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Zoology – Chapter 9 – Multicellular and Tissue Levels of Organization Multicellular life has been a part of the earth’s history for about __________ million years, but represents only ________ of the earth’s geological history. The evolutionary events that lead to multicellularity is a ______________. Many zoologists believe that multicellularity could have arisen as ________________ cells remained ______________, in the form of colonial protists, which is known as the ________________ _______________. A second method called the ______________ _______________ was proposed. A syncytium is a _____________, multinucleate cell. The formation of ____________ ________________ in the cytoplasm of a syncytial protist could have produced a ____________, multicellular organism. Animal Origins The animal kingdom is most likely monophyletic, where organisms descended from a _____________ ancestor. Phylum Porifera – Cell Types, Body Wall, and Skeletons The Porifera, or _____________ are primarily _____________ animals consisting of loosely organized ________ with about _______ thousand species of different __________. Characteristics of the phylum Porifera include: 1. _________________ 2. ___________ cell types: pinacocytes, mesenchyme cells, and choanocytes 3. _____________ cavity , or a series of branching ______________ through which ____________ circulates during ____________ feeding 4. _______ tissues or organs. 5. _____________ (stationary). Pinacocytes are _________ flat cells that __________ the outer surface of a sponge. Below the pinacocyte is a ____________ jellylike layer called the mesohyl. Amoeboid cells called mesenchyme cells move about in the mesohyl and are specialized for ______________, secreting skeletal elements, transporting and storing ________, and forming contractile ___________ around the openings in the sponge ________. Choanocytes are cells with a _________________ surrounded by a collar of _______________ that ________ food particles. Sponges are supported by a _____________ that may consist of _______________ needlelike spikes called _____________. Spicules are formed by _______________ cells and made of calcium carbonate or silica. The skeleton is also made of _____________. Water Currents and Body Forms The life of a sponge depends on the ____________ ___________ that choanocytes create. Water currents bring _________ and ___________ to a sponge and carry away metabolic and digestive ______________. The simplest and ___________ common sponge ________ ___________ is the ascon which is vaselike. _______________ are the outer _________________ of porocytes and lead to the spongocoel which is lined with ________________________. Choanocytes have _______________ that help bring in food particles through the ostia by the _____________ ____________. _______________ sponges have a _______________ canal system where water enters the sponge through ostia and moves through the branched _____________ Canals and out ___________________ canals. Maintenance Functions Sponges feed on microscopic algae, _______________, and protists, and suspended organic matter. Choanocytes ____________ the small food particles. Suspended food is trapped on the ______________ and moved along _____________ to the base of the collar, where it is incorporated into a __________ ___________. Sponges may also ______________ by ____________ transport nutrients dissolved in seawater. Sponges do not have _______________ cells to coordinate body __________________. Amoeboid cells transmitting _________________ messages and _________ movement over cell surfaces are ______________ mechanisms. Reproduction Most sponges are monoecious (_________ _________ occur in the same individual) but __________ _________ self-fertilize because individual sponges produce ___________ and ______________ at different times. Some choanocytes lose their ____________ and _____________ and undergo meiosis to form flagellated ___________. Other choanocytes undergo meiosis to form ___________. Sperm and eggs are released from sponge _____________, and fertilization occurs in the ___________ water, and planktonic larvae develop. The larva break free, and __________ currents carry the larva out of the _____________ sponge. After ________ days of a free-swimming existence, the larva ____________ to the substrate and begins to develop into the __________ _________form. ________________ reproduction of freshwater and some marine sponges involves the formation of resistant ________________ called ______________. When the parent sponge ______ in the winter, it releases gemmules which can ______________ both freezing and drying. Some sponges can ________________. Phylum Cnidaria Members of the phylum Cnidaria possess _____________ or ______________ symmetry. The Cnidaria include over _______ Thousand species, are mostly _____________, and are important in ________ _________ ecosystems. Characteristics of