea
beginnerornovice.Byderivationatyro(TY-roh)isarecruitintheRomanarmy;inmodernusageatyro
is a raw beginner, eager to learn but incompetent. Finally, the words tenderfoot and greenhorn denote
peoplewholackexperienceandwhomayalsobenaiveaboutwhattheyaregettingthemselvesinto.
Word19:S YBARITE(SIB-uh-ryt)
“Apersondevotedtoluxuryandpleasure”(RandomHouse).
Sybarite is a toponym (TAHP-uh-nim), a word formed from the name of a place, in this case Sybaris
(SIB-uh-ris),anancientGreekcityinsouthernItalyrenownedforitswealthanditsinhabitants’devotion
toluxuryandpleasure.
“TheSybariteswerenotedamongtheGreeksfortheirloveofluxuryandsensuousness,andtosome
extentfortheireffeminacyandwantonness,allqualitiesassociatedwiththewordsybaritetoday,”writes
RobertHendricksoninTheFactsonFileEncyclopediaofWordandPhraseOrigins.“Thefertilelandof
Sybaris…madeluxuriouslivingpossible,buttoomanypleasuresweakenedthepeople.Theneighboring
Crotons…destroyedSybarisin510 B.C.,divertingtheriverCrathistocoveritsruins.Itissaidthatthe
Sybariteshadtrainedtheirhorsestodancetopipesandthat[the]Crotonsplayedpipesastheymarched
uponthem,creatingsuchdisorderamongtheirrivalsthattheyeasilywonthebattle.”
In modern usage sybarite refers to anyone devoted to luxury or to sensual pleasure: “The selfindulgentanticsofHollywood’ssybaritesareaperennialtopicinthetabloidpress.”Therecentlycoined
wordsfashionistaandfoodiedenotesybariteswhoderivepleasurefrom,respectively,fancyclothingand
fine food. But sybarite may also refer to someone devoted to nonphysical luxury and pleasure, as a
literarysybariteorasybariteofthecontemporaryartscene.
Synonyms of sybarite include voluptuary (vuh-LUHP-choo-er-ee), sensualist, hedonist (HEE-duhnist),anddebauchee(discussedunderdebauch,word30ofLevel5).Theadjectiveissybaritic(SIB-uhRIT-ik). Sybaritism (SIB-ur-uh-tiz’m) denotes the habits or practices of a sybarite, a pleasure-loving
person.
Word20:QUIS LING(KWIZ-ling)
Atraitor,collaborator;apersonwhobetrayshisorhercountrybycooperatingwithanenemyoranoccupyingforce.
TheeponymousnounquislingcomesfromthenameVidkunQuisling(1887–1945),afascistNorwegian
leader who helped Nazi Germany conquer Norway, then became the arrogant and brutal premier of his
occupiedcountry.WhentheNazissurrenderedin1945,Quislingwasarrested,convictedoftreason,and
shot.Histreacherouslegacyasapuppetoftheenemymadehisnamesynonymouswithtraitor.
Other synonyms of quisling include turncoat, renegade, and apostate (uh-PAHS-tayt, discussed in
apostasy,word12ofLevel9).OthereponymoussynonymsofquislingincludeJudas(orJudasIscariot)
andBenedictArnold.
The rare verb to quisle (KWIZ’l, rhymes with fizzle) means to act as a quisling, to betray one’s
countrybyaidingandabettinganenemyoranoccupyingforce.
ReviewQuizforKeywords11–20
Considerthefollowingstatementsanddecidewhethereachoneistrueorfalse.Answersappearhere.
1.Amispronouncedwordisacatachresis.
2.Etiologyisthestudyofthesymptomsofadiseaseorproblem.
3.Ademimondeisagroupthatoperatesonthefringesofsociety.
4.Anuminousexperienceisembarrassing.
5.Alexiphanicpersonlikestoshowoffwithwords.
6.Whenyoubrachiateyouwalkfromplacetoplace.
7.Aquidnuncismisanthropic.
8.Acatechumenhaslotsofexperience.
9.Thewordsybariteisatoponym.
10.Aquislingisafaithfulservant.
OnceUponaWord:MenuEnglish
Hadalookatarestaurantmenulately?Nodoubtyouhave,andperhaps,likeme,youcringed.Therethey
were,alltheusualculinary(KYOO-li-NER-ee,notKUHL-)redundanciesandsolecisms,lookingupat
youfromthelaminatedpagewithanilliteratesneerlikeahaughtywaiterata“bistrorestaurant,”whichis
apompousredundancybecausethewordbistromeansasmall,informalrestaurant.
No doubt there was the redundant steak with au jus (au means with), which you can enjoy after
swillingapleonasticbowlofthesoupdujouroftheday(dujourmeansoftheday).Thentherewasthe
penne pasta, instead of just the penne, because the menu writers have decided penne requires special
clarificationaspasta.Buttheyarenotalone.Thesupermarketpeoplewhocomposethepeculiarlanguage
onyourgroceryreceiptsalsoindulgeinpastapleonasm,givingusspaghettipasta,linguinepasta,andso
on.
Thissameredundantreasoningisatworkonthewordscampi,whichisinvariablybilledasshrimp
scampi. But scampi is the plural of the Italian scampo, a kind of lobster, and in English scampi is a
singularnounmeaningalargeshrimporadishoflargeshrimpsautéedingarlicandbutter.
If you’re in the mood for a salad, you can order one with bleu cheese dressing, which uninspiring
restaurants with Continental aspirations prefer to serve instead of the proper English blue cheese. You
havetowonder,gazingdownatthecreamywhiteglopthatwilltravelimmediatelytoyourmidsectionand
takeuplodging,howthecheesecomesintothekitchenbluebutgoesoutofitbleu.Itisatrès(nottrés)
mysteriousfrenchification,perhapsinfluencedbyvealcordonbleu,inwhichcordonbleudoesnothave
anythingtodowithcheesebutmeansafirst-ratecook.
Finally, there’s the so-called restaurant apostrophe—the pluralizing apostrophe that appears on
countless menus, which is often miswritten menu’s, even in the most chic (SHEEK) establishments. An
Italian restaurant near me has some especially egregious (i-GREE-jus) specimens: pizza’s, pasta’s,
appetizer’s,soup&salad’s,andlunchspecial’s.Youcanevenorderapizzawithsauteedonion’s.Thank
goodnesstheplacedoesn’thaveaseparatekid’smenu,whichyou’llfindatscoresoffamilyrestaurants.
Isthatamenuforjustonekid?Orisitakids’menu,oneforallthekidstheyserve?
***
Nowlet’sreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabularyforanothertenkeyworddiscussions.
Word21:CATHOLICON(kuh-THAHL-i-kun)
Acure-all,universalremedy.
Thewordpanacea(PAN-uh-SEE-uh)isaclosesynonymofcatholicon.PanaceacomesfromtheGreek
pan-,all,asinpanorama,literallyaviewallaround,andakos,cure,andmeansacure-allforphysical
ailmentsoranantidoteforworldlywoes.
TheRomanCatholicChurchisso-calledbecauseitregardsitselfastheone,only,true,anduniversal
church—with the emphasis on universal because catholic comes from the Greek katholikós, universal,
general. When printed with a lowercase c, catholic means universal, comprehensive, broad in one’s
sympathiesorinterests.Andcatholicity(KATH-uh-LIS-i-tee)isbroad-mindedness,tolerance,liberality
intastesorviews.
Our keyword, catholicon, also hails from the Greek katholikós, universal, general, and means a
universal remedy, cure for all ills. The word may be used literally, as in this 1642 quotation from Sir
ThomasBrowne’sReligioMedici:“Deathisthecureofalldiseases.ThereisnoCatholiconoruniversal
remedy I know but this.” Or it may be used figuratively, as in this 1734 quotation from Robert North’s
LifeofFrancisNorth:“He…madehisWitaCatholicon,orShield,tocoverallhisweakPlacesand
Infirmities.”Andifyou’rereallyclever,youcanuseitbothliterallyandfiguratively,asBrettT.Robinson
didwhenhewrote,atsalon.com,that“theiPhoneisacatholiconforsecuringinstantgratification.The
‘catholic’oruniversalappealoftheobjectisapointworthconsidering.”
Word22:DIS CALCED(dis-KALST)
Withoutshoes,barefoot,unshod.
TheadjectivediscalcedcomesfromtheLatinprivativeprefixdis-,without,andcalceus,ashoe,which
comesinturnfromcalx,calcis,theheel,thesourceoftheverbtoinculcate,discussedunderindoctrinate
(word28ofLevel2).
DiscalcedisthekindofwordthatnativespeakersofaRomancelanguagesuchasSpanishorItalian
aremorelikelytounderstandthananativeEnglishspeaker.Why?BecausemostwordsintheRomance
languages,bothcommonandliterary,comefromLatin,whileEnglishgetsitshardestwordsfromLatin
and Greek and its simplest words mostly from Anglo-Saxon, which is derived from German. Thus, the
commonSpanishdescalzoandthecommonItalianscalzobothmeanshoeless,barefoot,andcomefrom
thesameLatinsourceasthedifficultEnglishworddiscalced.
Historically,discalcedhasbeenusedofthemembersofcertainreligiousorders,suchasfriarsand
nuns,whogoaboutwithoutshoesorwhowearsandals.Butthewordmayalsobeusedofanypersonwho
is barefoot or temporarily unshod, as in these contemporary examples: “There were several pairs of
shoes involved … which the otherwise discalced women had a hard time getting on and off” (Boston
Globe); “Babies must be snatched from mothers, stinky feet must be discalced, nail files must be
confiscated,andallyourpersonalbelongingsmustbestrewnabout”(TheHuffingtonPost).
Theantonymofdiscalcediscalced(KALST),wearingshoes,shod.
Word23:INCONDITE(in-KAHN-dit)
Badlyconstructed,poorlyputtogether.
Synonymsoftheadjectiveinconditeincludecrude,rough,unpolished,unrefined,ill-arranged,andillcomposed. Antonyms of incondite include elegant, refined, cultivated, genteel (jen-TEEL), polished,
cultured,andurbane(ur-BAYN).
Incondite, which entered English in the 16th century, comes from the Latin incondĭtus, disorderly,
uncouth,fromin-,not,andtheverbcondĕre,toputtogether.Thusbyderivationinconditemeansnotput
together,andthatisessentiallytheword’smodernmeaning:badlyconstructed,ill-composed,unpolished,
unrefined.
Youmayuseinconditeofanythingthatisroughorcrudeinform,thatlackspolishorrefinement,such
asvulgarspeechorbehavior.Oryoumayuseincondite,asitisperhapsmostoftenused,ofliteraryor
artisticworksthatarebadlyputtogether,thataredisordered,illogical,orstylisticallyinelegant.Thatis
how the 19th-century Scottish historian and essayist Thomas Carlyle (kahr-LYL) used it in Sartor
Resartus (1836) in his critique of the Koran, the sacred text of Islam, which he called “a wearisome
confusedjumble,crude,incondite…statedinnosequence,method,orcoherence.”
