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English Language and Usage Definitions Language: a code whereby ideas are represented through a shared system of arbitrary symbols and structural rules for communication. Grammar: the whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general, usually consisting of syntax and morphology and sometimes and semantics. Teacher Jeff Anderson writes: “Grammar includes all the principles that guide the structure of sentences and paragraphs: syntax—the flow of language; usage—how we use words in different situations; and rules—predetermined boundaries and patterns that govern language in a particular society. Mechanics, on the other hand, are ways we punctuate whatever we are trying to say in our writing: punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing, formatting.” Prescriptive grammar: rules of grammatical conduct; divides the spectrum of possible human behaviors into socially acceptable (legal or moral) behavior, and socially unacceptable (illegal or immoral) behavior. Rules of prescriptive grammar make statements about how people ought to use language. Instruction students receive in school is prescriptive; most pet peeves fall under this category as well. (Adapted ling.upenn.edu/~beatrice/syntaxtextbook/ch1.html.) Descriptive grammar: is more about the scientific observation of how language works, how speakers use language, rather than about they way that they ought to use it. There is less judging and more noticing and describing here. (Adapted ling.upenn.edu/~beatrice/syntax-textbook/ch1.html.) Syntax: the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words are put together into phrases and sentences to create meaning. Standard American English: the practiced, standard dialect of English. Generally accepted for use in most textbooks, in schools, in the news media and as the basis for English teaching across the world. Non-standard English includes regional dialects and slang. Other standard dialects include British English, Australian English, etc. Dialect: the regional variety of a language, differing from the standard dialect in grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation or idioms. Nearly all languages have dialects. Any ethnic group living in an area where they use their home language as well as the shared regional language are likely to have distinct dialects and language practices specific to their group. Slang: informal pronunciations, abbreviations and vocabulary inconsistent with the standard written and spoken wordings commonly used among the educated and ruling class. Standard English might have us greet each other like this: “Hello. How are you today?” Whereas slang might look more like: “`sup dude?” or “hey” with a head nod. Code switching: the practice of moving back and forth between two languages or two dialects / registers of the same language. We’re more likely to code switch during conversation than in writing. Many of us naturally code switch when we speak in our home dialect with family and close friends and the more standard American English when we speak at work or school. Ebonics: black, vernacular English, spoken in the United States. Contrary to popular prejudices, this is regarded as a language, with a grammar and social rules of usage distinct from Standard American English. It is not slang nor is it a regional dialect, as it’s spoken all over the States. Many people who use Ebonics code-switch in and out of it as their social contexts change. Chicano English: is a dialect spoken mainly by people of Mexican ethnic origin in California and the Southwest, though it’s generally only spoken by native English speakers or those fluent in English and Spanish. There are other varieties associated with Latino communities as well. In New York City, for example, one finds Puerto Rican English, which shares some properties with Chicano English, but is different in other ways. Chicano English is influenced by Spanish and has many phonological and syntactical features of Spanish. Many speakers of Chicano English are not bilingual; you don’t need to know any Spanish to speak Chicano English. Women, in general, speak Chicano English a bit differently than men. The language used by young speakers who are gang members includes terms that other members of the community do not use. (Adapted from: Carmen Fought is an associate professor of linguistics, Pitzer College in Claremont.) Spanglish: is more about vocabulary than syntax. Even speakers who do not know much Spanish will occasionally throw in a word or phrase like ándale or hasta la vista as a kind of identity marker. This occasional use of a Spanish word is different from code-switching. (Adapted from: Carmen Fought is an associate professor of linguistics, Pitzer College in Claremont.)