the phylum Cnidaria include: 1. _____________ symmetry or modified as _________________ symmetry 2. Diploblastic, ____________-level organization 3. Gelatinous mesoglea between the ________________ and gastrodermal tissue layers 4. Gastrovascular ____________ 5. ____________ system in the form of a ________ __________ 6. Specialized cells, cnidocytes, used in ______________, ______________, and attachment. The Body Wall and Nematocysts Cnidarians possess ___________________, tissue-level organization. Cells organize into _____________ that carry out specific functions, and all cells are derived from ______________ embryological layers. The ectoderm of the embryo gives rise to an outer layer of the body wall, called the ___________________, and an inner layer of the body wall, called the __________________, is derived from endoderm. Between the epidermis and gastrodermis is a jellylike layer called ________________. One kind of cell is characteristic of this phylum is epidermal and/or gastrodermal cells called _______________, that produce structures called cnida, which are used for attachment, ______________, and feeding. ___________________ are a type of cnida used in food gathering and defense that may discharge a long tube armed with ______________ spikes that penetrates the prey and paralyzes them. Alternation of Generations Most cnidarians possess __________ body forms in their life histories. The ___________ is usually ___________ and ___________. It attaches to a substrate at the _____________ end, and has a cylindrical body, called the ______________, and a mouth surrounded by food-gathering tentacles. The ____________ is dioecious and free swimming. It is shaped like an inverted bowl, and _____________ dangle from its margins. When a cnidarian life cycle involves both ____________ and _______________ stages, the phrase “___________________ of ______________________” is applied. Maintenance Functions The gastrodermis of all cnidarians lines the _____________________ cavity. This cavity functions in ____________, the exchange of respiratory gases and __________________ wastes, and the discharge of _______________. The Food of most cnidarians consist of very small ___________________ and some small fish. Cnidarians get most of their support from the buoyancy of __________ around them. They also have a _________________ _____________ that aides in support and movement. A hydrostatic skeleton is water or _____________ _______________ confined in in a cavity of the body and against which ________________ elements of the body wall act. Polyps use a variety of forms of _________________. They move by somersaulting from base to ________________ and from tentacles to base again, or they move in an ______________ gliding fashion. Medusa move by swimming and ______________ with the water currents. Cnidarians have a nerve net , which consist of nerve cells located ______________ the epidermis near the mesoglea, and interconnect to form a two-dimensional structure. Reproduction Most cnidarians are ________________, and ______________ and _____________ may be released into the gastrovascular cavity or to the outside of the body. A blastula forms early in development, and migration of surface cells to the interior fills the ________________ with cells that will form the gastrodermis. The embryo elongates to form a ciliated, __________swimming larva called a _______________. The planula attaches to a substrate, interior cells __________ to form the gastrovascular cavity and a young _____________ develops. Class Hydrozoa Hydrozoans are _____________ and ________________ organisms. Most hydrozoans have life cycles that display ________________________ of _________________. Three features distinguish hydrozoans from other cnidarians: (1) nematocysts are only in the ___________________; (2) ________________ are epidermal and released to the _______________ of the body rather than into the gastrovascular cavity; and (3) the mesoglea is _______________. Most hydrozoans have _____________ polyps in which individuals may be specialized for ______________, producing medusa by _______________, or defending the colony. In Obelia, a marine cnidarian , the planual develops a _____________ polyp called a ___________________. Obelia also grow a __________________ polyp that produces medusae by budding and is called a _________________. The mouth is at the end of a tubelike _________________ that hangs from the medusa’s oral surface. The ___________ __________ coordinates swimming movements, and embedded in the mesoglea around the margin of the medusa are sensory structures called ________________. ____________ is a common freshwater hydrozoan that hangs from the underside of floating ___________ in clean streams and ponds. Hydra lacks a medusa stage and reproduces both ______________ by _______________ from the side of the polyp and _________________. The sexual reproduction occurs in the _______________ stage. Class Scyphozoa