Word24:AFFLATUS (uh-FLAY-tus)
Inspiration,especiallypoeticordivineinspiration.
Afflatusmayseemlikeafunny-soundingworduntilyouknowitsetymology.ItenteredEnglishinthemid1600sfromtheLatinafflātus,abreathingon,thepastparticipleoftheverbafflāre,tobreatheorblow
on,whichcomesfromad-,to,toward,andflāre,toblow.Fromthesamesourcecomethefamiliarverbs
inflateanddeflate,aswellastheunusualnounflatus(FLAY-tus),intestinalgas.Unlikeflatus,thenoun
afflatus is only used figuratively of the so-called breath of inspiration—a word that itself means a
breathingin,fromtheLatinin-andspīrāre,tobreathe.
The Latin phrase afflatus divinus means divine inspiration, and afflatus by itself often implies a
divine communication of knowledge or the influence of a supernal (soo-PUR-nul) impulse or power.
(Supernalmeanscomingfromonhigh,heavenly.)Afflatusalsosuggestspoeticorartisticinspiration,a
strongcreativeimpulse,thekindthatis“animpellingmentalforceactingfromwithin”(RandomHouse).
“Through me the afflatus surging and surging,” wrote the 19th-century American poet Walt Whitman in
“SongofMyself”(1855).
Theverbistoafflate(uh-FLAYT),literallytobloworbreatheon,hencetoinspire.Theadjectiveis
afflated,inspired,asanafflatedstyleoranafflatedaudience.Andanafflationisaninstanceofdivine
orpoeticinspiration.
Word25:FLANEUR(fluh-NUR)
Anidler,loafer,ordawdler.
In the mid-1800s English borrowed the noun flaneur from French, where it means, as in English, a
stroller,loafer,orlounger,andcomesinturnfromtheFrenchverbflâner,tostroll,saunter,loaforlounge
about. By the 1870s English had also adopted the French noun flânerie (flahn-REE), which retains the
little hat over the a—called a circumflex (SUR-kum-fleks)—and means loafing, dawdling, or idleness.
“Theaimlessflânerie,”wrotetheAmericannovelistandcriticHenryJamesin1875,“whichleavesyou
freetofollowcapriciouslyeveryhintofentertainment.”
Common synonyms of flaneur include lounger, sluggard, trifler, ne’er-do-well, do-nothing, noaccount,andslacker,whichinitsmostrecentsense,datingfromthe1990s,denotesadisaffected,aimless
youngpersonwholacksambition.
Two unusual words for loafers and idlers are faineant (FAY-nee-int) and stalko (STAW-koh).
Faineant,whichcomesfromaFrenchphrasemeaningtodonothing,maybeusedasanadjectivetomean
lazy,good-for-nothing,orasanountomeanalazyperson,anidler.Webster2definesthewordstalko,
which comes from Anglo-Irish dialect, as “an impecunious [IM-pe-KYOO-nee-us] idler posing as a
gentleman.”(Impecuniousmeanspenniless,havinglittleornomoney.)TheearliestcitationintheOED,
from1804,saysstalkorefersto“menwhohavenothingtodo,andnofortunetosupportthem,butwho
stylethemselvesesquire.”
Ourkeyword,flaneur,originallydenoted“aliterarytypefrom19th-centuryFrance,essentialtoany
pictureofthestreetsofParis,”saysWikipedia.org.Theword“carriedasetofrichassociations:theman
ofleisure…theurbanexplorer,theconnoisseurofthestreet.”Becauseofthishistory,inmodernusage
flaneurdoesnotusuallysuggestthelazinessofthesluggard,theworthlessnessofthene’er-do-well,or
thecynicalwork-shirkingoftheslacker,butratheragentlemanlykindofloaferwhosaunterswithidle
curiosityfromplacetoplaceseekingpleasureandentertainment.
Word26:QUOMODOCUNQUIZE(KWOH-muh-doh-KUHNG-kwyz)
Tomakemoneyinanywaypossible.
TheverbtoquomodocunquizeisderivedfromtheLatinquōmŏdŏcunque,avariantofquōmŏdŏcumque,
inwhateverway,fromquōmŏdo,inwhatmanner,how.
I’mtakingsomelibertiesincludingquomodocunquizeasakeywordbecause,strictlyspeaking,it’snot
attestedinanydictionaries.TheOEDhasonecitation,fromSirThomasUrquhartin1652,forthepresent
participle quomodocunquizing, which it labels obsolete: “Those quomodocunquizing clusterfists and
rapacious varlets.” (Clusterfist, another extremely rare word, means a miser, skinflint, penny-pincher.
Rapaciousisword10ofLevel2.Avarletisaknave,rascal,orscoundrel.)
ButI’veneverbeenintimidatedbyso-calledobsoletewords;awordmaynolongerbeused,butthat
doesn’t mean it’s no longer useful. My sentiments are with the eccentric American journalist Ambrose
Bierce,authorofthesatiricDevil’sDictionary(1906),whodeclaredthat“ifitisagoodwordandhasno
exactmodernequivalentequallygood,itisgoodenoughforthegoodwriter.”
So I have taken the liberty of extrapolating3 the infinitive quomodocunquize from the participle
quomodocunquizing because we sorely need a word for trying to make money by whatever means
possible, and for whatever reason—hunger, desperation, ambition, or naked greed. Clearly
quomodocunquize “has no exact modern equivalent equally good,” so I hope you’ll see fit to use this
word when the proper occasion arises—perhaps when you next encounter some “clusterfists and
rapaciousvarlets.”
Word27:PAS QUINADE(PAS-kwi-NAYD)
Asatire,especiallyaharshorabusiveone,directedagainstapersonandpostedinapublicplace.
The words pasquinade and lampoon are close in meaning. Both are satires, pieces of writing that use
ironyandsarcasmtoridiculeorscornapersonoraninstitution,ortoexposehumanstupidityorvice.
And both are typically abusive and malicious in tone. But historically a lampoon is published in a
traditional manner, for example as a pamphlet, handbill, or circular, while a pasquinade is posted in a
publicplace,inthemannerofaposterorplacard(PLAK-urd).IntheageoftheInternetasatiricalposton
Facebookoraninsultingtweetwouldqualifyasapasquinade.
The first pasquinades “were hung upon an ancient statue unearthed in Rome in 1501, and reerected
nearthePiazzaNavonabyCardinal[Oliviero]Caraffa,”writesRobertHendricksoninTheFactsonFile
EncyclopediaofWordandPhraseOrigins.
Themutilatedoldstatue…wasdubbedPasquino…probablybecauseitstoodoppositequarters
whereasharp-witted,scandal-lovingoldmannamedPasquinohadlived.…Itbecamecustomary
onSt.Mark’sDaytosaluteandmockinglyaskadvicefromthestatuenamedforthecausticold
man,suchrequestsbeingpostedonthestatueafterawhile.ThesewrittenLatinversessoontook
the form of barbed political, religious, and personal satires, often upon the Pope, which were
called[inItalian]pasquinate.”
Eventually,saystheOED,“thetermbegantobeapplied,notonlyinRome,butinothercountries,to
satirical compositions and lampoons, political, ecclesiastical, or personal, the anonymous authors of
whichoftenshelteredthemselvesundertheconventionalnameofPasquin.”
Word28:XANTHIPPE(zan-TIP-ee)
Anill-tempered,scolding,browbeatingwoman;ashrew.
Xanthippeisaneponymousword,fromthenameofthewifeoftheancientGreekphilosopherSocrates.
Legend has made Xanthippe the classic shrew—a quarrelsome, nagging woman—but the Columbia
Encyclopediasays“thestorieshavelittlebasisinascertainablefact.”AlthoughSocrateswasabrilliant
thinker and teacher, he was also a repugnant runt who was hardly God’s gift to woman. “Various
historians,” notes Robert Hendrickson in his Dictionary of Eponyms, “argue that [Xanthippe] has been
muchmaligned[word41ofLevel3],thatSocrateswassounconventionalastotaxthepatienceofany
woman,asindeedwouldanymanconvincedthathehasareligiousmissiononearth.”
Xanthippe may be the proverbial shrew, but her name is not the only word in the language for a
shrewish woman. A vixen (VIK-sin) is a shrew who is not only irritable and quarrelsome but also
schemingandmalicious.Avirago(vi-RAY-goh)isanill-tempered,scoldingwomanwhoisbigandloud;
thewordhailsfromtheLatinvir,aman,thesourceofvirile,manly,becausethevirago’simposingsize
and overbearing speech seem more male than female. A termagant (TUR-muh-gant, not -jant) is a
“boisterous, brawling, or turbulent woman,” says The Century Dictionary, who doesn’t hesitate to use
her fists as well as her tongue to make a point; termagant was first used as the name of a violent,
overbearingcharacterrepresentingamythicalMuslimdeityinmoralityplaysoftheMiddleAges.Finally,
aharridan,whichmaycomefromtheFrenchharidelle,anold,thinhorseoralarge,gauntwoman,isa
vicious,disreputableoldshrew.
Word29:POCOCURANTE(POH-koh-kyuu-RAN-tee)
Careless,indifferent,nonchalant,apathetic.
PococuranteenteredEnglishinthemid-1700sfromtheItalianpococurante,caringlittle.Thewordmay
beanadjectivewithexactlythesamemeaningastheItalian,caringlittle,andsoindifferentorapathetic,
as a pococurante manner or pococurante conversation. Or it may be a noun meaning a careless,
indifferent,nonchalantperson,atrifler,asinthis1779quotationfromthediaryofHesterLynchThrale,a
closefriendofSamuelJohnson:“HeseemstohavenoAffections,andthatwon’tdowithme—Ifeelgreat
DiscomfortintheSocietyofaPococurante.”
In Candide, the celebrated satirical novel published in 1759 by the French philosopher Voltaire
(1694–1778), the naively optimistic Candide travels with a companion to the opulent palace of Count
Pococurante,who,truetohisname,“receivedthetwotravelersquitepolitely,butwithoutmuchwarmth.”
TheCountproceedstoshowthemwhatawetblanketheis(awetblanketisapersonwhotakesallthe
pleasure or excitement out of something) by nonchalantly dismissing everything that Candide finds
interesting. He says he is bored with attractive women, that he no longer bothers to look at the rare
paintingsinhiscollection,thatheisunmovedbybeautifulmusic,anddisdainfulofmostofthebooksin
hislibrary.“IsaywhatIthink,”theCountdeclares,“andcarelittlewhetherothersagreewithme.”
Did you notice that care little? That’s why he’s Count Pococurante, a man so indifferent to all the
richesthatsurroundhimthathecanonlyfeelsuperiortoordisgustedwiththem.Inshort,theCounttakes
pleasureinnotbeingpleased—andthat’safinemoderndefinitionofthewordpococurante.
Word30:HOMUNCULUS (hoh-MUHNG-kyuh-lus)
Alittlemanorhumanbeing;adiminutiveperson.
Thepluralishomunculi(hoh-MUHNG-kyuh-ly).
Homunculus comes from the Latin homunculus, a little man, the diminutive of homo, a man, as in
homo sapiens, literally intelligent man, the scientific term for human beings. According to the 16thcenturySwissphysicianandalchemistParacelsus(PAR-uh-SEL-sus),ahomunculuswas“atinyhuman
beingthatmaybeproduced…artificially,withoutanaturalmother,”asifinanalchemist’sflask,says
TheCenturyDictionary.“Beingproducedbyart,itwassupposedthatartwasincarnateinitandthatit
hadinnateknowledgeofsecretthings”ormagicalpowers.Fromthisfancifulnotionanevenmorefanciful
notiondeveloped:thatahomunculuswasafullyformedbutminiaturehumanbeingsupposedtobepresent
inthehumanspermcell.Laterwritersrejectedtheseideasandusedhomunculusinitsetymologicalsense
ofalittlemanorapersonwhoisverysmallbutotherwisenormallyproportioned.
Familiar synonyms of homunculus include dwarf, pygmy, midget, runt, and shrimp. Less familiar
synonymsofhomunculusincludeTomThumb, the diminutive hero of English folklore; manikin, a little
man—as distinguished from mannequin, the dummy for displaying clothing; mite, which may denote a
smallinsect,asmallcoin,asmallamountorbit,oratinycreature;andLilliputian (LIL-i-PYOO-shin),
one of the diminutive inhabitants of the imaginary land of Lilliput in Jonathan Swift’s satirical novel
Gulliver’sTravels,publishedin1726.
Antonyms of homunculus include colossus (kuh-LAH-sus), titan, behemoth (word 37 of Level 3),
andleviathan(discussedinbehemoth).
ReviewQuizforKeywords21–30
Decideifthepairsofwordsbelowaresynonymsorantonyms.Answersappearhere.
1.Catholiconandpanaceaare…synonymsorantonyms?
2.Discalcedandunshodare…
3.Inconditeandrefinedare…
4.Inspirationandafflatusare…
5.Flaneurandsluggardare…
6.Philanthropizeandquomodocunquizeare…
7.Pasquinadeandeulogyare…
8.Xanthippeandshreware…
9.Passionateandpococuranteare…
10.Homunculusandbehemothare…
OnceUponaWord:PardonMyFrench
English has borrowed many words from French that end with -eur, including keyword 25 of this level,
flaneur,anidler,loafer.InafewborrowingsthisFrenchsuffixcreatesanounforathingoraquality,as
inliqueur(li-KUR,notli-KYOOR);hauteur(word7ofLevel7),arrogance,andfroideur(discussedin
sangfroid,word1ofLevel9),coolaloofness;andpudeur (pyoo-DUR), modesty, especially regarding
sex(fromtheLatinpudēre,tobeashamedortofillwithshame,thesourcealsooftheEnglishpudency,a
fancysynonymofmodesty).ButinmostFrenchloanwordsthis-eurisasuffixthatcreatesanagentnoun,
meaninganoundenotingapersonwhoperformsanaction.
Someoftheseagentnounsendingin-eurarecommon:wordslikeamateur,chauffeur,entrepreneur
(AHN-truh-pruh-NUR,not-NOO-ur,andnotetherintheantepenultimatesyllable),connoisseur (kahnuh-SUR),andrestaurateur4(RES-tuh-ruh-TUR)arepartofeverydaydiscourse.
Someofthemarelessfamiliar,likemasseur(ma-SUR),amanwhogivesmassages;coiffeur(kwahFUR), a male hairdresser—not to be confused with coiffure (kwah-FYUR), a hairstyle; voyeur (voyYUR), a person who gets sexual gratification from spying on other people, a peeping Tom; litterateur
(LIT-ur-uh-TUR),aliterarypersonorprofessionalwriter;andagentprovocateur(AY-jintorA-zhah(n)
pruh-VAHK-uh-TUR),apersonhiredtosecretlyinfiltrateanorganizationandinciteitsmemberstosome
illegalaction.
Thentherearesomeunusualagentnounsendingin-eur,knownonlytoconnoisseursofsuchverbal
delights.Herearesomeofthem:
An accoucheur (a-koo-SHUR) is an obstetrician or a person who assists in childbirth, from the
French couche, a bed, couch. A carillonneur (KAR-uh-luh-NUR) is a person who plays a carillon
(KAR-uh-lahn), a set of stationary bells usually placed in a tower. A colporteur (KAHL-por-tur) is a
peddler of Bibles and religious books. A danseur (dahn-SUR)—a word you met in the discussion of
companion words in Level 9—is a male ballet dancer. A farceur (fahr-SUR), from the same source as
farce, is a joker, wag, or humorist. A friseur (free-ZUR), from friser, to curl, frizz, or wave, is a rare
word for a hairdresser. A jongleur (zhaw(n)-GLUR) is an itinerant minstrel or juggler. A persifleur
(PUR-si-flur) is the agent noun corresponding to the noun persiflage (PUR-si-flahzh), good-humored
banterorjesting.Arapporteur(ra-por-TUR)isafancywordforapersonwhogivesreports.Andfinally,
asiffleur(see-FLUR)—oneofmyfavoritewords—isaprofessionalwhistler.
***
Nowlet’sleaveLaBelleFranceandreturntotheWordWorkoutvocabulary.
Word31:MORGANATIC(MOR-guh-NAT-ik)
Oforpertainingtoamarriagebetweenapersonofhighrankorsocialstandingandapersonofalowerrankorsocialstanding.
Historically, the adjective morganatic refers to a marriage between a member of the nobility and a
commonerinwhichthearistocrat’stitlesandpropertycannotbeinheritedbytheignoblespouseorthe
half-noble, half-common offspring. This explains the word’s derivation, from the New Latin phrase
matrimonium ad morganaticam, literally marriage with a morning gift, meaning that the wife and any
children she may bear are not entitled to any share of what the husband owns beyond the traditional
morninggift,thepropertythehusbandgivesthewifethemorningaftertheirmarriage.
Althoughhistoricallymorganaticreferstoamanofhighrankmarryingawomanoflowerrank,the
wordhasoccasionallyalsobeenusedofamarriagebetweenahigh-rankingwomanandalow-ranking
man. In modern usage morganatic could aptly refer to any intimate relationship, married or otherwise,
betweenpeopleofmarkedlydifferentsocialstatus.Forexample,whensomeWallStreetMasterofthe
Universe ditches his long-suffering wife and shacks up with the housekeeper, or when a wealthy older
womanhasanaffairwithanimpecuniousyoungman,that’smorganatic.
The noun hypergamy (hy-PUR-guh-mee), from hyper, over, above, and the combining form -gamy,
which means marriage or union, denotes a marriage with someone above your social station.
Colloquially,hypergamyiscalled“marryingup.”
Word32:PARALEIPS IS (PAR-uh-LYP-sis)
Inrhetoric,thetechniqueofdrawingattentiontosomethingwhileclaimingtosaylittleornothingaboutit.
Paraleipsis—which,sinceenteringEnglishabout1550,hasalsobeenspelledparalepsisandparalipsis
—comesfromtheGreekparáleipsis,anomitting,passingover,fromparáleipein,toleaveononeside,
omit.Byderivation,paraleipsisisanintentionalpassingoversoastodrawattentiontothatwhichhas
onlybeentoucheduponoromitted.
Garner’sModernAmericanUsagedefinesparaleipsis,whichisalsoknowninrhetoricasoccupatio
(AHK-yuh-PAY-shee-oh), as “a brief reference to something done in such a way as to emphasize the
suggestivenessofthethingomitted.”Garneroffersthisexample:“I’lljustmentionafewoftheoutrages
committed by the Spanish Inquisition.” And Webster 2 offers this example: “I confine to this page the
volumeofhistreacheriesanddebaucheries.”(Theverbtodebauchisword30ofLevel5.)
InhisHandlistofRhetoricalTerms,RichardA.Lanhamsaysthatparaleipsis,oroccupatio, occurs
when “a speaker emphasizes something by pointedly seeming to pass over it,” as when someone
introducesaspeakerbysaying,“IwillnotdwellhereonthetwentybooksandthethirtyarticlesProfessor
X has written, nor his forty years as Dean, nor his many illustrious [i-LUHS-tree-us, well known and
respected,distinguished]pupils,butonlysay…”Setphrasesinthelanguageassociatedwithparaleipsis
includetosaynothingof,nottomention,anditgoeswithoutsaying.
The related rhetorical term preterition (PRET-ur-ISH-in) might be defined in colloquial terms as
“saying you’re not going to say something and then saying it anyway.” Preterition is commonly used in
debating,andespeciallyinpoliticalwrangling,aswhenacandidatesays,“I’mnotheretotalkaboutmy
opponent’s reprehensible voting record and failed policies. I’m here to explain my position on the
issues.”
Word33:MUMPS IMUS (MUHMP-si-mus)
Someonewhoobstinatelyclingstoanerror,badhabit,orprejudice,evenafterthefoiblehasbeenexposedandthepersonhumiliated.Also,any
error,badhabit,orprejudiceobstinatelyclungto,especiallyoneinspeechorlanguage.
Mumpsimus has its obstinate roots in a 16th-century story of “an ignorant priest,” says The Century
Dictionary,“whoinsayinghismasshadlongsaidmumpsimusforsumpsimus,andwho,whenhiserror
was pointed out, replied, ‘I am not going to change my old mumpsimus for your new sumpsimus.’ The
storyevidentlyreferstothepost-communionprayer‘Quodinoresumpsimus.’”
MarkTwainoncesaid,“Youcanstraightenaworm,butthecrookisinhimandonlywaiting.”That
worm with the crook in him is a mumpsimus, a person who stubbornly adheres to an erroneous or
outmodedwayofdoingsomethingdespiteallevidencethatitisstupidorwrong.Haven’ttherebeena
fewtimesinyourlifewhenyouthoughtaparent,teacher,orsomeoneelseinauthoritywasamumpsimus?
Amumpsimusmaybeapersonwhoclingstoanerror,badhabit,orprejudiceortheerror,badhabit,
or prejudice itself. In Fifteen Chapters of Autobiography, the British writer and Liberal politician
GeorgeWilliamErskineRussell5(1853–1919)wrote,“TheLiberalPartystillclungtoitsmiserableold
mumpsimus of laissez-faire [word 26 of Level 5], and steadily refused to learn the new and nobler
languageofSocialService.”
Word34:BIBLIOPHAGIC(BIB-lee-uh-FAJ-ik)
Book-devouring.
The adjective bibliophagic and the noun bibliophage (BIB-lee-uh-fayj), a person who devours books,
comefromtheGreekbiblios,abook,andphagein,toeat,devour.ThisGreekphagein also appears in
sarcophagus,whichbyderivationmeansflesh-devouring,andonychophagy(word39ofLevel9),nailbiting.