Members of the class Scyphozoa are all _______________ and are “__________ _____________” because the dominate Stage in their life history is the _____________. Unlike hydrozoan medusae, scyphozoan medusae lack a ____________, the mesoglea contains amoeboid mesenchyme cells, ________________ occur in the gastrodermis as well as the epidermis, and ________________ are gastrodermal in origin. Many scyphozoans are ___________________ and some have a dangerous _____________ they possess. Aurelia is a common scyphozoan in both _____________ and _______________ oceans. Aurelia is a _______________ feeder, and has _____________ specialized structures called _______________ that consists of sensory structures. Scyphozoans are ___________________. Aurelia’s __________ gonads are in gastric pouches, _________ per pouch. _____________ are released into the gastric pouches. ____________ swim through the mouth to the outside of the medusa. In some scyphozoans, _________ are fertilized in the female’s ______________ ____________, and early development occurs there. In Aurelia, ____________ lodge in the oral lobes, where fertilization and development to the _______________ stage occur. The planula develops into a ______________ called a scyphistoma, which lives a year or more during which time budding produces miniature medusae, called _________________. Ephyrae pile up on top of one another and after they are released they gradually attain the _______________ form. Club Cubozoa The medusa is ______________ and ______________ hang from each of its corners. Polyps are _____________, and cubozoans are active _______________ and _______________ in _________ tropical waters. Class Anthozoa Members of the class Anthozoa are ______________ or solitary, lack medusae, and are all ____________. They include anemones and stony and soft ___________. Anthozoan polyps differ from hydrozoan polyps in ___________ ways: 1. the mouth of an anthozoan leads to a _________________, an invagination of the body wall that leads into the gastrovascular cavity; 2. mesenteries (membranes) that bear cnidocytes and _____________ on their free edges divide the gastrovascular cavity into sections; and 3. the _____________ contains amoeboid mesenchyme cells. Sea anemones are solitary, sometimes _______________, and _____________ organisms that attach to its substrate, some _____________ in soft substrates , and some live in symbiotic relationships. The polyp attaches to its substrate by a __________ _________ . An __________ disk contains the __________ and hollow, oral tentacles. Anemones have limited __________________. They glide on their pedal disks, crawl on their sides, and walk on their __________________. Anemones feed on invertebrates and __________. Anemones have both __________________ and __________________ reproduction. In asexual reproduction, a piece of ___________ disk may break away from the polyp and __________ into a new individual in a process called pedal laceration. Longitudinal or transverse ____________ may divide one individual into two, with missing parts being __________________. Anemones may be either monoecious or dioecious. In monoecoius species, __________ gametes mature earlier than _________ gametes so that self-fertilization does not take place, called protandry. _____________ occur in longitudinal bands behind mesenterial filaments. Fertilization may be ___________ or within the gastrovascular cavity. _______________ results in the formation of a planula, which develops into a ciliated larva that settles to the substrate, ______________, and eventually forms the adult. Other anthozoans are ___________. Stony corals form ______________ ____________ and have exoskeletons made of calcium carbonate. When threatened polyps retract into their protective ______________________. Many cnidarians have developed close _____________________ relationships with unicellular ________________. Phylum Ctenophora Animals in the phylum Ctenophora are called _____________ _____________ or _____________ ______________. There __________ species and all are _____________. Characteristics of the phylum Ctenophora include: 1. Dipoblastic or possibly tripoblastic, ___________-____________ organization 2. __________________ symmetry 3. Gelatinous, cellular __________ between the epidermal and gastrodermal tissue layers 4. _________ ____________ cells develop within the mesoglea. 5. __________________ cavity 6. Nervous system in the form of a __________________ __________________ 7. Adhesive structures called ____________________ 8. _____________ rows of ciliary bands called comb rows for _________________. Tentacles possess contractile fibers that ________________ the tentacles, and __________________ cells called colloblasts, that ___________________ prey. ___________________ occurs as the tentacles wipe the prey across the mouth. Ctenophores have an ____________ opening to eliminate waste. Ctenophores are all _______________________.