Takeapeeksometimeinanunabridgeddictionaryandyou’llbesurprised,andIhopedelighted,to
find all sorts of interesting words that begin with the combining form biblio-, book. After the familiar
bibliography and its derivatives, can you think of any other words that begin with biblio-? Perhaps
bibliophile,aloverofbooks?
Abibliophilehastowatchoutforthreebadbiblios:thebibliophobe,thepersonwhofearsbooksor
what’sinthem;thebiblioklept,thebookthief;andthebiblioclast,themutilatorordestroyerofbooks.A
bibliophile who needs more books can visit a bibliopolist (BIB-lee-AH-puh-list), a bookseller, or
consult a bibliothecary (BIB-lee-AH-thuh-ker-ee), the keeper of a library, a blend of biblio- and
apothecary(uh-PAH-thuh-ker-ee),anarchaicwordforapharmacist.
Finally, a bibliophile who gets devoured by books can become a bibliomaniac, someone who is
obsessedwithbooks,orevenworse,abibliolater(BIB-lee-AHL-i-tur),someonewhoworshipsbooks.
And all those insatiably bibliophagic—those incessantly book-devouring—bibliomaniacs and
bibliolaters belong to a hyperliterate class that the 20th-century American journalist H. L. Mencken
dubbedthebibliobibuli(BIB-lee-oh-BIB-yuh-ly),meaningpeoplewhoreadtoomuch.
Word35:CORYBANTIC(KOR-i-BAN-tik)
Wild,frenzied,frantic,unrestrained.
TheadjectivecorybanticisaneponymouswordformedfromthepropernounCorybant (KOR-i-bant),
with a capital C. The plural is Corybantes (KOR-i-BAN-teez). The Corybantes were priests and
attendants of the nature and mother goddess Cybele (SIB-uh-lee), who was worshiped by the ancient
peoples of Asia Minor. Cybele’s rites were celebrated with wild music, wine, and ecstatic dancing,
supposedly while Cybele “wandered by torchlight over the forest-clad mountains” (Webster 2). In
pathology, corybantism (KOR-i-BAN-tiz’m) is a kind of frenzy or wild delirium in which the patient
experienceshallucinations,usuallyfromlackofsleep.
Corybantic,whichenteredEnglishinthe1600s,meanslikeacorybant,arecklessrevelerorfrantic
devotee (word 14 of Level 1), hence wild, frenzied, madly agitated. In modern usage corybantic may
apply to dancing or to any sort of frantic, unrestrained behavior, especially wildly self-indulgent
behavior, as the corybantic dancing in the mosh pit or her corybantic weekend partying with her
friendsatthelake.Butthewordmayalsobeusedmoremildlyofanyintenseanduninhibitedfeelingor
action,forexample,corybanticenthusiasmorcorybanticenergy.
Synonyms of corybantic include agitated, frenetic, hectic, impassioned, delirious, moonstruck,
crazed,overwrought,deranged,andunhinged.Antonymsofcorybanticincluderational, level-headed,
sober,self-possessed,sedate(word9ofLevel3),subdued,andstaid.
Word36:AUBADE(oh-BAHD)
Asong,aninstrumentalcomposition,orapoemgreetingorannouncingthedawn,oralovesongsungintheearlymorning.
InTalesofaWaysideInn,publishedin1863,theAmericanpoetHenryWadsworthLongfellowwrites,
“Therehelingeredtillthecrowingcock…/Sanghisaubadewithlustyvoiceandclear.”
ThenounaubadecomesthroughFrenchfromaPortuguesewordmeaningasongaboutthepartingof
twoloversatdawn,andisrelatedultimatelytotheLatinalbus,white.Coincidentally,perhapsthemost
famousaubadeofmoderntimesisofPortugueseprovenance(word25ofLevel5).“ManhãdeCarnaval”
(MorningofCarnival),composedbyLuizBonfáwithlyricsbyAntônioMaria,isthethemesongofthe
1959movieOrfeuNegro(BlackOrpheus)bytheFrenchdirectorMarcelCamus,whichiscreditedwith
bringingtheSouthAmericansambaandtherelatedmusicalstylecalledbossanovatotheattentionofthe
world.
Aubade,asongannouncingthemorning,isthecompanionwordforserenade,amusicalperformance
givenatnight,especiallyalovesong.
Word37:LYCANTHROPY(ly-KAN-thruh-pee)
Thedelusionthatoneisawolf,orthetransformationofahumanbeingintoawolf.
ThenounlycanthropycomesfromtheGreeklykos,awolf,andánthrōpos,aman,humanbeing.Theword
datesbacktothelate16thcentury,butthedelusionhasbeennotedsinceancienttimes.In1621,inThe
Anatomy of Melancholy, the British clergyman and scholar Robert Burton (1577–1640) wrote,
“Lycanthropia…orWoolfemadnesse,whenmenrunnehowlingaboutgravesandfieldsinthenight,and
willnotbepersuadedbutthattheyareWolves,orsomesuchbeasts.”Alycanthrope(LY-kun-throhp)isa
personaffectedwithlycanthropy—inotherwords,eitheraweirdooranactualwerewolf.
Englishhasnumerouswordsforthedelusionthatoneisaparticularkindofanimal.Allcombinethe
Greekwordfortheanimalinquestionwiththesuffix-anthropy,frománthrōpos,aman,humanbeing.To
beginwith,zoanthropy(zoh-AN-thruh-pee),fromtheGreekzôion,ananimal,isthedelusionthatyou’re
somekindofanimal.Cynanthropy(si-NAN-thruh-pee),fromtheGreekkynos,adog,isthedelusionthat
one is a dog. Galeanthropy (GAL-ee-AN-thruh-pee), from a Greek word that was applied to various
animals,isthedelusionthatoneisacat.Andboanthropy(boh-AN-thruh-pee),fromtheGreekbous, an
ox,isthedelusionthatoneisanox.
Word38:NULLIPARA(nuh-LIP-ur-uh)
Awomanwhohasneverborneachild.
Nulliparaischieflyamedicalterm,formedfromtheLatinnullus,none,notany,andthecombiningformparous,bearing,producing,whichcomesfromtheLatinparere,togivebirth,bringforth.Inmedicine,a
nulliparaisawoman(orrarely,afemaleanimal)whohasnevergivenbirthtoachild.Aprimipara(pryMIP-uh-ruh),fromtheLatinprīmus,first,isawomanwhohasborneonechildorwhoisgivingbirthtoa
firstchild.Andamultipara(muhl-TIP-uh-ruh),beginningwithmulti-,many,isawomanwhohasborne
morethanonechild.ThepluralsofthesenounsfollowtheLatin:nulliparae,primiparae,andmultiparae,
inwhichthefinalsyllableisproperlypronounced-ree.Theadjectivesarenulliparous,primiparous,and
multiparous.
Word39:WELTS CHMERZ(VELT-shmairts)
Sentimentalsadness;world-wearymelancholy.
Webster’sNewWorldCollegeDictionarydefinesweltschmerzas“sentimentalpessimismormelancholy
overthestateoftheworld.”AndtheAmericanHeritageDictionarydefinesitas“sadnessovertheevils
of the world, especially as an expression of romantic pessimism.” Why is the world part of these
definitions? Because weltschmerz, which English borrowed from German in the mid-1800s, means
literallyworld-pain,foritisacombinationoftheGermanWelt,world,andSchmerz,pain.
Merriam-Webster’sEncyclopediaofLiteratureexplainsthatweltschmerzis“afeelingofmelancholy
andpessimismorofvagueyearninganddiscontentcausedbycomparisonoftheactualstateoftheworld
withanidealstate.Thetermhasbeenusedinreferencetoindividualsaswellastotheprevailingmood
of a whole generation or specific group of people. It is particularly associated with the poets of the
romantic era who refused or were unable to adjust to those realities of the world that they saw as
destructiveoftheirrighttopersonalfreedom.”
WhenIthinkofweltschmerzI’mremindedofoneofthefunniestbutalsomostmelancholyofMark
Twain’smanyepigrams:“Manwasmadeattheendoftheweek’swork,whenGodwastired.”
Weltschmerz is still often printed in the customary German way, with a capital W, and it still
sometimesappearsinitalicstoindicatethatitisforeign.ButthewordhasbeenEnglishfor150years,
enoughtimeforittobetreatedlikeanormalEnglishnounandprintedinlowercaseromantype.
Word40:NOETIC(noh-ET-ik)
Of,pertainingto,originatingin,orapprehendedbythemindortheintellect.
Synonymsofnoeticincludeintellectual,rational,andcognitive.
TheadjectivenoeticcomesfromtheGreeknoētikós,intellectual,whichcomesinturnfromnoein,to
think,andnous,themind.Thenounisnoesis(noh-EE-sis),whichinancientGreekphilosophymeantthe
exerciseofreasonandwhichinmodernpsychologymeansintellectualfunction,cognition.
Thehumanfacultyofreasonisnoetic,asisthehumanimagination.Readingisanoeticactivity.And
whenagreatideacomestoyouseeminglyoutofnowhere,that’snoeticinspiration.
ReviewQuizforKeywords31–40
Inthisquizthereviewwordisfollowedbythreewordsorphrases,andyoumustdecidewhichcomes
nearestthemeaningofthereviewword.Answersappearhere.
1.Morganaticmeansmarryingasocialequal,marryingasocialinferior,marryingasocialsuperior.
2.Paraleipsisisawayofsuggestingmuchbysayinglittle,awayofinsultingsomeonewithaveiledcompliment,awayofsayingnoby
sayingyes.
3.Amumpsimusisapersonwhorefusestolisten,apersonwhorefusestoagree,apersonwhorefusestochange.
4.Bibliophagicmeansbook-loving,book-devouring,book-destroying.
5.Corybanticmeanseven-tempered,unswervinglyloyal,frenzied.
6.Anaubadeisasongorpoemgreetingthedawn,anodetonature,avictorydance.
7.Lycanthropyisthetransformationofleadintogold,thedelusionthatoneisawolf,thefulfillmentofawish.
8.Anulliparaisawomanwhohasnevergivenbirth,awomanwhohasgivenbirthtoonechild,awomanwhohasbornemanychildren.
9.Weltschmerzisworld-wearymelancholy,personalfreedom,aloveofwordplay.
10.Noeticmeansmoral,physical,intellectual.
OnceUponaWord:GermanLoanwords
MarkTwain,America’sgreatesthumorist,wasnofanofGerman.TwaintraveledinGermanyandlived
thereforatime,andthelanguageneverceasedtocausehimtroubleandconsternation.Thisheassuaged
(uh-SWAYJD) in his usual manner: by poking fun at it. He wrote satirical essays with titles like “The
Awful German Language” and “The Horrors of the German Language,” and he littered his books with
withering gibes (JYBZ) about its confounding (word 34 of Level 2) grammar, tortured syntax, and
ridiculously bloated words. (A gibe is a taunting or derisive remark or joke.) “Whenever the literary
Germandivesintoasentence,”hewroteinAConnecticutYankeeinKingArthur’sCourt,“thatisthelast
youaregoingtoseeofhimtillheemergesontheothersideofhisAtlanticwithhisverbinhismouth.”
PerhapsmyfavoriteofTwain’smanyassaultsonGermanisthisquipfromhisnotebook:“July1—In
the hospital yesterday, a word of thirteen syllables was successfully removed from a patient, a NorthGermanfromHamburg.”
It’s true that German words can be impressively long, not to mention tricky to pronounce, but the
voracious (word 7 of Level 1) English language has proved hospitable to many German borrowings.
You’vealreadymetseveralofthem:zeitgeistisword16ofLevel7;schadenfreudeisword19ofLevel
8;doppelgängerisword43ofLevel8;Treppenwitzisdiscussedinespritdel’escalier,word9ofthis
level;andyoujustgotacquaintedwithweltschmerz,word39ofthislevel.Andnow,quickerthanyoucan
saygesundheit(guh-ZUUNT-hyt),literallyhealth,toapersonwhohasjustsneezed,herearesomeother
interestingandusefulwordsthatEnglishhasborrowedfromGerman.
Schmaltz (SHMAHLTZ), which is both German and Yiddish, means literally melted poultry fat;
hence, by extension, schmaltz is excessive sentimentality, maudlin (word 13 of Level 4) emotion,
especiallyinmusicorwriting.
Verboten (vur-BOHT’n), which entered English about 1912, means forbidden, prohibited, as a
verbotensubject.
SturmundDrang(SHTURMuuntDRAHNG),whichmeansliterallystormandstress,wasthename
of a German romantic literary movement of the late 18th century but is more commonly used today to
meanturmoil,upheaval,orstruggle:“Exhaustedfromyetanotherbitterconfrontationwithherhusband,
Elenawasn’tsurehowmuchlongershecouldenduretheSturmundDrangoftheirmarriage.”
Gemütlich(guh-MOOT-likhor-lik),amostagreeableword,enteredEnglishinthe1850sandmeans
agreeably pleasant or friendly, warm and congenial: “Josie and Carl’s dinner parties always featured
goodfood,stimulatingconversation,andagemütlichatmosphere.”
Bildungsroman (BIL-duungz-roh-mahn) is a literary term for “a type of novel concerned with the
education,development,andmaturingofayoungprotagonist”(RandomHouse);inshort,acoming-of-age
story.
Weltanschauung (VEL-tahn-SHOW-uung), which may be printed with a lowercase w, comes from
Welt, world, and Anschauung, view, and means literally a worldview, specifically a comprehensive
conceptofhumanity’sfunctionintheuniverse.
Sprachgefühl(SHPRAHKH-guh-fuul)comesfromtheGermanSprache,speech,language.InEnglish
sprachgefühlmeansasensitivitytolanguage,specificallyanintuitiveunderstandingofwhatisidiomatic
orlinguisticallyappropriate.
The marvelously ponderous (word 41 of Level 2) Schlimmbesserung (shlim-BES-uh-ruung) is still
not in dictionaries, but I think you’ll agree that English sorely needs it. A Schlimmbesserung is a socalled improvement that makes things worse. “Is It Progress, or Just Schlimmbesserung?” asked the
headline for an article in the Los Angeles Times Magazine published April 26, 1987, whose subhead
proceededtodefinethisunusualword:“ManyPurportedImprovementsSeemtoDiminishtheQualityof
ModernLife.”
And finally, we have one of my all-time favorites: witzelsucht (VITS-ul-suukt or VIT-sel-zuukht) a
feeble attempt at humor, from witzeln, to affect wit, and sucht, mania. Specifically, says Stedman’s
MedicalDictionary,witzelsuchtdenotes“amorbidtendencytopun,makepoorjokes,andtellpointless
stories,whilebeingoneselfinordinatelyentertainedthereby.”Yourlanguagemavenpleadsguiltyonall
counts.
***
Now,herearethefinaltenkeyworddiscussionsinWordWorkout:
Word41:QUIDDITY(KWID-i-tee)
Theessentialnatureoressenceofapersonorthing.
The noun quiddity, which dates back to the 14th century, comes from the Middle Latin quidditās,
whatness, so by derivation quiddity is that which makes a thing what it is. The word is associated
historicallywiththeChristiantheologian-philosophersoftheMiddleAges,beginningwithSt.Anselmin
the11thcentury,whodevelopedasystemofthoughtknownasscholasticism,whichstrovetoreconcile
faithandreason.“Forthegreatestofthescholastics,”saystheColumbiaEncyclopedia, “this meant the
useofreasontodeepentheunderstandingofwhatisbelievedonfaithandultimatelytogivearational
content to faith.” The scholastics continually sought rational answers to the questions “What is the
quiddityoffaith?”and“WhatisthequiddityofGod?”
Since the 17th century quiddity has been used less philosophically and more generally to mean the
essential nature or essence of a person or thing, as in this 1828 citation from Thomas De Quincey in
Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine: “The quiddity … of poetry as distinguished from prose”; and this
citationfromGeorgeBlake’s1935novelTheShipbuilders:“Hislipsandtongueweretremblingtoframe
asentencethatwouldembodythequiddityofthespectacle.”Thequiddityoflifeiswhatmakeslifewhat
itis—andifyouknowwhatthatis,youknowmoreaboutlifethanIdo.
Quiddityhasalsobeenusedtomeanasubtledistinctionorquibbleinanargument,orawittyremark
or quip, particularly in the phrases quibbles and quiddities, quirks and quiddities, and quips and
quiddities.“Hownow,hownow,madwag?What,inthyquipsandthyquiddities?”wroteShakespearein
HenryIV,PartI.Andhere’sacitationfrom1998inTheWashingtonPost:“Thebookisnotyourusual
pussyfootingexerciseinquibblesandquiddities.”
Word42:RES IS TENTIALIS M(RES-i-STEN-shuh-liz’m)
Hostileormaliciousbehaviormanifestedbyinanimateobjects.
Resistentialismisahumorousblendoftheverbresistandthenounexistentialism,themodernphilosophy
thatexplorestheindividual’srelationshiptotheuniverse,theproblemoffreewill,andtheresponsibility
forone’sactionsthatitentails.ThewordalsopunsontheLatinwordrēs,athing,familiarinthephrase
inmediasres(inMED-ee-ahsRAYS),inthemiddleofthingsorinthethickofit.
The British humorist Paul Jennings coined resistentialism in 1948 in a parodic essay in The
Spectator.Inthephilosophyofresistentialism,Jenningstellsus,thereis“agrandvisionoftheUniverse
as One Thing—the Ultimate Thing.… And it is against us.” In the great scheme of things (think about
that!),saysJennings,weareno-ThingandThingsalwayswin.Earlierwritersknewthis,ofcourse.Inhis
1846 poem “Inscribed to W. H. Channing,” Ralph Waldo Emerson observed that “Things are in the
saddle,/Andridemankind.”
In my book There’s a Word for It I cited but a few examples of the innumerable resistentialist acts
committed every day by hostile inanimate objects: screen doors that snap back at you and smash your
nose;rugsthatquietlycurlupsotheycansnagyourtoe;doorknobsthathookyourjacketpocket;glasses
thatsidleintojusttherightpositionsoyouwillknockthemover;andmicrowaveovensthatsabotageyour
food so that the first bite is lukewarm and the next one scalds your tongue. And let’s not forget plastic
wrap,themostresistentialistthingontheplanet!
Word43:NULLIBIQUITOUS (NUHL-i-BIK-wi-tus)
Notinexistenceanywhere.
Theadjectivenullibiquitous,whichenteredEnglishabout1820,andthenounnullibiety(NUHL-i-BY-itee),whichdatesbacktothe1660s,comefromtheLateLatinnullibi,nowhere.Tobenullibiquitousisto
existnowhere,andnullibietyisthestateorconditionofnotexistinganywhere,nonexistence.
Ifyouthinkaboutitforamoment,thosedefinitionsareoxymoronic.(Oxymoronisword24ofLevel
5.)Howcansomethingexistifitisnowhere?WithapologiestoShakespeare’sHamlet,thequestionisnot
tobeornottobe,buthowcanyoubeifyoudon’texist?Fortheanswertothatyou’llneednotjustaword
workoutbutanontological(AHN-tuh-LAH-ji-kul)workout.(Ontology is the branch of philosophy that
studiesthenatureofbeingortheessenceofexistence.)
Ihadthepleasureofbringingtherarewordnullibiquitousoutofobscurity—orperhapsnonexistence
—back in 1999, when I wrote a guest On Language column for The New York Times Magazine about
beingaworddetective,or“grandiloquentgumshoe,”whosejobitisto“trackdownthatmissingpiecein
yourverbalpictureoftheworld,whereveritmaybelurking—inthedemimondeofdialectandslang,in
thecobwebbedcornersofcyberspace,inthebenthicdarknessofanunabridgeddictionary.”(Demimonde
is word 13 of this level, and benthic, pronounced BEN-thik, means pertaining to or occurring at the
bottomofalakeorocean.)Iwrote:“Whenclientsaskmeforalocution[word22ofLevel6]Isuspectis
nullibiquitous(notinexistenceanywhere),Ihatetoletthemdown,soImakesomethingup.”
Asyoumayhavesurmised,theadjectiveubiquitous,existingorseemingtoexisteverywhereatthe
sametime,istheantonymofnullibiquitous,notinexistenceanywhere.
Word44:FLOCCULENT(FLAHK-yuh-lint)
Woolly;resemblingtuftsorclumpsofwool,orconsistingofloosefluffymasses.Also,coveredwithasoft,shortwoollysubstance;downy.
The adjective flocculent comes from the Latin floccus, a tuft or flock of wool, a word that English
borrowedfromLatintomeanasmalltuftofwoollyhairsorthedownyplumageofunfledgedbirds.
Soyou’veheardofaflockofsheep,butwhat’saflockofwool?FromthesameLatinfloccus, this
flockisatuftorlockofwoolorcotton;usedintheplural,flocks,orsometimesflocking,itiswoolor
cotton refuse, or shearings of cloth, coarsely torn by machinery and used to stuff cushions, mattresses,
furniture,andthelike.
A floccule (FLAHK-yool) is anything resembling a small tuft or flock of wool, and the verb to
flocculate (FLAHK-yuh-layt) means to form flocculent, or woolly, masses. In chemistry, flocculent is
used to mean containing or consisting of floccules, loose particles or soft flakes, as when a substance
separates from a solution or suspension. In zoology (zoh-AHL-uh-jee, not zoo-), flocculent is used to
meancoveredwithasoft,waxysubstanceresemblingwool.
Word45:BOUS TROPHEDON(BOOS-truh-FEED-’n)
Anancientmethodofwritinginwhichthelinesarewrittenalternatelyfromrighttoleftandfromlefttoright.
BoustrophedoncomesdirectlyfromtheGreekboustrophēdon,turninglikeoxeninplowing,whichcomes
in turn from bous, an ox, and strephein, to turn, the source also of the -strophe in catastrophe, which
meansliterallyadown-turning.Thus,byderivationboustrophedoniswritingthatresemblesthefurrows
madeinplowingafield,withtheplowpassingalternatelyonewayandthenbacktheotherway.
“In such writing, each letter on the alternate lines was written as in a mirror image or rotated 180
degrees,”writesAnuGargathiswebsiteA.Word.A.Day.“Westilldomanythingsboustrophedonically
[BOO-struh-fee-DAHN-ik-lee], such as mowing the lawn, vacuuming the floor, etc. In many computer
printers,suchasdot-matrixandinkjet,theprintheadusuallymovesintheboustrophedonmode(though
thankfullyitdoesn’tprintlettersmirroredorrotated).”
WhenIpaintwithabrushorwipeacounterormopafloor,Idosoinaboustrophedonicpattern.Can
youthinkofanytasksthatyoudo,orthatthingsdo,boustrophedonically?
Word46:CLINQUANT(KLING-kint)
Glitteringorshimmeringwithgold,silver,ortinsel.
Familiar synonyms of clinquant include sparkling, glimmering, twinkling, glistening, dazzling,
brilliant, radiant, resplendent, and spangled, which means covered or adorned with spangles, small,
thinpiecesorcirclesofglitteringmetalorplastic.“TheStar-SpangledBanner,”thenationalanthemofthe
UnitedStates,whichwasoriginallyapoemcomposedbyFrancisScottKeyin1814,takesitsnamefrom
thenotionofthestarsontheAmericanflagglitteringinthenightlikespangles.
Unusual synonyms of clinquant include scintillating (SIN-ti-LAY-ting), which by derivation means
throwing off sparks; coruscating (KOR-uh-SKAY-ting), giving off flashes of light; and refulgent (riFUHL-jint),shiningorgleamingbrightly.Interestingantonymsofclinquantincludetenebrous (word 42
ofLevel9);umbrageous(uhm-BRAY-jus),fromtheLatinumbra,shade,whichmeansshadyorshadowy;
stygian (STIJ-ee-in or STIJ-in), pertaining to the mythological river Styx, over which the souls of the
dead crossed to reach the underworld, called Hades (HAY-deez)—hence dark and gloomy, or infernal,
hellish;Cimmerian(si-MEER-ee-in),whichbyderivationmeanslivinginperpetualdarkness,hencevery
darkorgloomy;andcaliginous(kuh-LIJ-i-nus),darkandmisty,fromtheLatincālīgĭnis,whichmeantfog,
mist,vapor,ordarkness.
Clinquant, which entered English in the early 1600s, comes directly from the Middle French
clinquant,clinkingortinkling,andisprobablyrelated,throughtheDutchklinken,totheEnglishverbto
clink.Originallyclinquantwasusedofthatwhichglitteredwithrealgoldorsilver;laterthewordwas
appliedtothingsdecoratedwithimitationgoldleafortinsel.Clinquantmaybeusedasanadjectiveto
meanglitteringwithgold,silver,ortinsel,orasanoundenotingtherealorfakegoldleafortinselitself.
The word may also be used figuratively either as an adjective to mean having a glittering superficial
quality, tinselly, as the poet’s pretty, clinquant verses, or as a noun to mean false glitter, literary or
artistictinsel,aswhentheEnglishessayistandpoetJosephAddisonwrotein1711,“OneverseinVirgil
isworthalltheclinquantortinselofTasso.”
Word47:CAS TELLATED(KAS-tuh-lay-tid)
Builtlikeacastleorresemblingacastle.
The adjective castellated comes from the Medieval Latin castellātus, fortified like a castle, and is
relatedtothecommonEnglishwordcastle.Thecastle,aswethinkofittoday—anintegratedgroupof
buildings designed as a massive, high-walled fortress—was an outgrowth of feudalism, the political
systemoftheMiddleAgesinwhichthelord,whooccupiedthecastle,grantedhistenants,calledvassals,
useofhislandinreturnfortheirswornloyaltyandmilitaryservice.
ThebuildingofgreatcastlesflourishedinEuropeinthe13thcentury.Althoughtheydifferedinstyle
andlayout,mostofthemsharedcertaintypicalarchitecturalelements.Therewasoftenamoat—adeep,
widetrencharoundthecastle,usuallyfilledwithwater—andadrawbridge,abridgeoverthemoatthat
couldbeloweredforcrossingitorraisedtokeepoutintruders.Therewasaportcullis(port-KUHL-is),a
gratedirondooratthemainentranceofthecastlethatcouldberaisedorloweredwhenthedrawbridge
wasdown.Andtherewasabarbican(BAHR-bi-kun)orgatehouse,atowerprotectingthemaingateor
drawbridge.
Therewereturretsandsmalleroverhangingturretscalledbartizans(BAHR-ti-zunz) projecting from
thewallsandtowersofthecastle,usuallyatthecorners,whichwereusedaslookouts.Thetopsofthe
wallshadbattlementsconsistingofalternatingsolidparts,calledmerlons(MUR-lunz),andopenspaces,
calledcrenels(KREN-ulz),aswellasloopholesormachicolations(muh-CHIK-uh-LAY-shunz), narrow
openings or slits in the wall or floor through which an enemy could be observed, weapons could be
discharged,orboilingliquidscouldbedropped.
Thentherewasthekeepordonjon(pronouncedlikedungeon),thegreattowerandstrongestpartof
thecastle,locatedintheinnermostcourt,whichhad“wallsofimmensethickness,suitedtoformthelast
retreatofthegarrison,”saysTheCenturyDictionary.Andfinallytherewastheoubliette(oo-blee-ET),a
word that comes from a Middle French verb meaning to forget and that is related to the English word
oblivion,aforgettingorthestateofbeingforgotten.Theoubliettewaswhatwenowcalladungeon,a
secretpitinthefloorofthedonjonormaintowerwithonlyasmallopeningintheceilingthroughwhich
prisonersweredroppedandthenlefttoperish.
Our keyword, castellated, may mean furnished with battlements and turrets like a castle, or
resemblingacastle:“Walterdespisedtheopulentgatedcommunitiesofthesuburbs,withtheircastellated
mansions.” The noun castellation means “the act of fortifying a house and rendering it a castle, or of
givingittheappearanceofacastle”(TheCenturyDictionary).
Word48:ULTRACREPIDARIAN(UHL-truh-KREP-i-DAIR-ee-in)
Goingbeyondone’ssphereofknowledgeorinfluenceinofferinganopinionoradvice;givinganopiniononsomethingoutsideyourareaof
expertise.
UltracrepidariancomesfromtheLatinphrasenesupracrepidamsutorjudicaret,“Letnotthecobbler
overstephislast,”amaximpertainingtoastoryaboutacobblerandtheancientGreekpainterApelles
(uh-PEL-eez). The cobbler noticed a defect in a shoe Apelles had painted and remarked on it. Apelles
wasgratefulfortheadvice,andthecobbler,emboldenedbythis,presumedtogivehisopinionaboutother
elementsinthepainting.Annoyedbythecobbler’sarrogance,thepainterscolded,“Cobbler,sticktoyour
last.”
The earliest known use of ultracrepidarian is in a letter written by the English essayist William
Hazlitt,6 who may have coined the word. Hazlitt used it aptly of literary critics, who are infamous for
givingopinionsonmattersbeyondtheirknowledge.Ultracrepidarianmayalsoserveasanoundenoting
a person who presumptuously offers an opinion on something beyond his or her scope of knowledge.
Ultracrepidarianismistheactofgivinganopiniononsomethingyouknowlittleornothingabout.
Word49:THERS ITICAL(thur-SIT-i-kul)
Verballyabusive,foul-mouthed.
Synonyms of thersitical include obscene, profane, slanderous, derogatory, and contumelious (KAHNt[y]oo-MEE-lee-us).Butprobablytheclosestsynonymofthersiticalisscurrilous(SKUR-orSKUH-rilus),usingorexpressedinlanguagethatiscoarse,vulgar,andabusive.
The adjective thersitical is eponymous; it comes from the name Thersites (thur-SY-teez), who, in
ancient Greek legend, was a member of the Greek army in the Trojan War and a minor character in
Homer’s epic poem the Iliad. Thersites, says Webster 2, was “the ugliest and most scurrilous of the
Greeks.” He reviled everyone (revile is word 43 of Level 4), but he reserved his most slanderous
invectivefortheGreekheroesUlyssesandAchilles—whichwasnotverysmart,becausewhenThersites
mocked Achilles for mourning the brave Amazon queen Penthesilea (PEN-thuh-si-LEE-uh), Achilles
killedhim.
Inmodernusagethersiticalsuggeststhekindofgrossverbalabuseorslanderthatcouldgetyoufired,
sued, punched, evicted from the premises, kicked out of the family, or, depending on whom you are
slandering,whacked,astheMafiawiseguysliketosay.Whentherevilingandtraducingareespecially
scurrilousandscathing,usethersitical.
Word50:PERENDINATE(puh-REN-di-nayt)
Toputoffuntilthedayaftertomorrowortopostponeindefinitely.
Thefamiliarverbtoprocrastinatemeansbyderivationtoputoffuntiltomorrow,foritcomesfromthe
Latincrastĭnus,oftomorrow.Theverbtoperendinatetakesprocrastinateonestepfurther,foritcomes
fromtheLatinperendĭnus,relatingtothedayaftertomorrow.MarkTwainoncesaid,“Donotputofftill
tomorrow what can be put off till day-after-tomorrow just as well.” Was the great American humorist
thinkingthatit’sbettertoperendinatethantoprocrastinate?
Perendinate is such a rare word that the OED has but one citation for it, from 1656, in the sense
definedhere,andonlytwolatercitationsforanothersense:tostayatacollegeasaguestforanextended
amountoftime.Asawriterwhospecializesintheearnestanddrearylaborofputtingthingsoffuntilthe
dayaftertomorroworindefinitely,Ican’thelphopingthatyouandothersofyourword-lovingilkwill
seefittogiveperendinateanewleaseonlife.(Ilk,whichrhymeswithmilk,meanskind,sort,ortype.)
Soplease,don’tdelay,postpone,procrastinate,defer,orprorogue(proh-ROHG).Findanexcuseto
useperendinatetoday!
ReviewQuizforKeywords41–50
In each statement below, a keyword (in italics) is followed by three definitions. Two of the three
definitions are correct; one is unrelated in meaning. Decide which definition doesn’t fit the keyword.
Answersappearhere.
1.Quidditymeanstherealityofsomething,thewhatnessofsomething,theessentialnatureofsomething.
2.Resistentialismisrebellion,hostility,unusualbehavior.
3.Nullibiquitousmeansnotresponding,notexisting,beingnowhere.
4.Flocculentmeanswaxy,downy,woolly.
5.Boustrophedoniswritingthatformsadesign,writingfromrighttoleftandlefttoright,writingthatresemblesthefurrowsmadein
plowingafield.
6.Clinquantmeansshimmeringliketinsel,flickeringlikefire,glitteringwithgold.
7.Castellatedmeansbuiltlikeacastle,resemblingafortress,builtlikeaprison.
8.Ultracrepidarianmeansbeingaknow-it-all,beinganosyperson,talkingaboutthingsyouknownothingabout.
9.Thersiticalmeansfoulmouthed,furious,verballyabusive.
10.Toperendinatemeanstoputoffuntilthedayaftertomorrow,todelayindefinitely,topostponebriefly.
SomeFinalWordsonLearningNewWords
If I’ve taught you anything in Word Workout, I hope it’s that learning new words should be a lifelong
activity,acommitmenttoyourlong-termverbalhealth.Hereareseventipstohelpyoucontinuepumping
upyourwordpowerafteryouclosethisbook:
1.Read,read,read.Readingisthemosteffective—andenjoyable—waytobuildvocabulary.Yetan
astonishingnumberofpeoplewhocanreaddon’tread.Ina2001surveyofliterateAmericansage25and
overconductedbytheU.S.DepartmentofEducation,29percentofthewomenand43percentofthemen
hadnotreadabookintheprecedingsixmonths.“TheaverageAmericanadultreadsonebookayear,and
reads it with the skills and comprehension of a seventh grader,” writes Edward Humes in School of
Dreams. “The average American child spends 78 minutes a week reading, 102 minutes a week on
homeworkandstudy,and12hoursaweekwatchingtelevision.”
Ifyou’renotreadingforyourownpleasureandintellectualdevelopment,it’stimetostartdoingthat
foratleasttwentyminutesaday.Makereadingnewspapersandmagazines,printoronline,apartofyour
diurnalroutine.Visitthepubliclibrary—often.Joinabookcluborliterarysalon.Listentoaudiobooks
whileyoucommute,andalwayslistenforwordsyoudon’tknow(seetipnumberfivebelow).
2.Expandyourhorizons.Tobuildastrongvocabulary,youneedtoreadwidely.Venturebeyondthe
familiar and the easy. Seek out writers who don’t write down to the reader and look for writing that
aspirestoeloquence.Trysomethingnew.Takerisks.
3. Make it fun. You won’t learn anything when you’re frustrated or bored. Challenge yourself, but
don’tforceyourselftoreadsomethingyoudon’tlike.Readwhatinterestsyou:letyourcuriositybeyour
guide. Talk about what you’re reading with others, and solicit recommendations from others on good
bookstoread.
4.Don’t“readaround”wordsyoudon’tknow.Thisisextremelyimportant.Youshouldneverskip
overwordsyoudon’tknoworthatyouthinkyoucanfigureoutfromcontext.Bypassingawordyouthink
youknowbecauseyou’veseenitonceortwicebefore,orbecauseyoucanfigureoutwhatthesentence
means,isabadhabit—onethatinthelongruncanbedetrimentaltoyourverbalhealth.Unfortunately,I
have met many people who are proud that they can understand a passage without knowing the precise
meaningsofthewordsitcontains.Thatisadelusion.
Reading around words is not a sign of intelligence; it is a sign of laziness. Furthermore, the
consequencesofguessingwhatawordmeanscanbeserious.Becausethecontextcanbeambiguousand
themarginforerrorisgreat,moreoftenthannotyouwillguesswrong.Youknowwhatyou’redoingthen?
Building a vocabulary filled with incorrect definitions! That can only lead straight to bad usage and
embarrassment.
The point is, don’t ever cheat yourself out of the opportunity to increase your understanding of the
language. Every word you learn is another dollar in the bank, another arrow in your quiver, another
windowontheworld.
5.Alwayslookforwordsyoudon’tknow.Asavocabularybuilder,yourjobistobeonthelookout
forunfamiliarwords.Trytofindatleastonenewwordeverytimeyouread.Anddon’tforgettotakenote
ofanynewwordsyouhearwhenyouconversewithothers,listentotheradio,orwatchTV.Seek,andyou
shallfind.Andbehonestwithyourself—doyoureallyknowthatwordorjustthinkyouknowit?
6. Use a dictionary. Whenever you see an unfamiliar word, it’s essential that you look it up. Not
doingsoistantamount(TAN-tuh-mownt,equivalent)toreadingaroundtheword.Keepaprintdictionary
handy or an online dictionary open while you read so you can look up words right away. Or you can
highlight words or jot them down (with the page number or URL so you can find them again) and look
themuplater.
7.Reviewitorloseit.Reviewisthekeytoretention.Withtoday’stechnologyit’seasytocreateafile
or list of the words you’ve learned. If you can, record not only the word and definition but also the
pronunciation,etymology,andcontextinwhichyoufoundtheword.Trytoorganizeyourwordsintheir
orderofdifficultyforyou,andreviewthelistoften—afewtimesaweekatleast.
And now we’ve come to the end of Word Workout. I’ve enjoyed being your personal trainer in the
gymnasiumoflanguage,puttingyouthroughyourverbalpacesandcoachingyoutowardamoreprecise
andpowerfulcommandofwords.Nowit’stimeforyoutotaketheknowledgeyouhavegainedandrun
withit.
IfyouhaveacommentaboutWordWorkoutoraquestionaboutlanguage,you’rewelcometocontact
methroughmywebsite:www.charlesharringtonelster.com.
Goodluckandgoodwordstoyou!
AnswerstoReviewQuizzesforLevel10
KEYWORDS1–10
1.No.Chiaroscuroreferstothecontrastoflightandshadeinapictorialwork.
2.Yes.Tocontemnmeanstotreatorregardwithcontempt.
3.Yes.Anapologiaisadefenseorjustificationofone’sbeliefs,actions,orideas.
4.No.Whenyougorgonize,youstupefy,paralyze,orpetrify.
5.Yes.Scholiaareexplanatorynotesorcomments,whichcanappearinfootnotes,endnotes,ormarginalia.
6.No.Tocathectistoinvestemotionalormentalenergyinsomeoneorsomething.
7.Yes.Sortilegemaymeansorcery,magic,orthecastingoflotstopredictthefuture,aformofdivination.
8.No.Dancing,notsinging,isaterpsichoreanartform.
9.No.Acrushingretortthoughtoflaterisespritdel’escalier.
10.Yes.Popinjay,avain,pretentiousperson,isrelatedtotheItalianandSpanishwordsforaparrot.
KEYWORDS11–20
1.False.Acatachresisisamisuseofonewordforanother,orusingthewrongwordforthecontext.
2.False.Etiologyisthestudyofcausesororigins,specificallyofdisease.
3.True.Demimondemaydenoteanygroupthatoperatesonthefringesofsocietyorthatseemstoinhabititsownworld,oftenamorally
questionableone.
4.False.Anuminousexperienceismagical,mysterious,inspiringaweandreverence.
5.True.Alexiphanicperson,orlexiphanes,isashowoffwithwords.
6.False.Whenyoubrachiateyouswinggracefullyfrombranchtobranch,likeanapeormonkey.
7.False.Amisanthropeisahaterofhumankind.Aquidnuncisanosy,inquisitiveperson,abusybody.
8.False.Acatechumenisapersonbeingtaughtthebasicsofasubject.
9.True.ThewordsybaritecomesfromSybaris,anancientGreekcityinsouthernItalywhoseinhabitantsweredevotedtoluxuryand
pleasure.
10.False.Aquislingisatraitor,someonewhoaidsandabetstheenemy.
KEYWORDS21–30
1.Synonyms.Acatholiconisapanacea,cure-all,universalremedy.
2.Synonyms.Discalcedmeansbarefoot,unshod.
3.Antonyms.Inconditemeansbadlyconstructed,unpolished,unrefined.
4.Synonyms.Afflatusisinspiration,especiallypoeticordivineinspiration.
5.Synonyms.Aflaneurisaloafer,idler,sluggard.
6.Antonyms.Tophilanthropizeistopracticephilanthropy,charitablegiving.Toquomodocunquizeistotrytomakemoneyinanypossible
way.
7.Antonyms.Aeulogyisaloftypublicexpressionofpraise,usuallyonsomeformaloccasion.Apasquinadeisanabusive,publiclyposted
satireofaperson.
8.Synonyms.AXanthippeisanill-tempered,scolding,browbeatingwoman;ashrew.
9.Antonyms.Pococurantemeanscareless,indifferent,nonchalant,apathetic,oracareless,indifferent,nonchalantperson,atrifler.
10.Antonyms.Abehemoth(word37ofLevel3)isamassiveandmightycreatureorthing.Ahomunculusisalittlemanorhumanbeing.
KEYWORDS31–40
1.Morganaticmeansmarryingasocialinferior.
2.Paraleipsisisawayofsuggestingmuchbysayinglittle.
3.Amumpsimusisapersonwhorefusestochange,whoobstinatelyclingstoanerror,badhabit,orprejudice.
4.Bibliophagicmeansbook-devouring.
5.Corybanticmeansfrenzied,wild.
6.Anaubadeisasongorpoemgreetingthedawn,oralovesongsungatdawn.
7.Lycanthropyisthedelusionthatoneisawolf,orthetransformationofahumanbeingintoawolf.
8.Anulliparaisawomanwhohasnevergivenbirth.
9.Weltschmerzisworld-wearymelancholy,sentimentalpessimism.
10.Noeticmeansintellectual,pertainingtothemindortheintellect.
KEYWORDS41–50
1.Therealityofsomethingdoesn’tfit.Quiddityistheessentialnatureorbeingofsomething,itswhatness.
2.Unusualbehaviordoesn’tfit.Resistentialismishostilitymanifestedbythings,therebellionofinanimateobjects.
3.Notrespondingdoesn’tfit.Nullibiquitousmeansnotinexistenceanywhere.
4.Waxydoesn’tfit.Flocculentmeanswoolly,downy,fluffy.
5.Writingthatformsadesigndoesn’tfit.Boustrophedoniswritinginwhichthelinesarewrittenalternatelyfromrighttoleftandfromleft
toright,likethefurrowsmadeinplowingafield.
6.Flickeringlikefiredoesn’tfit.Clinquantmeansglitteringorshimmeringwithgold,silver,ortinsel.
7.Builtlikeaprisondoesn’tfit.Castellatedmeansbuiltlikeacastleorfortress.
8.Beinganosypersondoesn’tfit.Ultracrepidarianmeansgivinganopiniononsomethingoutsideyourareaofexpertise.
9.Furiousdoesn’tfit.Thersiticalmeansverballyabusive,foulmouthed.
10.Topostponebrieflydoesn’tfit.Toperendinatemeanstoputoffuntilthedayaftertomorroworindefinitely.
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1. See, for example, Kathleen Phalen Tomaselli, “Steps to a Nimble Mind: Physical and Mental Exercise Help Keep the Brain Fit,”
amednews.com,November17,2008.
LEVEL1
1.paltry(PAWL-tree):ofanamount:extremelysmall,meager,measly,scanty;ofathing:insignificant,trivial,worthless,inferior.
2.coxcomb(KAHKS-kohm),aconceited,pretentiousfool;amanwhosevanityissoexaggeratedthatit’slaughable.Thewordcomesfrom
“cock’scomb,”thecapwornbyprofessionaljestersintheElizabethanera.Synonymsofcoxcombincludedandy,fop,andpopinjay(word
10ofLevel10).
3.Incongruous(in-KAHNG-groo-wus)meansoutofplace,inappropriate,inconsistent,unsuitable.
4.Archaic(ahr-KAY-ik)meansold-fashioned,nolongerinordinaryuse.
5.garrulous(GAR-uh-lus),talkative,especiallyinarambling,annoying,pointless,orlong-windedway.
LEVEL2
1.Malevolent(muh-LEV-uh-lint)meansfullofillwill,wishingevilorharmtoothers.
2.Thewordforafearofthenumberthirteenistriskaidekaphobia(TRIS-ky-DEK-uh-FOH-bee-uh).
3.Prudery(PROO-dur-ee)isextrememodestyinrelationtosexualmatters.
4.Nether(rhymeswithwhether)meanslower,situatedunderneathorbelow,asthenetherregions,theunderworldorhell.
5.Theadjectiveprivative(PRIV-uh-tiv)meanstakingaway,depriving.Aprivativeprefixtakesawayornegatesthemeaningofthewordthat
comes after. Other privative prefixes include un-(fromAnglo-Saxon),asinuncivil, not civil, rude, impolite; in- and its variant im- (from
Latin),asininsuperable,notcapableofbeingovercome,andimmaterial,notimportantorrelevant,unrelated;non-(alsofromLatin),asin
nonpartisan,notsupportingaparticularpoliticalpartyorspecialinterestgroup;anda-oran-(fromGreek),asinamoral,notmoral,and
anarchy,literallywithoutaleader(froman-,lacking,andarchós,aleader).
6.Dogma(DAWG-muh)isanauthoritativedoctrineorsystemofprinciples,especiallyonelaiddownbyachurchconcerningfaithandmorals.
LEVEL3
1.Layinthesenseusedhereisanadjectivethatmeanspertainingtothelaity(LAY-i-tee),thepeoplewhodonotbelongtoagivenprofession
orspecializedfield,nonprofessionals.
2.Apartipicaladjectiveisanadjectivecreatedfromaverbalform,suchasthepresentparticiple(whichendsin-ing) or the past participle
(whichusuallyendsin-ed).Thus,inhisloving,devotedfriend,bothlovinganddevotedareparticipialadjectives.
3.Formoreonprivativeseethefootnoteunderdispassionate,word20ofLevel2.
4.Formoreonaccost,reviewassail,word45ofLevel2.
5.FromHaroldNorthFowler’stranslationofPlato’sApology(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1966).
6.ThisisanallusiontoEdnaSt.VincentMillay’ssonnet“EuclidAloneHasLookedonBeautyBare.”
7.ThisanallusiontotheBible,1Corinthians13:13:“Andnowabidethfaith,hope,charity,thesethree;butthegreatestoftheseischarity.”
LEVEL4
1.Anarras(AR-is)isatapestryusedasawallhanging,curtain,orscreen.Itisatoponym(TAHP-uh-nim),awordformedfromthenameof
aplace,inthiscasethecityofArrasinnorthernFrance.Formoreontoponyms,seethechapter“PuttingWordsinTheirPlaces”inCrazy
English,RichardLederer’sclassicandcharmingjoyridethroughtheEnglishlanguage.
2.ThelatejournalistWilliamSafire,whowrotethecolumnOnLanguageforThe New York Times Magazine for thirty years, liked to call
himselfalanguagemaven,andIhaveadoptedthathabitfromhim.
3.ProperlypronouncedHAHL-uh-KAWST,withthefirstsyllableasinhollow,notlikeholeorhaul.
4.Esoteric(ES-uh-TER-ik)meansintendedforordesignedtobeunderstoodonlybyaselectgroup;hence,secret,confidential.
5.Areyouwonderingwhytheman’snameisspelledWistarbutthegenusisspelledWisteria?AHarvardnaturalistnamedThomasNuttall
(1786–1859)accidentallyprintedWisteriainsteadofWistaria,andthemistakehassincebecomethenorm.
6.IhaveadaptedthisexamplefromTheRandomHouseDictionary.
7.Properlypronouncedvluh-DEE-murnuh-BAW-kuf(theauthor’spronunciation).
8.Promulgate(pruh-MUHL-gaytorPRAHM-ul-gayt)meanstomakeknown,publish,proclaim,makepublicinanofficialmanner.
9.Ihaveadaptedthisexercisefrompage96ofSinandSyntax.
LEVEL5
1.Amaledrunkencarouserisabacchant,whileafemalecarouserisabacchante(buh-KAN-tee).Thepluralforbothmenandwomenis
bacchants.
2.Forahistoryofthepronunciationofschism,seemyBigBookofBeastlyMispronunciations.
3.Benevolent(buh-NEV-uh-lint)meanscharitable,desiringgoodforothers,andadespot(DES-put)isatyrant,dictator.
4. A savant (suh-VAHNT) is a learned person, expert, pundit (word 10 of Level 4). An idiotsavant is “a person with generally impaired
intellectualandsocialfunctionswhoisextremelygiftedinaparticularway”(OED).
5. John Updike (1932–2009) was an American fiction writer, poet, and critic. Max Beerbohm (BEER-bohm, 1872–1956) was an English
essayist,critic,andcaricaturist.
6.Depravityisword1ofLevel1;repugnantisword4ofLevel2.
LEVEL6
1.Anagentnoundesignatesapersonwhoperformsanaction.Agentnounsusuallyendin-eror-or.Thus,athinkerisonewhothinks,and
anactorisonewhoacts.
2. Email has, at the very least, transformed the epistolary art, and probably rendered it obsolescent. Because email communications are
typically brief and informal, they can hardly be called epistles. So, some years ago (c. 2000), I coined a word for our distinctly unliterary
electronicletters:emissives,fromthenounmissive(word14ofLevel7),awrittencommunicationormessage.
3.Theeponymoussourceofthewordsandwich.Itallbeganwhentheearlgothungrylateonenightwhilegamblingandaskedaservantto
bringhimroastbeefbetweenslicesofbread.
LEVEL7
1.Incantatory (in-KAN-tuh-tor-ee) means having the magical or spellbinding effect of an incantation, the chanting of certain words as a
charmorspell.
2. The noun tweet, meaning a message of 140 characters or fewer sent via Twitter, was admitted into the Oxford English Dictionary in
2013.
3.ThearistocratictitleofBenjaminDisraeli(1804–1881),England’sprimeministeratthetime.
4.Thephrasebyjingoisprobablyanoldeuphemism(word18ofLevel2)forbyJesus.
LEVEL8
1.Apedant(PED’nt)isapersonwho“laysanunduestressonexactknowledgeofdetailoroftrifles,ascomparedwithlargermattersor
withgeneralprinciples”(TheCenturyDictionary).
2.FromADictionaryofContemporaryAmericanUsagebyBergenandCorneliaEvans.
3.Conflationisthenouncorrespondingtotheverbtoconflate,word19ofLevel4.
4.Cavalcade(KAV-ul-kayd)comesfromtheOldItaliancavalcare,torideonhorseback,andtheLatincaballus,ahorse,thesourcealsoof
theEnglishcavalier,ahorsemanormountedsoldier.Acavalcadeisaprocessionofpeopleridingonhorsesorinhorsedrawncarriages,or,
byextension,anyimpressiveprocessionorseries.
5.SomeyearsagoIwonfirstplaceinaneologizingcontestfortheWordFugitivescolumninTheAtlanticbycoiningthewordoffsprungfor
one’sgrown-upchildren.
LEVEL9
1.FromADictionaryofContemporaryAmericanUsagebyBergenandCorneliaEvans.
2.Formoreonthepronunciationofthisword,seemyBigBookofBeastlyMispronunciations.
3.ThisisanallusiontoacondensedversionofastatementbytheEnglishgeneralandstatesmanOliverCromwell(1599–1658),whotoldan
artistwhowaspaintinghisportrait,“PaintmeasIam,wartsandall!”
LEVEL10
1.PronouncedinEnglishAP-uh-LOH-jee-uhprohVY-tuhS(Y)OO-uh;inclassicalLatin,AH-paw-LAW-gee-ahprohWEE-tahSOO-ah.
2. I have borrowed this definition from A.Word.A.Day (www.wordsmith.org), a popular website and email subscription service run by my
logophiliccolleagueAnuGarg.
3. To extrapolate, pronounced ek-STRAP-uh-layt, means “to infer (an unknown) from something that is known” (The Random House
Dictionary).
4.RestaurateurisoftenmisspelledrestauranteurandmispronouncedRES-tuh-rawn-TUR.
5.Apersonwithfournamesiscalledaquadrinomial(KWA-dri-NOH-mee-ul).Asapersonwiththreenames,Iamatrinomial(try-NOHmee-ul),likeRalphWaldoEmersonandWilliamJeffersonClinton.
6.PronouncedHAYZ-lit,notHAZ-lit,asmanydictionariesmistakenlyrenderit;formore,seemyBigBookofBeastlyMispronunciations.
WORDWORKOUT
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AlsobyCharlesHarringtonElster
VerbalAdvantage
TenEasyStepstoaPowerfulVocabulary
TheAccidentsofStyle
GoodAdviceonHowNottoWriteBadly
WhatintheWord?
Wordplay,Wordlore,andAnswers
toYourPeskiestQuestionsAboutLanguage
There’saWordforIt
AGrandiloquentGuidetoLife
ToothandNail
ANovelApproachtotheSAT
TestofTime
ANovelApproachtotheSATandACT
TheBigBookofBeastlyMispronunciations
TheCompleteOpinionatedGuidefortheCarefulSpeaker
ABOUTTHEAUTHOR
Charles Harrington Elster is a nationally recognized authority on the English language and the
authorofTheAccidentsofStyle,VerbalAdvantage,andmanyotherbooks.HehaswrittenforThe
New York Times Magazine, The Boston Globe, and The Wall Street Journal, and been a guest
commentatoronhundredsofradioshows.HelivesinSanDiego,California.
WORDWORKOUT.Copyright©2014byCharlesHarringtonElster.Allrightsreserved.Forinformation,addressSt.Martin’sPress,175Fifth
Avenue,NewYork,N.Y.10010.
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